UNIVERSITY OF CALOOCAN

Caloocan City
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MIDTERM EXAMINATION
DEM 405 – COMPARATIVE EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
FIRST SEMESTER
ACADEMIC YEAR 2021-2022
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Instructions: Answer only the question/s assigned to you.

1. Define operationally comparative educational administration. What is its importance?

- Aragon, J., Batin, C.

2. Discuss the original and early development of comparative education. What are the four
phases of comparative education?
- Cornelia, R., Campos, Danica

3. What are the purposes of comparative education as viewed by Isaac L. Kandel?

- Maganes, J., Angeles, D.

4. What underlying notions of social change do you find in the historical approach to
comparative education?
- Sto. Domingo, C., Fuentes, A.

5. Enumerate and discuss the functions and scope of school administration.

- Bernardino, K., Pigte, L.

6. What are the aims of administrative science? Why is it important in education?

- Verbo, I., Panlilio, A.

7. Describe the school as a social system. What are the key elements of the school as a social
system?
- Jacob, I.

8. Discuss the aura (authority, responsibility, and accountability) of a principal.

- Lumba, C., Campued, M.

9. What is testing and measurement in education? Why are they important in school
administration?
- Campos, Dennis, Devis, G.

10. What are the administrative duties and responsibilities of teaching personnel?
- Amabilis, H., Bernardino, M.
Name: Jenelyn A. Aragon & Cheryl Batin Date: October 29, 2021
Course: PHD-em 1B Professor: Dr. Peter G. Young Jr

Midterm Examination

1. Define operationally comparative educational administration. What is its importance?

There is a naive and obvious answer to the question of what constitutes comparative education.
Comparative education brings together and compare data about two or more national systems of
education. Comparative education is a loosely bounded field that examines the sources, works,
and outcomes of educational systems, as well as leading education issues, from comprehensive,
multidisciplinary, cross-national, and cross-cultural perspectives.
Comparative education is a fully established academic field of study that examines education in
one country (or group of countries) by using data and insights drawn from the practices and
situation in another country or countries it is supported by many projects associated with
UNESCO and the national education administrates of various nations.
Comparative education has been defined in different ways by various but what is common in the
definition is the emphasis on the use of data from another educational system.
According to Isaac Kandel - Father of Comparative Education, comparative education should not
emphasize only education set up, organization, administration, methods, curriculum and teaching
but also the causes behind educational problems of different countries and attempted solutions in
the light of their social, political, cultural, and national ideologies. Hence. Nicholas Hands
classified factors influencing the educational development in countries. These are: National
factors: race, environment, and language; Religious factors: Catholicism, Anglicanism, and
Protestantism; and Secular factors: Humanism, Socialism, and Nationalism.
Furthermore, Vernon Mallinson agrees with Hans and Kandel, to him comparative education
means a systematic examination of other cultures and other system of education deriving from
these cultures to discover resemblances

and differences, and why variant solutions have been attempted to common problems
Despite the diversity of approaches to studying relations between education and society, it
maintains that the field is held together by a fundamental belief that education can be improved
and can serve to bring about change for the better in all nations.
Comparative education is important because it can strengthen an educational system by creating
an objective method of evaluation and study, it provides meaningful data for people who are
concerned about educational outcomes and techniques.
Additionally, Comparative Education alerts students to enduring social questions. It helps
teachers function as citizens in a country as well as of the global society. It encourages a spirit of
exploration transcending local boundaries. It creates as awareness that educators in different
parts of the world are wrestling with similar issues and we educators are part of a global
professional community.
Comparative Perspective Taking
• Expand understanding beyond own localized perspective
• Cross-cultural investigation
• Make sense out of the new or unknown by comparing to own frame
 of reference
• Multiple interpretation of the issues
• Avoid dichotomous thinking
• Widen conceptual lenses
• Develop the critical thinking skills of a global citizen
• Systematic critique and reflection must accompany curiosity

Name: Danica V. Campos & Rosalie Cornelia Date: October 29, 2021
Course: PHD-em 1B Professor: Dr. Peter G. Young Jr

Midterm Examination

2. Discuss the original and early development of comparative education. What are the four
phases of comparative education?

The Genesis of Comparative Education

Many scholars of comparative education have ventured into the discovery of the genesis of
comparative education. Overall, there seems to be no specific time in which the discipline of
comparative education originated. However, the search for the origins of comparative education
has made many scholars to look back hopefully to time immemorial. For example, Fredrick
Schneider and Franz Hilker of Germany sought European precedents in education. William
Brickmann in the U.S.A. led the quest and search for the origin of comparative education and
educators. His work includes several articles on the subject which dates back as far as to
Herodotus (484-425Bc) as a competent cultural comparativist was assumed in the ancient world.
The phases used here are to signify changes in the historical development of comparative
education and are retrospective and imposed ones. They do not indicate precise or sudden
turning points. These changes are gradual. This means that towards the end of one phase the
next phase was already evident in the work perspective observers. At the same times entry into a
new phase does not mean a compete break from the previous phase. There is always an over-lap
of the phases in time and space.
1. The Phase of Traveler’s Tales
This phase was marked by descriptive reports of travelers who comprised military conquerors,
business expeditions and even explorers. The motives for accounts of travelers' tales were partly
curiosity and the need for comparison. They gave descriptive account of features in foreign
systems of educational as they saw them.
Their reports on education were fragmental, generally unsystematic, exaggerated at times and
understatements at other times. Although they were stimulating, they were superficial and
piecemeal and as such were of little comparative value but worth considering. Some of the
contributors during this phase were.
Herodotus (484-425 BC) - in his commentaries on the Persian wars he attempted a comparison
of culture.
Xenophon (430-355 BC) -An Athenian, he gave a detailed account of the education for
citizenship given to the youth in Persia. He compared the aims and structure of education in
Persian and Sparta. According to him, he admired the Spartan education and wished that the
Athenians could copy it.
Plato- A Greek philosopher compared the aims and structure of the Spartan and Greek systems.
In his two books i.e. "The law" and "The Republic" he compared education system in Sparta and
Athens. Like Xenophon he admired the Spartan education system which was state controlled and
emphasized on discipline which was military type. He went ahead and argued that the Athenian
education was likely to bring about permissiveness and lack of social order. He therefore
recommended that the Athenians should copy Sparta.

2. The Phase of Selective Education Borrowing (1817-1900)

Historically the 19th century Europe was characterized by the aftermath of the French
Revolution, Industrial Revolution, Agrarian Revolution, and the Colonization process. Education
reformers at this time were concerned with the social and political conditions of these revolutions
and the reaction of the masses. In education they saw the means of moral improvement and
social amelioration. Education reformers were concerned that the ability of individual school
system to improve themselves faced a lot of oppositions even where there were good intentions.
This brought the need to share the best ideas and practices available in many countries. In this
regard there was a significant change of approach that suggested a more systematic and
comprehensive collection of data and in turn "selective borrowing" in education.
This phase can be said to have been characterized and motivate by two main factors. The first,
being the efforts aimed at developing a methodology or a system
of rules and regulations that ought to be followed when studying foreign systems of education.
The second, being the drive to learn lessons from foreign systems for the sole purpose of
borrowing educational ideals.

Some of the scholar attributed to this phase and hence the development of comparative education
include.
Victor cousin (1792-1867) - He lived in France at time when Europe was in chaos after the
Napoleonic wars. He was a professor of philosophy and head of France's normal school. After
the Napoleonic wars there was need to bring reform in France. He visited Prussia and
investigated its education with the aim of finding out areas of relevance for reform of education
in France. In (1813) he wrote a report and recommended selective education borrowing from
Prussian experience. He believed that with this borrowing rivalry and antipathies would be out of
place. As such he said people of stature should not be afraid to borrow from wherever and
whatever is appropriate.

Horrace Mann (1796-1859) - From America, he visited Prussia, Scotland, Ireland, France,
Germany, Holland, and England. His experience in these foreign countries led him to conclude
that history provided an explanation for the conditions which he saw. According to him he saw
the role of history in comparative education
studies as that of illuminating present problems. He argued that many features of Prussian
education could be useful in America despite the gap he saw between the political and social
ideas of the two countries.
Henry Barnard (1811-1900) - From America, he visited Europe and was impressed with the
Prussian education ideas on education like his colleague Horrace Mann. He founded the
"Connecticut common school journal" where he prepared and published many of his report and
details on foreign systems of education, and between 1856-1881, he edited and published a
journal entitled "The American journal of Education". He also presented statistical material from
various education systems in his publications as well as historical and descriptive data of a
comparative nature.
3. The Phase of Cultural Context or the Period of Philosophers (1900-1945)
This phase or period is also referred to as the period of cultural analysis. There was general
uneasiness by many scholars about descriptive studies. During this period emphasis in
comparative education shifted from description to analysis. Scholars at this time were mainly
interested in the relations between education and the society

The desire to move from the descriptive and sometimes uncritical approach of the earlier phase
to a more analytical approach can be said to be the major motivation and characteristic of this
phase. During this phase there was an increasing trend towards analytical studies of
interrelationships between education practice and the society. This became more generally
recognized and accepted. There also grew a major concern to understand some of factors which
helped to shape systems of education in different countries. Currently the problem for
comparative educationist was no longer one of selective educational borrowing alone, but also
one of predicting the possible success of educational transplant through a thorough knowledge of
cultural contexts in both the donor and the recipient country. Many comparative educationists
were concerned with accounting for the features of existing systems of education in terms of the
forces or factors that shaped them to be the way they were. Some of the scholars who made their
contributions during these phases include.
Michael Saddler (1886-1943) - From England, he noted that "in studying foreign systems of
education we should not forget that the things outside the school matter even more than the
things inside the schools, and in most cases, they actually govern and interpret the things inside
the school''. He argued that education and society are closely related and that schools must be
studied in the context of the society. He further stated that comparisons cannot be made on
statistics only, but that the social, political, economic, and other factors should be investigated as
well. He pointed out that a national system of education is a living thing. It often lays special
emphasis on those parts of training which the national character particularly needs. He argued
that the value of studying foreign systems of educationist often results in our being better fitted
to study and understand our own system. He cautioned on the dangers of piecemeal education
borrowing while maintaining the importance of the school’s cultural context. His main
theoretical emphasis was that schools of society must be studied in the context of the society. He
used sociological and historical data to explain trends in education.
William Torrey Harris (1835-1909) - From America, he cautioned on the need for care in the use
of statistics in education particularly statistics of foreign systems of education. He argued that
each individual state puts its own stamp on its education

system. According to him, it is not possible to borrow from another system as easily and as one
might like to, because what may work in one social situation may not be suitable for another.
He further argued that comparative studies could reveal universal relations between education
and society. This is because a nation's system of education is strongly affected by its culture and
consequently embodies ideals reflecting that culture and in turn it gives a basis for comparative
enquiry for those who are interested in the outcome of educational policies in different countries.
he said that education does break down the caste system and brings democracy in society.
Isaac Kandel (1881-1965) - From America, at Teachers' college in Columbia University. He
published many journals and wrote numerous books. In 1933, he published a book entitled
"Studies in Comparative Education" which for a long time was a standard textbook in
comparative education. In 1954 he revised and published the first work and entitled it "The New
era in Education: A comparative study". His main concern
was on the forces and factors which shaped and account for the existing system education. To
him he sought to find out why events occurred, when and as they did occur, and which
characteristics occurred in the place they did. He argued that every nation has a character, which
is a result of its history and philosophy. This he emphasized it should be studied because the
character of the school can only be understood through understanding the country's national
character. He also argued that the school cannot be understood outside society. He also observed
that broad social movements and political wars across national boundaries affect national
systems differently. To him he did not believe in borrowing.
1. The Phase of Social Science Perspectives -1945 to present
This is the period that is presumed to have just started after the Second World War. It brought
about a completely new scenario. In essence there has been an increase in interest and activity in
comparative education. Two main aspects stand out in this phase. The first one is the
establishment of new and influential national and international agencies that are involved in
educational inquiry, planning and program implementation. Also closely related are comparative
educationists who see the field of comparative education as most productive in the future in
terms of more involvement in international projects in education that are potentially of a
reformative kind. The second aspect is the recognition and increased activity in the study and
teaching of comparative education as a discipline in colleges, universities, and establishment of
comparative educational centers for research. With this new emphasis, there was a shift from
descriptive accounts to a social science approach.

In this period, concern for the analysis of the antecedent factors became less and more emphasis
lay on analyzing the relationship of the contemporary issues in society and education. In terms of
methodology the mode of analysis has shifted from historical to more quantitative and empirical,
using techniques such as sociology, economics, philosophy, and political science approaches.
Comparative educationists emphasize the need to organize and interpret facts collected so that,
the collected information or data can be translated into systems that offer explanation and
theories regarding the collected data. As a result, comparative educationists have been pre-
occupied with debates to identify the best method of conducting comparative education studies
to yield the most valid data and information that can be used by all stake holders in terms of
education practice and reforms.

With the emergencies of a new scenario in the world order, a new generation of scholars also
emerged. Faced with the problem of educational reforms, the scholars and educational
administrators took a new look and interest in comparative education. This has also brought in
various experts who prefer to use their own techniques as they deal with comparative education
issues. Among them are those scholars who still use the historians' mode of analysis,
philosophers who use philosophical techniques, sociologists who use sociological techniques and
even the psychologists and economists have entered the field of comparative education and are
known to use their research techniques. This therefore calls for the use of inter -disciplinary
method of inquiry where social scientists collaborate with comparative educationist to analyze
common problems and examine various national solutions with the intention of increasing the
theoretical insight that will promote education reform. Some of the scholars who have made
substantial effort in the development of comparative education during this phase include.

Vernon Mallinson (Britain) - He uses the concept of national character as a means of explaining
the similarities and differences that exist in systems of education. In 1957, he published a book
entitled "An Introduction to the Study of Comparative Education" where he explains the concept
of "national character" and how it determines the kind of education that a country follows. In this
concept of national character, he shows how differences between education systems come about.
He also published several other articles that mainly emphasized aspects, of the French, Belgian,
German, Dutch and Italian education systems.

Joseph A. Lauwerys (Britain) - He was a professor of comparative education at the University of

London, Institute of Education (1947). He is known for his devotion and contribution to the
continuation of the World yearbook of Education period in association with Columbia
University, New York, This work contributed to the support of the much-needed international
data collection and expansion of comparative education courses. He stressed the need to collect
reliable data on an international scale in orders to facilitate comparisons in education.
George Z. F. Beredy (1920-1983) - An American professor of comparative education at the
Teachers' College, Columbia University, New York. He edited many publications including
"Comparative Education Review" and "Yearbook of Education". In 1964 he published a book
entitled "Comparative Methods in Education." In this book he clearly stated his beliefs about the
purposes that comparative education should seek to achieve and the methods it should follow.
He is remembered for the “Systematic Area Studies Approach" in comparative education that he
popularized as a scholar.

After years of war happened in the past, each nation created an industry to sustain the lives of
many people, to regain the economy, in which Industrial Revolution takes place. Lots of
machineries, mode of transportation, and powers (steam and hydraulic) were invented to help the
entire industries to become operational. Managing and organization of people, machinery and
productivity are the major issues encountered.

The Science of Administration plays a variety of views and approaches in the virtues of
hierarchy, power, efficiency, and principles in good administration, wherein, it
is widely suitable and applicable in all organizations through the basis of scientific-based
discovery and verification.
Four phases of Science Administration are as follows: The Classical Organizational thought,
Human Relations Approach, Behavioral Approach and Quantitative system Approach
The first phase of Science Administration plays an important role of what we have today. All
credits belong to the emerging personalities namely, Max Weber, Frederick Taylor and Henry
Fayol, the founding Fathers of Classical approach to administration. Max Weber introduced the
Bureaucracy System wherein the organizations should look like the government. One’s authority
should be tied up to the official position of one’s people occupies; clear rules should govern
performance and standardized guidelines were followed specially in hiring the best people in the
organization. Frederick Taylor is known as a Father of Scientific Management Approach, how
science apply in one’s work. He popularized the time and motion studies to check the efficiency
of people and equipment through work simplification. Each task
should break into small steps, standardized each step, and do all task in the right way. Careful
selection of employees based on their abilities to perform a job in a way performance incentive
also prioritized. This is where the organization takes place scientifically. And lastly, Henry
Fayol, focus on the Classical Management or Administrative Science, intended on how to
manage people. The managers should be trained in a more systematic approach. Management
activities should involve a good planning (look forward for the future), organization (select and
arrange people), command (oversee, lead and drive), coordinate (harmonized and facilitate) and
control (compliance). The managers should be the overall in-charge in the activities within the
organization based on the set objectives, orders should come from him down to its subordinates
or employees through clear and unbroken line of communications. He imposed discipline
towards work, initiative, division of work, balance of authority, renumeration, equity and
stability of tenure.

The second phase of Science Administration is Human Resource Approach which pioneered by
Mary Parker Follett due to her further studies of Classical Approach. She shifted the image of
organization from machine (task) to social interaction (workers).
The management should create a positive working environment to avoid low productivity rate,
all workers should include in all means of communication (teamwork). To increase the
production and satisfaction of employees or workers towards work, they need to express
themselves, through feedbacks (opinions and suggestions) in a communicable and well-
mannered approach (collaboration). The management should acknowledge and respond to the
emerging situations to avoid conflict and incompatibilities to come up with a harmonious
relationship within the organization.
The third phase is the behavioral approach which is to fuse the first two approaches and add
propositions drawn from sociology, economics, political science, and psychology. The
behavioral approach differs from other behavioral sciences only in one respect: its subject matter,
which is work behavior in formal organizations.
The quantitative systems approach to administration represents the fourth trend in management
thought to originate during this century. The statistical probability theories of Pearson and Fisher
were initially applied to decision-problems of quality
control in industry in the mid-1920s, but it was during World War II that the application of
quantitative methods received its greatest impetus. Through techniques that became known as
operations research, such problems as convoy and submarine deployment, bomber losses, and
radar placement were studied, analyzed, and mathematically solved. To gain insight and generate
recommendations for action concerning a wide range of decision-problems, operations research
techniques utilized quantitatively based analytical methods.
Name: Joemel Maganes & Diana Rose Angeles Date: October 29, 2021
Course: PHD-em 1B Professor: Dr. Peter G. Young Jr

Midterm Examination

3. What are the purposes of comparative education as viewed by Isaac L. Kandel?

As pioneer in the field of comparative education, Isaac Leon Kandel conducted extensive studies
of educational systems around the world. As he put it, the historical study of education should be
based upon the sincere conviction that progress in any social field, and especially in education, is
possible only with a clear understanding of the factors that have brought about the present
situation, and with an intelligent appreciation of the forces that must be analyzed in order to
construct a new philosophy or a new body of principles to guide in its further reconstruction.
Kandel identified liberal education as the "central tradition" in secondary education. He also
devoted special attention to the education of girls. Kandel examined the impact of contemporary
developments, including knowledge expansion, new social and economic circumstances wrought
by the industrial revolution, and the widening acceptance of democratic ideals, on the tradition of
liberal education in the secondary school

Kandel discerned among recent trends in secondary education in industrial democracies a

recognition of the role of education in promoting national welfare and economic growth and an
increasing respect for achieving the full development of the individual regardless of social
origins. Kandel identified the potential conflict between provision of educational opportunity to
all individuals and selection for social and economic roles as a central problem of secondary
education.

Kandel's approach to comparative education comprised more than sheer description of

administrative, curricular, and instructional practices in particular countries. Such descriptions
and the compilation of data pertaining, for example, to national expenditures, per pupil costs,
enrollment figures, and dropout rates were necessary but insufficient tasks for understanding
educational systems. He presciently warned of the limitations of comparative use of statistical
measures of student achievement to determine educational purposes and standards of student
performance.
Kandel maintained that the sociopolitical milieu exerted a greater impact on school practice than
educational theories. Kandel conceived comparative education as the study of the ways particular
countries addressed educational problems in the context of their respective social, political, and
cultural traditions. Comparative studies of education were therefore premised upon an
understanding of the social and economic life of the culture under study.
Kandel viewed each national education system as a "laboratory" in which solutions to
educational problems were tested and implemented. Kandel hoped that comparative education,
by distilling common principles from variegated national contexts, would contribute to the
development of a philosophy of education, that is, an educational theory, based not merely on
metaphysical and ethical ruminations, but on practical, empirical grounds as well. Additionally,
Kandel sought through comparative study of national education systems to promote international
understandings and sympathies.
Moreover, Kandel’s contribution to comparative education is widely known. He was the first to
chop up the national units and to discuss on a more transnational basis elements such as
administration or teacher training, thus paving the way for the problem approach. His precepts
about on-the-spot observation of schools have not yet been replaced, even in the age of
interdisciplinary teamwork. He advocated meticulous attention to primary documents, a sort of
comparative explication de text, which is regrettably becoming rare at present.
Kandel relied heavily on qualitative rather than statistical studies in his comparative
work. His examination of a nation’s education system, political framework, history, sociology
and philosophy showed how such extra school forces and factors could lead to either innovation
in education or to extreme reliance on traditional practices.

Contemporary comparative educators could find Kandel’s ideas on educational

borrowing useful. He was able to see the virtues of a particular nation’s educational practices and
still be reluctant to advocate borrowing from that nation if the cultural and socio-political gulf
separating nations was too wide. This was a major contribution to comparative and international
education at the time.

Furthermore, Kandel believed that significant progress in the world could be made by an
exchange of educational experiences between nations. He had faith in this process just as he did
with the exchange of scientific and intellectual experiences that had contributed to the betterment
of mankind. He wrote, ‘Educational systems cannot be transferred from one country to another,
but ideas, practice, devices, developed under one set of conditions, can always prove suggestive
even where conditions are somewhat different’.

Kandel’s viewpoint of comparative and international education was melioristic. Living

through two world wars with their unspeakable horrors heaped upon humanity, he still believed
in the doctrine that the world will become a better place and that men and women have the power
to assist in its betterment. He demonstrated his meliorism through a lifetime commitment to the
improvement of education in the world.

Name: Chona B. Sto Domingo & Annabelle Fuentes Date: October 29, 2021
Course: PHD-em 1B Professor: Dr. Peter G. Young Jr

Midterm Examination

4. What underlying notions of social change do you find in the historical approach to
comparative education?

The word “change” denotes a difference in anything observed over some period of time. Social
change, therefore, would mean observable differences in any social phenomena over any period
of time.
There are quite a few notions of social change found in the historical approach to comparative
education. Social changes relate to education and improve as time goes by through comparing
what has been and what is and deciding which ones are best to practice and improve on more.
1. Social change is a universal phenomenon. It occurs in all societies in a universe of dynamic
influences. The population changes, technologies expand, material equipment changes,
ideologies and values take on new components and institutional structures and functions undergo
reshaping.
2. Social change is community change which occurs in the life of the entire community and not
individual.
3. The speed of social change is not uniform. In most societies it occurs so slowly that it is often
not noticed by those who live in them. Even in modern societies there seems to be little or no
change in many areas.
4. The nature and speed of social change is not uniform in each age or period in the same society.
5. Its occurrence is an essential law just as change is the law of nature. It may occur either in the
natural course or because of planned efforts.
6. By nature we desire change. Our needs keep on changing. To satisfy our desire for change and
our changing needs social change becomes a necessity.
7. Definite prediction of social change is not possible. It is difficult to make any prediction about
the exact forms of social change.
8. Social change shows chain-reaction sequence. A change in one part usually reacts on others
and those on additional ones until they bring a change in the whole mode of life of many people.
9. Social change results from the interaction of several factors such as technology, economic
development or climatic conditions causes social change. A special factor may trigger a change,
but it is always associated with other factors that make the triggering possible.
10. Social changes are chiefly those of modification or of replacement. It may be modification of
physical goods or social relationships. For example, the form of our breakfast food has changed.
Though we eat the same basic materials which we ate earlier, wheat, eggs, corn, but their form is
changed. There may also be modifications of social relationships. The old authoritarian family
has become the small equalitarian family, the one room school has become a centralized school.
Our ideas about women’s rights, religion, government, and co-education stand modified today.

Social change is a present phenomenon in any society. An exception is sometimes made between
processes of change within the social structure, which serve in part to maintain the structure, and
processes that modify the structure of societal change.
Social change depends on the culture of each country and the adaptation on how they can
inculcate education to their method of teachings especially when there are customs and norms
involved. As time goes on, new techniques and technologies are invented, environmental
changes spur new adaptations that may lead to another way to improve learnings and conflicts
may occur due to another adaptation, implementation, and studies to check if the new curriculum
is effective or not.
Name: Kristel May G. Bernadino & Lynn N. Pigte Date: October 29, 2021
Course: PHD-em 1B Professor: Dr. Peter G. Young Jr

Midterm Examination

5. Enumerate and discuss the functions and scope of school administration.

The following are the functions of School Administration:

Planning of school programs and activities- This important function of school administration
entails conceptualization of specific activities to undertake in implementing the programs of the
Department of Education general through having meaningful and relevant projects and activities
contextualized according to the current situation of the school. Planning of school programs and
activities- Planning is an important attribute of management in achieving the aims and objectives
required of education. Educational planning has become very important because: It makes sure
an institution's success. It considers the significant issues, constraints, conditions, and factors of
education. The focus is on potential objectives, goals, and vision.

Directing schoolwork and formulating and executing educational policy- administrators should
be guided with the educational policies before execution of different programs, projects and
activities since policies serve as backbone and legal bases of different program implementation,
as such, policies being issued by the national agencies should be translated to school context.
Directing schoolwork and formulating and executing educational policies. It involves decision
making, who to carry out plans, who teaches what and working out policies and regulations for
all those in the organization

Coordinating administrative and supervisory activities-majority of the functions of an

administrator focus on the supervisory activities because there is the need to ensure that learning
takes place according to the set of competencies set in the timeline. Administrative and
supervisory activities include looking at the actual teaching-learning process and monitoring the
teachers’ performance of duty. Coordinating administrative and supervisory activities. In terms
of harmonizing educational activities and makes them instruments for yielding outcomes.

Providing the necessary leadership-as education is a continuous commitment to learn, teachers

should be guided and directed by administrators though manifesting appropriate leadership skills.
Administrators should have an effective leadership strategy to manage its human resources very
well. Providing the necessary leadership. Good leadership in schools helps to foster both a
positive and motivating culture for staff and a high-quality experience for learners.

Evaluating the teaching personnel and school program-the performance of teaching personnel
yield the success of every school. That is why, as administrators, the evaluation of teaching
personnel should be undertaken through using standard tool that encompasses all key results
areas expected to be carried out. Evaluating the teaching personnel and school program. Keeping
records and reporting results. Records are kept for comparison and evaluation purposes.
Reporting results to the public that will help them understand what the school can implement.
Keeping records and reporting results- administrators are accountable to all the matters
pertaining to the operations of the school. As such, there should be proper keeping of records and
regular reporting of results to all stakeholders and in effect, establishing transparency and
accountability to all the responsibilities attached to the work.

Scope of Educational Administration:

Administration of school personnel- This pertains to all policies, activities and practices of the
administration and staff which are designed to increase the effectiveness of teaching personnel
School finance and budget management-This includes the financing of the school system, the
sources of funds and the estimated expenditures for the given period.
School plant management- Covers the planning and organization of school facilities and
buildings to ensure that the school environment is safe and effectively managed
Curriculum Organization and Management-This includes the process of selecting curriculum
elements from the subject, the current social life and the students’ experience also, designing the
selected curriculum elements appropriately so that they can form the curriculum structure and
type
Guidance and Discipline-This is about having set and system of rules, sanctions, and behavioral
strategies appropriate to the regulation of children and the maintenance of order in schools.
School and community relation- This can be described as establishing good relationship and
ensuring that an educational community is there to facilitate the learning system
Non-formal education-Part of the flexible learning option which ensures that education is a right
and must be catered to all and should also be maximized through providing varied learning
opportunities for learners
Evaluating results of school administration-This is about conducting evaluation of desirable
school and teaching personnel performance as outcomes of policies, activities and practices of
administration and staff to ensure progress of the organization

Name: Angelyn M. Panlilio & Ian C. Verbo Date: October 29, 2021
Course: PHD-em 1B Professor: Dr. Peter G. Young Jr

Midterm Examination

6. What are the aims of administrative science? Why is it important in education?

Administrative Science may refer to: The study of public administration, governance, or
management. Likewise, it involves in the implementation of government policy and an academic
discipline that studies this implementation and prepares civil employees for working in the public service.
Administrative Sciences (ISSN 2076-3387) is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal, which
publishes original theoretical and empirical work on organization studies. It publishes regular research
articles, reviews and short notes. There is no certain restriction on the length of the papers as we
encourage researchers to publish their theoretical and empirical results in as much detail as possible.
Administrative Sciences aims:
1. To publish high quality developments in empiricism and theory from a myriad of disciplines.
2. To advance and communicate knowledge concerning management theory and practice both in public
administration and in profit organizations.
3. To encourage submissions that build on interdisciplinary research in related fields, such as business,
economic, political science, gender studies, psychology, sociology, physiology, communication theory or
artificial intelligence and their implications on management, organizations, and the society.
4. To provide a rapid refereeing and editorial processes, following standard publication practices.
5. To takes the responsibility to enforce a rigorous peer-review together with strict ethical policies and
standards to ensure to add high quality scientific works to the field of scholarly publication.

Importance of Administrative Science

It is a powerful tool in decision-making. Due to its links to economics, engineering, mathematics,
statistics, and other sciences, it employs various scientific research-based principles, strategies, and
advanced analytical methods to build rigorous and systematic models. The main purpose of applying this
approach is to improve an organization’s ability to make rational and meaningful management decisions.
Maintaining Better Control
Managers use techniques of operations research to maintain better control over their subordinates. This is
possible because operations research provides a basis in which to establish standards of performance and
ways to measure productivity. Reporting deviations from standards enables managers to identify problem
areas and to take corrective action.
Better Decision Making
The mathematical models of operations research allow people to analyze a greater number of alternatives
and constraints than would usually be possible, if they were to use only an intuitive approach. Using
operations research, it is easier to analyze multiple alternatives, which results in greater confidence in the
optimal choice.
Better Coordination of Departments
Operations research analysis blends together the objectives of different departments. For example,
operations research coordinates the aims of the marketing department with the schedules of the
production department.
Increased Business Productivity
The mathematical formulas used in operations research can increase productivity, as they offer a greater
number of optimal choices of inventory mix, plant machine utilization, factory size, manpower planning
and implementing new technologies.
Operations Research Model
Operations research has evolved into a standard framework that's used for identifying and solving
problems. The steps are as follows:
• Orientation
• Defining the problem
• Collecting data
• Formulating constraints and objectives
• Solution
• Validating the model and output analysis
• Implementation and monitoring

Example of Operations Research Analysis

A good example of how to use operations research analysis is to consider the plight of farmer Jones. He
must decide how many acres of corn and wheat to plant this year. One acre of corn will yield 10 bushels,
and will require four hours of labor per week, and it will sell at $3 per bushel. Wheat will sell at $4 a
bushel, will need 10 hours of labor a week and will yield 25 bushels per acre.
Farmer Jones has seven acres of land and can only work 40 hours per week. The government states that
he must produce at least 30 bushels of corn in the coming year.
How many acres of corn and wheat does Farmer Jones plant to maximize his revenue? The linear
programming technique of operations research gives the optimal answer – he should plant three acres of
corn and 2.8 acres of wheat.
Operations Research Limitation: Problem must be Quantifiable
Operations research only functions when all factors in a problem can be quantified. Other relevant inputs
to a problem might not be expressible in numbers.
Difficulties in Implementation
Implementing optimal solutions that result from operations research does not take human reactions and
behavior into consideration.
Management is constantly under pressure to make economic decisions that result in more efficient
operations and greater profits. The techniques of operations research help managers allocate resources
more effectively and enables them to better optimize the performance of their businesses.

Name: Imelda T. Jacob Date: October 29, 2021

Course: PHD-em 1B Professor: Dr. Peter G. Young Jr
Midterm Examination
7. Describe the school as a social system. What are the key elements of the school as a social system?
Social system is an arrangement of social interactions based on shared norms and values. Individuals
constitute it and each has place and function to perform within it. According to Talcott Parsons, Social
System is an orderly arrangement, an inter relationships of parts. In the arrangement, every part has a
fixed place and definite role to play. The parts are bound by interaction. System signifies patterned
relationship among constituent parts of a structure which is based on functional relations, and which
makes these parts active and binds them into reality.
Since school is viewed as a social structure, complete with institutional functions, duties, and
expectations, hence it can be considered as social system. It performs the function of socialization as an
institution. It has several employees that must fulfill the duties that are required of them. The objective
behavior of a school's social system is realized through the integration of multiple institutions. The use of
social systems theory to explain how schools work has proven to be a viable approach.
Schools are important organization that prepare our children for adult roles. Their working mechanism
has a strong effect on the quality of education. There are many theories that try to explain the nature of
the school organizations. Among them, social systems theory has been one of the most realistic models
for schools.
The school has elements as a social system. First, element is a goal. Schools are formed for a main
purpose to accomplish goals. It specifies the outcomes to be achieved through organizational activities.
The nature of activities and the organizational structure to carry out activities depend on the specificity of
the goals. All schools have goals to attain. All their activities are aligned to these goals. According to
Scott in 1998, “vague goals do not provide a solid basis for formal organizations. Either the goals
become specific and limited overtime.
The second element is a structural system. It is like those of formal organizations. Bureaucratic
expectations rule organizational behavior. Roles that are derived from those expectations are represented
by positions in a hierarchy. This is the organizational structure of the school. It distributes tasks to
specialized individuals, and the organization is a result of the division of labor (Parsons, 1960). The
organization structure inherits many elements from rational, natural, and open systems theories. Hoy and
Miskel (2005) visualize the elements of social systems. Their model resembles Getzel and Guba’s (1957)
open systems model. However, they incorporate their own perspective of social systems by blending
rational and natural systems models. They inject four sub-systems into the transformation process. Each
sub-system will be elaborated according to their view.
Cultural system is the third element of school as a social system. As individuals interact, they share
values, beliefs, habits and gain an identity as a group. This is a natural outcome of all social systems.
Culture is the most visible aspect of the organizational life that distinguishes it from others. Culture
significantly affects behavior through establishing commitment to shared norms among individuals. It
represents the unwritten feeling part that is the set of values, norms, and beliefs of the organization.
Culture defines as the collective programming of the members of the institutions. It can be said that
attitude governs one’s mind while culture governs the organizational mind. Therefore, each member’s
attitudes gathered in a pool called culture.
Social systems are peopled. This can be called as Individual system. This refers to the teachers and the
learners. The expertise, social behavior, individual needs, and behavior must be considered to achieve the
goal. All persons play important element as a school social system. They roles and functions to
contribute to the development and improvement to the success of the school. Hence, it is significant to
analyze their needs to perform effectively which can achieve the goal of the school.
Political system is another element of the social system that greatly affects the progress of the school.
This system can be observed in the public schools where some activities can be controlled by the
government. Interaction of authority and power within an organization are sources of powers in the
organization. Thus, the school administrators need to have a good relations ship to these political
authorities. Politics is the way of how some individuals use their influence for their interest. It is
illegitimate hence it is immune to the sanctions of formal authority. This does not mean that politics is
always harmful, one advantage of politics is that it forces a school to be responsible to its environment.
Schools must pay attention to external pressures, responds to the demands, and produced outcomes.
Another school social system is the norms. This reflects to the right action binding upon the members of
the school. It serves as a guide, control, or regulate proper and acceptable behavior. The school norms
can be seen in the school handbook where the behavior of the students and teachers are explicitly
explained. This also the guide of the school in discipling their students who disobey the norms of the
school. The same thing with the teachers. Their actions must be according to the standard norms of the
school. This is important and affects the name of the school in the community.
Social systems theory has been a sound perspective to explain the working of schools. It offered scholars
to consider the many aspects of school organizations which are full of social beings. Schools are different
from for profit organizations, for they produce public service instead of goods. Mechanistic views fail to
focus on human relations side of educational settings. Therefore, it is more rational to think schools
through the lens of social systems theory.

Name: Chriza Jane E. Lumba & Marie Grace G. Campued Date: October 29, 2021
Course: PHD-em 1B Professor: Dr. Peter G. Young Jr

Midterm Examination

8. Discuss the aura (authority, responsibility, and accountability) of a principal.

Our educational system's essential executives are school principals. They oversee the implementation of
the school's vision and mission. They play a critical role in ensuring that schools run efficiently and active
in every element of the operation of the school. School leaders were in charge of overseeing the
development and implementation of all educational programs and projects. And they are critical to the
government's goal of providing high-quality basic education.
The success and failure of the school depends on the kind of school principal it has. Since the school
principal’s actions and decisions greatly affects the school achievements, the school head has an
authority, accountability, and responsibility to lead the national educational policies, plans and standards.
According to Republic Act No. 9155, Chapter 1 Section No. 7, Letter E, Paragraph 3 states that consistent
with the national educational policies, plans and standards, the school heads shall have the Authority,
Responsibility and Accountability (AuRA) in managing all affairs of the school.
Since the principal leads the school, he is empowered and has an authority to make decisions that would
result in the achievement of instructional goals. Authority is like what they always say that “a principal is
a Person in Authority” because they are responsible for the overall operation of their schools. A principal
should always be looking for ways to improve the student experience at school. Developing effective
programs that cover a variety of areas is one way to ensure this. He should evaluate school programs
every year to make improvement when necessary. It also means that he was going to be accountable for
all actions that he would take at the school level.
According to McFarland, Responsibility means, “the duties and activities assigned to a position or an
executive”. In School settings, the role of a school head is not an easy task. Therefore, the DepEd made a
schedule on the different leadership trainings to school heads to ensure that they will be fully functional to
their duties and responsibilities. And more so, to enhance their school instructional supervision and
monitoring skills. Responsibility is nothing but the duty that comes along with the job. Hence, the Head
of School is responsible for the effective general management of the school, for ensuring the provision of
academic leadership and strategic vision, and for the quality of the student experience. The school heads
shall have responsibility for the following:
o Manage school logistics and budgets.
o School head must oversee the day-to-day school operations.
o Set learning goals for students and teachers based on national curricula.
o Monitor and report on teacher performance.
o Present data from school performance to board members.
o Research new resources and techniques to improve teaching.

McFarland stated that, “Accountability is the obligation of an individual to report formally to his superior
about the work he has done to discharge the responsibility.” It is nothing but the liability created for the
transfer of authority. And as the School head, they have an authority or the right to assign duties to the
subordinates and make them accept and follow it.
Moreover, it shows that the authority is properly used, and work is done accordingly. Under this, a school
head is eligible to delegate the work to the subordinate but not the ultimate accountability. That means,
even if the school head designates the work, he will remain responsible for the obligation of the
accomplishment of the work. Accountability – is being liable for the efficient and effective
administration and management of the school. He should develop and maintain a healthy school
atmosphere conducive to the promotion and preservation of academic freedom and effective teaching and
learning, and to harmonious and progressive school- personnel relationship. And maintain adequate
records and submit required reports to the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports.
As listed in Republic Act No 9155, the school heads shall have authority, accountability, and
responsibility for the following:
(1) Setting the mission, vision, goals, and objectives of the school.
(2) Creating an environment within the school that is conducive to teaching and learning.
(3) Implementing the school curriculum and being accountable for higher learning outcomes.
(4) Developing the school education program and school improvement plan.
(5) Offering educational programs, projects and services which provide equitable opportunities for all
learners in the community.
(6) Introducing new and innovative modes of instruction to achieve higher learning outcomes.
(7) Administering and managing all personnel, physical and fiscal resources of the school.
(8) Recommending the staffing complement of the school based on its needs.
(9) Encouraging staff development.
(10) Establishing school and community networks and encouraging the active participation of teacher’s
organizations, non-academic personnel of public schools, and parents-teachers-community associations.
(11) Accepting donations, gifts, bequests, and grants for the purpose of upgrading teachers’/learning
facilitators’ competencies, improving, and expanding school facilities and providing instructional
materials and equipment. Such donations or grants must be reported to the appropriate district supervisors
and division superintendents; and
(12) Performing such other functions as may be assigned by proper authorities.

Name: Dennis R. Campos & Gary Devis Date: October 29, 2021
Course: PHD-em 1B Professor: Dr. Peter G. Young Jr

Midterm Examination

9. What is testing and measurement in education? Why are they important in school
administration?

Educational measurement is the art and science of gathering data on student factors including knowledge,
skills, talents, and interests. In education, measurement requires the formulation of instruments or
protocols for gathering data, methods for assessing and evaluating the data's quality, and strategies for
conveying the data to various audiences, including educators, policymakers, parents, and students. All
educational assessment attempts to (1) reach acceptable conclusions about students' aptitude,
achievement, or interests, (2) track student progress toward specific educational goals, and (3) improve
teaching and learning. Testing, assessment, and evaluation are all notions that are strongly tied to
educational measuring. The process of assigning numbers to events based on a set of principles is known
as measurement.
The "events" under consideration in educational measurement are students' test performances, and the
numerals assigned may be the students' numbers of right responses in the simplest example. In this
instance, a set of "rules" might be that each accurate response earns one point, each erroneous response
earns zero points, and the aggregate of these values equals the student's entire test score. Another often-
used metric is percentage correct, though raw scores can be transformed in a variety of ways.
Measurement is used in testing to back up inferences about a student's knowledge, skills, or abilities.
Any systematic sample of behavior gathered under controlled settings is referred to as a test. Math
problem solving, interest in various jobs, competency in reading narrative texts, skill in giving a speech,
building a birdhouse, writing an essay, and so on are all examples of interest behaviors in educational
measuring. Educational measuring is based on the sampling of these actions because it is impossible to
monitor all of what a student knows or can do. As a result, the inference is always necessary when a test
is given. Because it is rarely the student's success on specific math problems or essays that is of
importance, those behaviors are regarded as samples of the student's underlying problem-solving or
writing abilities. The inference is a well-informed conclusion about a student's more fundamental level of
knowledge or skill based on a sample of behavior.
The conditions of testing are carefully regulated in educational testing so that conclusions regarding
disparities in students' knowledge, skill, or aptitude can be securely assigned to the underlying attributes
being tested rather than to variations in testing conditions.
The term "evaluation" refers to assigning a value or worth to data gathered through measurement or
testing. Grading is a typical method of educational assessment in which a value label (such as "Pass,"
"Fail," or "A") is used to convey information about the quality of a student's work. Finally, assessment is
the act of acquiring and analyzing data from a variety of sources—some or all of which may be tests—to
determine and document students' strengths and weaknesses, plan and improve education, or evaluate and
take decisions about them.

Name: Michelle B. Bernardino & Hernalyne M. Amabilis Date: October 29, 2021
Course: PHD-em 1B Professor: Dr. Peter G. Young Jr

Midterm Examination

10. What are the administrative duties and responsibilities of teaching personnel?

As defined in the Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994 or RA 7836, "Teachers" refers to
all persons engaged in teaching at the elementary and secondary levels, whether on full-time or part-time
basis, including industrial arts or vocational teachers and all other persons performing supervisory and/or
administrative functions in all schools in the aforesaid levels and qualified to practice teaching… and
"Teaching" refers to the profession concerned primarily with classroom instruction, at the elementary and
secondary levels. As civil servants, the main responsibility of a teacher is to mold the mind and values of
the Filipino youth, thus it makes a teacher precious and invaluable to our society.
Under the Magna Carta for Public School Teachers, every public-school teacher has a regular full-time
teaching load and is required to commit a maximum of (6) six hours of actual classroom instruction every
day. The remaining (2) two hours of work to complete the required (8) eight-hour workday, may be spent
within or outside the school subject to the guidelines of Department of Education.
Aside from teaching loads, each teacher is given multiple additional administrative or student support
responsibilities.
This includes papers for seminars and trainings they've been assigned to attend, as well as supplementary
designations for student counseling, budget, emergency response, and health. Teachers are also expected
to help with the implementation of government initiatives like mass vaccinations, community mapping,
conditional cash transfers, deworming, feeding, and a lot more.
The following are the ancillary services/ administrative functions a teacher can have to compensate the
missing hours to complete the 360 minutes daily required time. However, master teachers are not entitled
because of the observation tasks, preparing, and finishing at least one action research, and other functions.
1.LIS Coordinator
2. ICT Coordinator
3. School Finance Officer
4. Property Custodian
5. Clinic Teacher if there is none in the school
6. Guidance Teacher if there is none in the school
7. Research Advising
8. Grounds Maintenance Overseers during Regular School Cleanliness Service
9. Sports Coordinator
10. Student Activities/Events (Academic and Co-curricular) Coordinator
11. Canteen/Feeding Coordinator
12.School Paper Adviser
13. Acting Registrar if there is none in the school
14. GAD Coordinator
15. CIP/SIP
16. SBM Coordinator
17. CPP/Antibullying
18. SSG Adviser
19. Teacher Development Coordinator/Membership to School Grievance Committee
20. Other positions as deemed needed in due to non-availability of staff to perform the full function.

Provisions of DM 291, s. 2008, Paragraph 2.b – 6 hours actual classroom teaching (6 teaching loads at 1
hour per teaching load), all advisership and/or special assignments for the entire school year combined
shall be considered as one teaching load.

Moreover, here are some of the duties and responsibilities of a teacher:

1. To teach and educate students according to the educational needs, abilities and attainment potential of
individual students entrusted to his/her care
2. Planning, preparing, and delivering lessons to all students in the class.
3. Adopting and working towards the implementation of the school development plan of the school they
are giving service in.
4. Providing guidance and advice to students on educational and social matters and on their further
education and future careers; providing information on sources of more expert advice.
5. Communicating, consulting, and co-operating with other members of the school staff, including those
having posts of special responsibility and parents/guardians to ensure the best interest of students.
6. Reviewing and evaluating one’s own teaching and learning strategies, methodologies
7. Participating in In-Service education and training courses as well as in continuing professional
development (CPD) opportunities,
8. Nurtures a culture as an essential facilitator of learning and reflective practitioners.

In addition to these duties and responsibilities, Batas Pambansa Blg. 232, Section 16, has also stated the
obligations of teachers:
1. Perform his duties to the school by discharging his responsibilities in accordance with the philosophy,
goals, and objectives of the school.
2. Be accountable for the efficient and effective attainment of specified learning objectives in pursuance
of national development goals within the limits of available school resources.
3. Render regular reports on performance of each student and to the latter and the latter's parents and
guardians with specific suggestions for improvement.
4. Assume the responsibility to maintain and sustain his professional growth and advancement and always
maintain professionalism in his behavior.
5. Refrain from making deductions in students' scholastic rating for acts that are clearly not
manifestations of poor scholarship.