HMEF5033 COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Sample questions and answers

Tidied and answered by Ong Yee Sing, August 2018. Correctness is not
guarantee.

TOPIC 1

 x

Comparative education Comparative education is a discipline in the social

sciences which entails the scrutiny and evaluation of different educational
systems, such as those in various countries.

Comparative is characterized by the following features:

 Comparison of one or more aspects of education, within a country or

between / among countries
 A quest for similarities and differences
 An analysis of issues and problems
 Context-based adoption of solutions to problems.
 Multidisciplinary perspective - An intersection of social sciences,
education and cross-national study

 “Comparative Education is merely about examining similarities and

differences among different countries”. Say whether you agree or
disagree with this statement. Justify your answer.
No. The focus of comparative education are only focused on the comparison of
one education system to the other education system.

It is not necessary comparing between education systems among different

countries. It can also be done within the same country, such as comparing the
origins of Malay-medium schools in the state of Perak against those in Sabah.

In addition, examining similarities and differences of an education system to

another is only the most basic scope of the study. At another level,
comparative studies in education may also be an in depth analysis of issues and
problems, such as gender discrimination, to re-examine or reconfirm a theory
and to search for solutions for these problems.

 Comparative studies of education can be analysed based on depth and

focus of the studies. Using examples discuss what is mean by the following
terms?
a. basic level comparisons
b. advanced level comparisons
c. intra-country comparisons
d. inter-country comparisons

What do you understand by the following terms:

a. comparative education
b. within-country comparisons
c. two country comparisons

What is the main difference between intra-country and inter-country

comparisons in education? Illustrate using relevant examples.

Give ONE (1) example of a single within-country study and ONE (1)
example of a large scale comparative study in education.

 basic level comparisons

o one aspect
o similarities and differences
o to learn from practice of another
o to engage in an intellectual exercise
 o e.g. curriculum in Japan and Malaysia
 advance level comparison
o in-depth inquiries of issues that are of concern to policy makers
o to confirm or disapprove theory and to make policy decision
o e.g. gender disrimination

Intra country = within one country

Inter country = different countries
 Diversity – demographic, racial mix, political system, internal and
international colonisation e.g. Hong Kong, Macau vs rest of China,
England vs India
 Decentralize system in some countries such as Canada
 Complexity in obtaining qualitative and quantitative data

 single unit within-country study: The politics of preschool education

vouchers in Taiwan
 large scale comparative study: Asian universities: historical perspectives
and contemporary challenges

 The following are some of the most influential proponents of Comparative

Education:
o Sir Michael Sadler (1861-1943)
o Issac Leon Kandel (1881-1965)
o Nicholas Hans (1888 – 1969)
o George Z.F. Bereday (1920 – 1986)
o Philip G. Altbach
Discuss any Two (2) of the above proponents highlighting their
contributions to Comparative Education. (20 MARKS)

Sir Michael Sadler

 The first person to attempt a definition of the subject of comparative
education
 Problem method for educational research and inquiry
o Viewed comparative education as an examination of the set up
and problems of other countries in order to better understand the
workings of one’s own system (Sodhi, 1998).
 o Required investigators to deal with specific problems and to identify
related factors within the social context where these problems
occurred.
o Worked on the implications of these problems and to make
suggestions for future action.
 The publication of eleven volumes known as Special Reports.
o Document the educational developments in several European
countries during the late 19th century.
o Contain extensive historical accounts of educational practice in the
United States and in the various territories occupied by Great Britain.
 educational systems could not be directly transferred from one country to
another

Isaac Leon Kandel

 Author of several influential works, including Twenty-Five Years of
American Education (1924), Essays in Comparative Education (1930), The
Cult of Uncertainty (1943) and his landmark work, Comparative Education
(1933).
 Proposed that educators uncover the causes of educational problems first
and then examine the solutions and the rationale of selecting that
particular solution that a nation uses to address problems.
 Recommended that comparative educationists should to have a working
knowledge of more than one language, and to be knowledgeable in a
number of subjects e.g. political developments, anthropology,
economics, sociology and geography.
 Historical functionalism
o Education systems are inextricably intertwined with other historical,
social and political forces.
o Comparative education is a continuation of the study of the history
of education into the present.
 Like Sadler, Kandel believed that educational systems could not be
directly transferred from one country to another (1959).
o could stimulate further action in another, i.e. nations can learn from
each other’s experiences.
 lifelong learning, parent participation in public schooling, well-thought out
curricula and teacher effectiveness.

Nicholas Hans
  Perceived that a number of common traits underlie the customs,
traditions, policies and socio-historical factors that influence educational
practice in different countries.
 These commonalities may be studied to provide insight into the
factors that lead to educational decision making in a country.
 Hans was of the opinion that the solutions to educational problems that
have been attempted in one country should be examined in light of the
common educational and socio-historical backgrounds of other countries
under scrutiny.

George Bereday
 Wrote Comparative Methods in Education
o attempts to define the field by method, and talks about systematic
data collection and comparison.
o To conduct research using a systematic form, Bereday proposed a
four-stage procedure, commonly known as the “description-
interpretation-juxtaposition-comparison” method.
o Emphasised the collection of precise, similar data from each
country being studied, with the overall purpose of constructing
theory about schooling and society.
 multilingualism
 one of the main objectives of comparative education was to gain a
comprehensive understanding of the qualities and shortcomings of
different systems of education in the world.
 making the field part of mainstream education.

Philip Altbach
o addressed many issues in international higher education e.g. academic
freedom; student political activism, educational structures and politics of
various countries; education and scientific development; and trends in
higher education in USA, India, Africa and Japan.

Saravanan Gopinathan
o specialist in comparative education, focussing his work on language
policy, planning, bilingualism and higher education.
o focused on economic restructuring and educational reform in Singapore,
and on the role of language and society in university education reform.
 o a countrys educational policies are often determined by national factors
(1996). These factors may be a country’s national economic agenda, its
ethnic composition and its socio-historic profile.

Topic 2

1. What is the purpose of comparative education?

Most educators believe that Comparative Education is the way forward

to address many educational problems and concerns.
Explain FIVE (5) main purposes of Comparative Education.

The purpose of Comparative Education can be seen from the following

five perspectives:
a. Subject and Process
b. Comparative Analysis
c. Effect of Education Policy
d. Macro-level Impact
e. Influence of Culture on Education
Discuss briefly any four (4) of the above perspectives.

a. To determine the basic principles underlying different national systems of

education, or in fact to understand the different ways in which
educational practice is realised.
b. To enhance their understanding of their own educational system based
on ideas borrowed and adapted from education systems in other
countries.
c. To compare so that educational practice may be explained in
consideration of the many internal and external factors governing
education systems across countries.
o Internal factors: student enrolment, school structure, composition of
students, etc.
o External factors: national educational policy, economics, history,
social strata and demography.
d. To examine how different groups of people are affected by education
polices
e. To understand the effect of policy on marginalised or disadvantaged
groups of people e.g. The Semelai from central Pahang or the orang Ulu
from Sarawak in Malaysia.
f. To understand the ways in which countries expand, upgrade and reform
education. – macro level impact
o For policymakers and practitioners to address issues and challenges
as well as to solve problems that are associated with success and
failure in schools.
o To build a knowledge base for teacher education and trainer
training whilst taking into account the cultural, philosophical and
economic factors governing education
g. To examine the influence of culture on education
o Bruner’s The Culture of Education (1996)
o Culture influence the learning process
o Knowledge of the culture is essential for teaching effectiveness

2. Researchers often see comparative studies in education as serving a

multi-pronged purpose. Some have defined the objectives of
comparative education as follows:
a. Understand our Own
b. Understand and Affect
c. Understand Us and Ours
Discuss and highlight the differences between these three purposes.[20
MARKS]

X
Understand our own
Crossley and Watson (2003) propose that the fundamental purpose of
comparative education is that educationist be able to better understand and
work on education in their own country, and outlined the following purposes of
comparative education:
 Gain a better understanding of our own systems
 Satisfy intellectual and theoretical curiosity about other cultures
 Better understand the relationship between education and society
 Explain and analyse similarities and differences
 Understand problems in education
 Contribute to improvement of educational policy and practice
 Promote intellectual understanding and cooperation though
improved sensitivity to differing world views and cultures

Understand and affect

T. S. Sodhi (1998)
a. Intellectual activity that gives us insight and knowledge that may be
used to contribute to the social sciences and improve pedagogy.
b. Planning and making rational and progressive plans for formulating
educational objectives and how these objectives may be
achieved.
c. Practicality - to implement more practical ideas and to discontinue
practices that are impractical.
d. Humanitarian - to assist poor nations to improve livelihood through
education.
e. International - institute reform and attempt solutions in one country
by studying how other countries have overcome their problems.
f. Innovation - abreast of developments and innovations that are
taking place in other countries.
g. Economics - how nations can use education to tackle problems
such as unemployment, poverty and lack of productivity.

Understand us and others

Roby Kidd
a. Become better informed about the educational systems of other
countries;
 b. Become better informed about the ways in which people in other
cultures have carried out certain social functions by means of
education;
c. Become better informed about the historical roots of certain
activities and thus to develop criteria for assessing contemporary
developments and testing possible outcomes;
d. Better understand the educational forms and systems operating in
one’s own country;
e. Satisfy an interest in how human beings live and learn;
f. Better understand oneself; and
g. Reveal how one’s own cultural biases and personal attributes affect
one’s judgment about the possible ways of carrying on learning
transactions.

3. Describe TWO (2) key goals of comparative education.

 Planning
o the means by which a country formulates educational
policies, determines objectives and identifies strategies that
will help to meet its human resource needs.
o proper planning helps build community relations and
improves the social well-being of a people
o planning a school system that is responsive to the needs of a
multicultural and multilingual Malaysian society.
o takes into account both internal factors such as
multiculturalism, and external factors such as globalisation.
 Improvement and innovation
o to provide a mechanism for implementing measures that will
improve the social and economic status of a people
o keeping abreast of international developments in innovative
forms of teaching and learning so that nations can achieve
greater success in their efforts to provide education for their
people.
o E.g. Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) was a
pencil-and-paper test, now in many parts of the world TOEFL
is taken electronically.
o six broad areas where innovation may be applied, as follows:
 (a) The learning context;
(b) The curriculum to accommodate learners’ previous
knowledge and experiences and set them on a course of
improved understandings;
(c) Learning activities that achieve learning outcomes;
(d) Assessment that is integrated with desired learning
outcomes;
(e) Achievement that is tracked at a formative and summative
level; and
(f) Our roles as teachers, from expert content providers to
people who can create and support learning communities,
both with our students and among our peers.
 Education for international understanding
o to promote international understanding, which refers primarily
to amicable cross-border relations through the exchange of
ideas, information, points of view and knowledge among
educationists from different countries.
o To promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among
all nations, racial or religious groups
o The roots of this dimension of comparative education are in
the Recommendations for Education for International
Understanding, Co-operation and Peace and Education
relating to Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms drawn
by UNESCO in 1974
o E.g. UNESCO Institute for Education in Germany, the
International Bureau of Education in Switzerland and the
International Institute of Educational Planning in France.

Topic 3
1. The following are some key concepts within the scope of comparative
education:
a. National Education Philosophy
b. Education Policy
c. Education Planning
d. Education Structure
Elaborate what is meant by the above terms based on examples from
your home country,
What is the role played by education policy in national development?
Support your answer with the use of at least ONE (1) example. [4 marks]

Describe TWO (2) principles underlying the education philosophy of

Malaysia (or of your own country). [4 marks]

The government plays a critical role in providing education to its citizens.

This includes providing basic education, formal education and non-formal
education. The education goals and objectives guide the government in
implementing these initiatives. This is reflected in the education structure
of the country.
Explain in detail the following concepts using examples from your home
country.
a. Basic Education
b. Formal Education
c. Non-formal education
d. Education Goals and Objectives
e. Education structure
Educational philosophy
 the values, aspirations and ideals underlying the nature of its
education.
  a broad statement of what education means to the people of a
country, how they hope to achieve the national agenda through
education, and how the people of the country can benefit from
the education that is provided by the government.
 the basis for educational planning and development of
educational policy.
 Malaysia
o Education in Malaysia is an on-going effort towards further
developing the potential of individuals in a holistic and
integrated manner so as to produce individuals who are
intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced
and harmonious, based on a firm belief in and devotion to
God.
o Such an effort is designed to produce Malaysian citizens who
are knowledgeable and competent, who possess high moral
standards, and who are responsible and capable of
achieving a high level of personal wellbeing, as well as being
able to contribute to the betterment of the family, the society
and the nation at large.
Education planning
 an action plan that a country wishes to undertake to achieve the goals,
objectives and strategies that are consistent with its educational
philosophy.
 the result of analysis of a country’s human resource needs, and
encompasses the formulation and the implementation of programme
that will meet these needs.
 Educational planning may include whole-nation plans or regional or
sector plan
 Malaysia
o The country must raise the capacity of its people by: (i) Undertaking
comprehensive improvement of the education system, from pre-
school to tertiary level, from the aspects of curriculum and teaching
to school facilities, with a special focus on raising the standard of
schools in the rural areas; and (ii) Creating more avenues for skills
development, training and lifelong learning for the labour force at
all levels and for all ages, including in ICT.

Education policy
  a guiding principle or a course of action that steers a country’s
educational programmes or decisions. Commonly, a government devises
a policy after deliberation and discussion among lawmakers,
educationists, social scientists and other interested parties.
 circumscribe a country’s national educational philosophy, and usually
include a justification for a course of action that has been/will be taken.
 Singapore
o The bilingual policy is a fundamental feature of the Singapore
education system. It ensures that children learn at least two
languages in schools - English and their mother tongue. English is
essential as it is the language of commerce, technology and
administration. The learning of the mother tongue, which could be
Chinese, Malay or Tamil, enables the children to keep in touch with
their heritage and cultural values.

Education goals and objectives

Goal Objectives
statements of a vision, specifying statements of the specific activities
what is to be achieved required to achieve the goals
Broad Narrow
General intentions Precise
Intangible Tangible
Abstract Concrete
Cannot be validated Can be validated
not specific enough to be measured Specific and measurable

 European union
o three major goals
(i) To improve the quality and effectiveness of EU education and
training systems;
(ii) To ensure that they are accessible to all; and
(iii) To open up education and training to the wider world.
o thirteen specific objectives covering the various types and levels of
education and training (formal, non-formal and informal) aimed at
making a reality of lifelong learning. Systems have to improve on all
fronts: teacher training; basic skills; integration of Information and
Communication Technologies; efficiency of investments; language
 learning; lifelong guidance; flexibility of the systems to make
learning accessible to all, mobility, citizenship education, etc.

Education structure
 the way in which teaching and learning in schools and tertiary institutions
are organised in a country.
o The order or sequence in which institutions providing basic
education are to be attended, e.g. attending primary school
before secondary school or a post-secondary institution;
o The number of years one spends at each level, e.g. six years or
seven years at the primary school
o The pathways to admission and graduation, e.g. attending primary
school at the age of seven or how one can qualify for admission to
an institution of higher education such as a university.
 China
o Pre-school Children of 3 to 5 years old receive pre-school education
at kindergartens.
o Primary School For children of 6 to 11 years old. Primary schools are
generally run by local government. Some are run by enterprises and
individuals.
o Secondary School For teenagers of 12 to 17 years old. Secondary
schools are generally run by local governments and educational
departments. Secondary schools include common middle schools,
vocational schools and specialised secondary schools. Common
middle schools include junior schools and senior schools, each with
three-year period of schooling. Some junior middle school
graduates are accepted by senior middle schools while some go to
vocational schools and specialised secondary schools, with a
schooling period of three to five years.
o Higher Education Including two to three years short higher
education, undergraduate education and graduate education.

Topic 4
1. Describe the education structure of Japan, giving emphasis to the
different levels of schooling as well as to the role played by the Ministry of
Education of Japan, the Monbukagakusho.
 Elaborate on the education system in Japan, highlighting key features
with respect to the different levels of schooling as follows:
a. pre school
b. primary/elementary
c. secondary
d. higher education

The
Monbukagakusho

Prefectures Municipalities

Based on the diagram above discuss the educational governance in

Japan.
Then compare and contrast it with the educational governance in your
home country.

 Japanese education at all levels comes under the jurisdiction of the

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (also
known as Monbusho or Monbukagakusho or MEXT).
o This Monbukagakusho sets education standards and is responsible
for the formulation and implementation of national education
policy.
 Three levels of government administration help administer the various
financial and supervisory educational services in the country.
o national level: work that is carried out at the ministerial level or
within the Monbukagakusho.
o prefectures
o municipalities

Preschool: Yohchien/Hoikusho
  either run by the government or privately run (most private)
 Article 78 of Japan’s School Education Law, the main objectives are:
o To cultivate good habits
o To experience and taking part in group life
o To cultivate good attitudes toward the surrounding social life
o To guide language use and foster reading habits
o To cultivate expression through music, dances etc.
 the kindergarten or Yohchien
o guided by the School Education Law, which means that it comes
under the aegis of the Monbukagakusho
o Children from the ages of 3 to 5 can attend kindergarten for 4 hours
a day.
o Guidelines for teaching and learning in kindergarten are given in
the Course of Study for Kindergartens
 the day care centre or Hoikusho.
o follow the Guidelines of Education and Care in Day Care Centres
issued by the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare
o babies and young children below the age of 5 attend day care for
about 8 hours a day.

Primary School: Shogakkou

 compulsory
 free for all schoolchildren
 begins at age six, with primary education offered from Grade One to
Grade Six.
 the Monbukagakusho introduced the Course of Study for Primary Schools
in 1989.
o nationally designed
o government-approved textbooks (free from grade one to nine)
 heavy emphasis on Japanese language and moral
education.
 shaping children’s attitudes and moral character.
 cooperation, proper ways to interact in society and the
importance of working as a unified group.
 complexities of written Japanese and about the different
registers in spoken language.
 Other academic subjects that are emphasised are
arithmetic, science and history.
  “daily life” course which focuses on character development
and teaches children the importance of communal effort
and teamwork.
 Children also learn art, handicraft, music, homemaking and
physical education.
o generally have 30 to 40 students in a class.
o good facilities such as teaching materials and audiovisual
equipment for academic work.
o For co-curricular activities, most schools are equipped with a
gymnasium and/or a swimming pool.

Lower-secondary School: Chugakkou

 attend three years of free and compulsory education.

 attend a minimum of 1,050 periods (50 minutes per period) of study for
each year of junior high
 the Course of Study for Lower-Secondary Schools,
o Japanese language, moral education, mathematics, social studies,
science, music, fine arts, health, industrial arts, homemaking and
physical education.
o A foreign language such as English is also included as an elective.
o Subject specialisation does not take place at the lower-secondary
school level.
 aim to secure a place in a prestigious or reasonably good upper-
secondary school.
o take several short tests and two main examinations each semester.
o prepare for the standarised Upper-Secondary Entrance Examination

Upper-Secondary School: Koutougakkou

 not compulsory
 to prepare students for university placement and/or employment.
 follow curricular guidelines provided by Monbukagakusho - the Course of
Study for Upper-Secondary Schools since 1994.
 categories: (i) Regular or academic track (futsu); or (ii) Vocational track
which prepares students for commercial (shogyo); or (iii) Industrial (kogyo)
work.
 In the academic track, students take courses such as Japanese
language, English, mathematics and science.
  The vocational track includes anything from ICT to fish farming.
 An informal ranking system is used for upper-secondary schools based on
the number of graduates who get admitted into prestigious universities.
 One of the focal areas of this curriculum is the importance of family life
and the role of the family in society.
o home economics
 the upper-secondary schools now offer history, geography and civics and
not just social studies
 Like lower-secondary schools, teachers in upper-secondary teachers
teach courses in their areas of specialisation.

Higher Education

 state and private universities.

 very few foreign students enrolled in Japanese universities and colleges.
 For most courses, the term of study in universities is four years; exceptions
are courses such as medicine, dentistry and veterinary science.
 According to the School Education Law in Japan, the purpose of
universities is to conduct teaching and research in depth in specialised
academic subjects as well as to provide broad knowledge as a centre of
learning and to develop intellectual, moral and practical abilities.
 Higher education in Japan consists of four categories of institutions:
Universities; Junior colleges; Colleges of technology; and Specialised
training colleges.
 Entry into Japan’s top-ranked universities is highly competitive, with public
national universities being regarded as the most prestigious.
o take the University Entrance Examination.
o attend special intensive classes called Juku in order to prepare for
this examination.
o many universities have their own entrance examination and
evaluation methods to determine whether a candidate can cope
with a course after admission.
o Another pathway to universities is offered by the University Entrance
Qualification Examination.
 taken by students who have not graduated from upper-
secondary school, but seek admission to a university.
2. The Japanese introduced a 6-3-3 education structure after World War II.
What is meant by a 6-3-3 structure? [2 marks]

After World War II the Japanese introduced a 6-3-3 education structure for
primary and secondary education. Discuss what is meant by the 6-3-3
structure? [10 marks]

The post World War II period witnessed numerous changes in the

education changes in the education system in Japan. It also saw the
introduction of the 6-3-3 structure which is till practiced today.
 Discuss what is meant by the 6-3-3 structure. (10 marks)

Compare and contrast the Japanese 6-3-3 education structure with the
education structure in your home country. Highlight the similarities and
differences. [10 marks]

Japan’s elementary and secondary portion is organized along the lines of

the common American 6-3-3 model. The total structure includes the
following types or levels of institutions:

o preschools (yochien) and daycare centers (hoikuen).

o 6-year elementary schools (shogakko),
o 3-year lower secondary schools (sometimes called middle
school, chugakko)--corresponding to junior high school in the
United States,
o 3-year upper secondary schools (sometimes called high
school, kotogakko)--corresponding to senior high in the
United States

Compulsory education begins at age 6 and lasts 9 years, encompassing

the 6-year elementary and 3-year lower secondary school period.

3. Education in Japan witnessed numerous changes before and after World

War II.
Describe briefly the changes that occurred within the education system in
Japan during Pre-World War II and Post-World II. ( 10 marks)

Pre-World War II
 Early
 o localised
o based on Japanese values.
 first national public school system established in the 1870s
o Until the end of World War II, Japanese education was
controlled by a centralised government.
o educational philosophy was guided by the Imperial Rescript
on Education (1890) which stressed Confucian principles.
 honour the hierarchical nature of human relations
 service to the country
 the pursuit of learning and morality.
o early twentieth century, with German and Christian influences
being exerted on education at the tertiary level.
 Higher secondary school system was highly selective
and elitist, with few opportunities made available to
women.
Post-World War II
 new ideas were introduced by the United States Education Mission
(1946)
o less elitist
o compulsory schooling for all Japanese was extended to nine
years.
o the curriculum and content of textbooks were reviewed to be
less focused on morality and more on social studies.
o teachers’ unions were established
o school boards were to be locally elected.
o new 6-3-3 structure aimed at democratising education was
introduced
 when Japanese sovereignty was restored in 1952, the Ministry of
Education of Japan regained control.
o Moral education was re-introduced and Japanese ideals
were brought back
o School boards were to be appointed.
 in the 1960s when the country was besieged by student riots.
o University Control Law (1969)
 Ministry could close departments or whole universities if
conflicts is not settle within nine months
o introduction of education reforms in the early 1970s.
 4. The Japanese education system faces three major challenges:
a. a lack of instruction that deals with different levels of student ability;
b. pressure due to excessive competition; and
c. strict regulation to ensure student discipline.
Explain these challenges.

 Highlight TWO educational issues that have raised concern among

educationists in Japan. (10 marks)

a lack of instruction that deals with different levels of student ability

 The Japanese hold several important beliefs about education, that all
children have the ability to learn the material; that effort, perseverance,
and self-discipline, not academic ability, determine academic success;
and that these study and behavioural habits can be taught.
 Many children face difficulty as they are unable to conform to the strict
demands laid by a highly rigid education structure. For example, there is
little room for instruction for slow learners as teaching for some subjects is
lecture-oriented.
 Japanese teachers and educators have also raised the issue of a lack of
flexibility in the lower-secondary school, where students are exposed to
examination-oriented teaching and learning. Teachers, in turn, are
expected to cover all curricular requirements within an allotted time.
 Additionally, students find that there is little opportunity to take subjects
that are of interest to individuals.
 The school-refusal syndrome (toko kyohi) or excessive absenteeism has
been observed in some lower-secondary schools.

pressure due to excessive competition

 children attend out-of-school extra classes called juku to become more

proficient in academic subjects.
 From a young age, children are socialised into believing that educational
excellence is important and that they have to aim for the best universities,
adding a serious tone to the nature of school life and study habits.

strict regulation to ensure student discipline

  In many upper-secondary schools, there is a great deal of supervision by
school authorities to ensure that all students behave in an appropriate
manner.
 There are strict codes that govern dress codes, hairstyles and leisure
activities outside of school.

Topic 5

 a. What is meant by higher education policy?

The word policy refers to a written principle or rule to guide decision-making at

the institutional or national level. Often a policy directs the course of action at
the national level or within an organisation.

Higher Education Policy refers to how universities, colleges and other post-
secondary institutions operate within an education system to understanding
how governments respond to national labour and economic needs, and how
they accommodate global trends in the field.

 What do you understand by the terms

 Massification;
 Diversification;
 Internationalisation; and
 Marketisation. (Lee and Healy, 2006),
Discuss in the context of higher education.

The process of massification, diversification, internationalisation, and

marketisation in higher education has brought a number of challenges.
 Explain the meaning of each of the FOUR processes. [10 marks]
 Discuss the FOUR challenges that higher education institutions faced.
[10 marks]

According to Lee and Healy (2006), Higher Education policy has received
much attention due to the following reasons:

(a) massification

(b) diversification

(c) internationalization and

(d) marketisation
 Examine in detail each of the above reasons with regards to Higher
Education.

Massification

 an increase in the demand for higher education (HE)

 the number of universities as well as the number of programmes that are
offered has increased.
 government policies have moved away from an exclusive-selective
stance to a more inclusive-open stance
 Policies have also been revised in order to provide people from all parts of
the country greater access to HE.
 In Malaysia, the number of universities in existence today far exceeds that
of twenty years ago. To cater to the needs of the masses, so to speak.

Diversification

 the character of programmes offered at tertiary level has changed.

 people become increasingly more specialised in their professions.
 institutions of higher education compete with one another to offer what is
deemed necessary for the modern world.
 In Malaysia
o the expansion of private sector education.
o degree programmes offering a diverse range of subjects from
tourism to petroleum engineering.

Internationalization

 Education is now a commodity that can be exported and imported.

 Students study in foreign countries.
 Internationalisation has led to universities setting up branches in foreign
lands, and offering services beyond their geographical borders.
 A case in point is the Open University Malaysia which offers its
programmes to students in Yemen and in Bahrain. In tandem to this,
Australi’Ês Monash University has branch campuses in West Malaysia and
in South Africa, while Curtin University has opened up in Miri, Sarawak.
Marketisation

 moved away from being solely state-owned and state-directed to a more

market-driven enterprise.
o In Malaysia, during the 1970s, the setting up of universities appeared
to be a responsibility to be carried out only by the government.
Today universities and university colleges in Malaysia are also
owned by individuals, private companies and foreign organisations.
 HE to serve the needs of the public and the private sector
o corporate sector universities such as Universiti Teknologi Petronas
Malaysia and University Tenaga Nasional which, offer programmes
that are suited for the needs of their own organisation. Thus,
liberalisation policies have led to the marketisation of education.
 Some organisations seeing education as an opportunity for investment or
business.

 According to researchers (Goedegebuure, et al., 1994; Lee & Healy,

2006), the following are four broad areas that are covered by Higher
Education Policy::
 Policies of Funding,
 Policies on Planning and Development,
 Policies of Regulation and monitoring and
 Policies on Accreditation and Quality assurance.
Discuss the above with examples from your home country. (20 MARKS)

Higher Education Policy helps us understand how institutions of higher

learning such as universities, colleges and other post secondary institutions
operate within an education system. Given below are the main governing
policies that identify the scope of higher education policy:
 Policies of Funding,
 Policies on Planning and Development,
 Policies of Regulation and monitoring and
 Policies on Accreditation and Quality assurance.
Discuss the above policies and elaborate with examples from any TWO
countries around the globe. (20
MARKS)
 Discuss one higher education policy that has enhanced higher education
activities in your home country.

Policies on Funding

 It refers to the amount of money given to HEIs, and the way in which
money is disbursed to them.
 the trend in many countries has been to reduce government funding in
public institutions of higher learning.
 many HEIs have to seek their own sources of funding, and/or set up a
department that will engage in entrepreneurial work to bring in funds.
 the cost of education has gone up for the consumer, often leading to an
increase in the fees charged to the student.
 determines the degree to which financial responsibility and control over
spending rests with the government or with the institution itself.
 In Malaysia, public universities (IPTAs) receive almost all their funding from
the state, while research grants and funding for special projects may be
sourced from corporate bodies or international organisations.

Policies on Planning and Development

 a policy on how and who should be involved in planning HE activities.

 These activities include criteria for admission to universities, development
of new programmes, fee structure, spending patterns, staffing as well as
changes in the curriculum.
 While some planning activity is centralised, i.e. carried out at the
Ministerial level, other activities are carried out by the institution itself.
 For example, in Vietnam, the policy on admission criteria to HEIs is
centralised. In planning for greater access to higher education for people
from rural, remote and mountainous areas, policies have been put in
place to admit students from these areas under special admission criteria.
A student from the suburbs or towns has to have higher scores in the
university entrance examination than someone who comes from rural or
mountainous areas.

Policies on Regulation and Monitoring

 to bring about uniformity.

 Monitoring refers to ongoing supervision, observation or testing to make
sure that what is expected of an HEI is achieved.
  Regulation by the state is often done through a policy statement on
standards to be adopted for a number of processes.
 In Malaysia, HE is regulated by five legislations: Education Act, 1995;
University and University Colleges (Amendments) Act, 1995; Private Higher
Education Act, 1996; National Council of Higher Education Act, 1996; and
National Accreditation Board Bill, 1996.
o Students in Malaysian HEIs are not allowed to form organisations
that are affiliated to political parties.
o In India, the maximum number of foreign students admitted in a
single Indian university is restricted by the Indian government.

Policies on Accreditation and Quality Assurance

 Accreditation of programmes of study is often carried out to ensure

quality in practice and to ascertain that an educational programme
meets defined standards.
 Accreditation refers to the recognition or the granting of approval for a
programme of study against a set of criteria and/or specific requirements.
o the standard and quality of courses of study offered at HEIs; the
level of achievement specified for graduation; facilities provided for
the conduct of lectures, research, laboratory work as well as
consultation with academics; and the qualifications of academic
staff.
 The National Accreditation Board or Lembaga Akreditasi Negara (LAN),
which was established in 1996, oversees all activity in private HEIs.
 The Quality Assurance Division (QAD) of the Ministry of Higher Education,
Malaysia, which was established in 2001, governs activity in public
universities.
 On 21 December 2005. This new entity, called the Malaysian Qualifications
Agency (MQA), is responsible for quality assurance of higher education for
both the public and the private sectors.
o With the vision to be a credible and internationally recognised
higher education quality assurance body and the mission to inspire
the confidence of its stakeholders through best practices

 X
Accreditation: The process by which a (non-) governmental or private body
evaluates the quality of a higher education institution as a whole or of a specific
educational programme in order to formally recognize it as having met certain
predetermined minimal criteria or standards. The result of this process is usually
the awarding of a status (a yes/no decision), of recognition, and sometimes of a
license to operate within a time-limited validity. The process can imply initial and
periodic self-study and evaluation by external peers.

Quality assurance: An all-embracing term referring to an ongoing, continuous

process of evaluating (assessing, monitoring, guaranteeing, maintaining, and
improving) the quality of a higher education system, institutions, or programmes.
As a regulatory mechanism, quality assurance focuses on both accountability
and improvement, providing information and judgments (not ranking) through
an agreed upon and consistent process and well-established criteria.

 Today Lifelong Learning (LLL) is an important aspect highlighted in many

Education Acts all around the globe. Compare and contrast this aspect
of lifelong learning as discussed in the following:
a. The 1993 Higher Education Act in Sweden (Topic 5)
b. Lifelong Learning under the National Curriculum Framework (1996)
in South Africa (Topic 6) (20 MARKS)

b. Discuss higher education reforms in Sweden with respect to the

following areas:
 Centralisation and unification of higher education sectors (after
1977 reforms)
 Provision of vocational skills training (after 1977 reforms)
 Lifelong learning (after the 1993 Higher Education Act)
 Open education (after the 1993 Higher Education Act)

In Sweden the Higher Education Act 1993 introduced reforms to:

a. The concept of autonomy and decentralisation
b. Teacher Education
c. Lifelong Learning
Discuss each of these reforms

The 1977 Reforms

  Centralisation and Unification
o assimilating all four sectors (universities, university colleges, institutes
and vocational schools) so that there would be greater regulation
and control of their activities by the government.
o administration of all HEIs would come under the Ministry of
Education
o a single central body would oversee all forms of curriculum planning
in all HEIs.
o This policy was formulated to achieve the following aims:
 Create a more level playing field so that different kinds of
institutions would have equal standing.
 Promote a culture of cooperation among HEIs.
 Provide students from diverse backgrounds equal HE access
and opportunity.
 Vocational Education
o all students should benefit from vocational education.
o introduced vocational skills training into almost all undergraduate
programmes to prepare all students for the workplace.
o vocational courses combine a practical orientation with in-depth
theoretical knowledge in areas such as engineering, trade and
tourism, agriculture or forestry, information technology and health
care
 Criticism: too narrow, fragmented and vocationally-oriented
o The inclusion of a vocational bearing in HE courses meant that
individual talent and preferences were not accommodated.
o centralisation did not help reduce the financial burden on the
public sector
o research, competition and growth in HE was not stimulated.

The 1993 Higher Education Act

 the stated purpose of HE was to provide education and carry out

research and development.
 Other areas of emphasis were quality of practice, effective use of
resources, gender equality and the development of international
partnerships in the field.
 Autonomy and Decentralisation
o self-management of resources, finance and programme design.
Universities and other
 o more freedom in terms of assessment and the awarding of degrees.

Teacher Education

 in 2001, eight teaching degrees were consolidated and only one

teaching degree was offered for the entire public school system.
 programme specialisation was allowed for different age groups and
subject areas
 all students were to spend the first one and a half years on a common
programme of study.
 More emphasis was to be given to teaching methods, special education
and teaching practice.

Lifelong Learning

 In 1998, HE was designed to provide education for employees engaged in

full-time work by allowing them to earn credits toward a degree or
diploma.
 Later, in 2001, the Open Higher Education Bill opened more pathways to
HE.
 Policy changes were also made to provide more people access to HE, to
provide for lifelong learning, to create programmes and degrees that
were aligned to students’ vocations and to include ICT in HE (Salerno,
2002).
 HEIs were given the flexibility to implement admission requirements that
commensurate with the type of programmes that were offered.

Regulation and Monitoring of Swedish Higher Education

 The Swedish Riksdag (Parliament) and the Ministry of Education, Research

and Culture make decisions on regulation and monitoring, on funding
and on the objectives and guidelines for HE.
 National Agency for Higher Education or Högskoleverket takes care of all
matters related to assessment, supervision, reviews, research and
evaluation.
 As university education in Sweden is free, all academic and
nonacademic staff who work in HEIs are employees of the state.

Education and the Degree Ordinance

 The freedom of choice with regards to courses and degrees.

 In Sweden, all education is provided in the form of courses, which may or
may not be directly linked to degree programmes.
o Students make their own choices about how they can combine
courses to earn a degree.
o All HEIs have a system of credits (poäng), whereby a student earns
one (1) credit for every week of successful full-time study.
o During one academic year a student can earn 40 credits.
o Based on this centralised system, the completion rates for different
degrees differ from student to student.
o Under the Swedish Degree Ordinance, the government has
prescribed how general and professional degrees may be
awarded.
 Sweden also has what is known as “Contract Education” which is also
referred to as commissioned education.
o Contract education may be given to an organisation or individual
at an agreed upon price that covers the cost of education.
o The price and content of the programme of study is presented in
the form of a contract, which is guided by regulations concerning
commissioned education.
 In 2005, the Swedish government proposed a new higher education
programme and degree structure to facilitate international comparison of
its degrees.
o This will most likely pave the way for more structured system where
the HEI, and not the student, makes key decisions about courses
and degree programmes.


 access has come to be understood as enrolling larger percentages of the

population who desire higher education
 equity requires that these opportunities are equally available to all
citizens.
 Admission is restricted it is determined by
– Examinations
– Grades
– Recommendations
– Portfolio
– Extra-curricular activities
  Factors Affecting Access
o Education of parents
o Family income
o Aspirations – Patterns of social reproduction
o Supportive agents – Parents – Teachers – Peers
 The economic prosperity of most countries depends on an increasingly
well-educated workforce
 important component of building stable and prosperous modern societies
o Non-financial benefits: The Wider Benefits of Learning Group at the
Institute of Education in the United Kingdom has demonstrated (for
cohorts born in 1958, 1970 and now 2000) that participants in HE in
the UK are likely to be happier, healthier and more democratically
tolerant (Schuller et al. 2004).
o correlate directly with individuals reporting excellent health, less
likelihood of criminal activity, higher levels of participation in
elections and a greater inclination to do volunteer work
 Elite institutions, which can influence future opportunities and channel
privilege, generally remain beyond the reach of the rural poor e.g. China

Topic 6

1. Discuss ONE educational planning activity in your home country.

 usually done at a national level

 involves economic, social and legal dimensions: curricula, structure,
policy, staffing, teacher training, funding, formulating goals, objectives
and implementing policies.
Here are some reasons why educational planning is considered to be of
great importance:
 There is a strong link between educational planning and national
development
o An education system is expected to deliver a number of outcomes
that help a population grow intellectually, economically and
socially.
o Example, a ten-year education master education plan was
launched in 2005 for the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao,
Southern Philippines.
 a basic education development plan
  allowing the citizens access to resources and effective
education management
 aims to improve the economic standing of this Mindanao
community and to create greater social integration with
neighbouring Christian communities.
 Educational planning reflects the national agenda, such as economic
goals and social integration policies
o For example, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia was set up in the 1970s
because of the nation’s need to train people for the agricultural
sector.
o As a response to the dominance of ICT at the end of the 20th
century, the Multimedia University was established.
o For the purpose of social integration, the Sekolah Wawasan was
considered for implementation in some parts of West Malaysia.
 Planning and delivery of education reflects the ideological position of the
political forces within a country
o based on the ideology ascribed to by the ruling party.
o For example, in the late 1800s, the French established schools in
Ivory Coast to train clerks and interpreters to help manage the
country.
 To create an “elite” African political group that would identify
with France and French culture, higher education was
offered to a small group of Ivorians (there were only four
Ivorian university graduates by 1945).
 Today, the education system in Ivory Coast is an adaptation
of the French education system, mainly because the new
government worked on the model developed by the French.
 Similar trends may be observed in other countries that were
under foreign rule at one time.
 Educational planning involves a process that requires the cooperation of
many key institutions in a country
o The Ministry of Education in our country frequently calls upon groups
of content experts, religious scholars, economists, psychologists and
social scientists when making key decisions in the planning process.
o the need for the parties involved in the planning to believe in the
goals of the mission.
 2. X

The planner may be the government, the Ministry or the Curriculum

Development Centre, but all these three functions have to be carried out
diligently and carefully in order to ensure success of an educational plan. Take
for instance the move to use English for science and mathematics instruction in
Malaysia. Prior to implementation, the planners had to amass a large
knowledge base on the subject. They had to evaluate the existing programme,
hold discussions at various levels and conduct research on the implementation
of such programmes in other contexts.

The second area, communication, refers to how the information is passed from
one level to another, both within the planning community and among the
receiving community, that is teachers, students and administrators. Thus, when
plans for the shift to English for science and mathematics had been drawn up,
everyone in the country had to be informed. Training had to be conducted at
many levels and key personnel from the Ministry of Education had to be
summoned to help with the implementation of this new plan.

Finally, educational planning has to be accompanied by a keen sense of

advocacy. This means that groups of planners have to work with the public to
bring about change that is desired. To use our earlier example, the move to use
English for science and mathematics was advocated through a change in
education policy at the national level and by training teachers in the wider use
of the English language. Thus, educational planning involves an upward
process, that is, changes in policy, and a downward process, that is, working
with people on the ground such as students and teachers.

3. Educational planning addresses the needs of society. Discuss how

educational planning addresses:
 a. The need for human capital development.
b. The need for national development.

The need for human capital development

 Human capital development refers to improving the quality and level of

education, skills and experience of people so that they can better serve
themselves and the economy of a country.
 The implementation of policies in education and training designed to
boost stocks of human capital by centrally planned, universally available,
standardised and state driven education systems, which created the
national subjectivities necessary for affiliation to the states’ modernisation,
project.
 The return of investment on education was such that the states could
justify the expansion and diversification of education as high priority;
wealth generated by economic growth justified further investment in
education.

The Need for National Development Education

 Nations that are at a post-war stage or those that have recently achieved
independent status for self-government.
 Countries that have plural societies, i.e. multilingual or multicultural groups,
and places where there is a great deal of income disparity.
 involves building a curriculum and formulating policies aimed at national
integration, bridging the rich-poor divide and increasing access to
education for rural, poor and marginalised sectors.

4. Educational Planning is South Africa is comprehensive in nature.

a. Sate FIVE (5) reasons why educational planning was critical to the
success of the education system in South Africa. (10 marks)

a. The need for human capital development.

b. The need for national development
i. European rule and apartheid .
ii. There is a provision in the constitution for not only basic
education, but also for adult and further education.
 1. The latter was considered important as, under
apartheid, many adults were not able to take part in
literacy-oriented activity, and many qualified Africans
had been denied access to tertiary education.
iii. In addition to this, the plan also included a provision for
instruction in the pupils own language, which may be in any
one of the eleven officially recognised languages in the
country.
iv. The state has to take steps to remedy or make
compensations for far-reaching inequities that were caused
by years of apartheid rule.

5. Often, historical and sociological factors play a key role in education

planning within a country.
Discuss this phenomenon with particular reference to South Africa.

Often, historical and sociological factors play a key role in education

planning within a country. Discuss this phenomenon with particular
reference to South Africa.

Discuss how historical and sociology factors play a key role in

educational planning in South Africa.
 Strong tradition of informal education
 European Rule - . . .
 Apartheid – different set of rules for Africans . . .
 Bantu Education - . . .
 Soweto Uprising – resentment
 African Rule – 1990s . . .
 The new Constitution
 Life long learning through . . .
 Curriculum 2005
 Need for human capital & national development
Select any 5 points above and discuss in detail

The Soweto uprising in 1976 was a turning point in South African history.
Trace the events that led to this uprising and highlight the implications this
 event had on education in South Africa.
[TOTAL: 20 MARKS]

The following have had a great impact on the history of education in

South Africa. Discuss any TWO (2) of the following highlighting their
implications for education in South Africa.
a) European Rue (1800s – 1950s)
b) Bantu Education
c) The Soweto Uprising
d) The Rainbow Nation (20
MARKS)

Traditions

 a strong tradition of informal education

 the Koi and the San of South Africa.
o At the village level
o Oral tradition.
o Carried out through stories of heroism, bravery and treachery.
o Emphasis on skills needed for agriculture and other occupations
associated with survival.

European Rule
  The advent of colonialism and with the arrival of the French, Dutch and
British on the shores of South Africa.
 From the 1800s, European schools were set up, leading to instruction in
Christianity and literacy and numeracy skills.
 Many English schools were established, as were schools that used
Afrikaans as a medium of instruction.
 The country was rich in resources and coal and diamond mines were
opened in many parts of the country.
o From the late 19th century, groups of men were taken away to work
in the mines, leaving women in charge of homes.
o The traditional informal education system was then disrupted
among communities affected by such moves.
 There was a system of segregated and unequal education in the country.
o While schooling for the Europeans was free, compulsory and
expanding, education for Africans and other non-Europeans was
neglected.
o There were insufficient facilities for schooling, teachers and
educational materials due to a serious lack of funding.
o Ethnic identity defined the degree to which educational
opportunity was to be provided.
 Under the apartheid system there were four ethnic
classifications: Blacks, Coloureds, Indians and Whites
 They lived separately, and the education they received
prepared them for different roles in society.

Apartheid

 1948 – 1994 apartheid (separateness in Afrikaans) became entrenched as

a system of government.
 the National Party (NP) won the elections
 Under this system, there were a different set of rules for the Africans and
the Europeans not only in terms of schooling but also in terms of where
they lived and how they should travel from one place to another.
 The NP also gave the Afrikaans language new status in schools, and after
that, all high-school graduates were required to be proficient in both
Afrikaans and in English.
 Many of the local people lost their land and their homes as entire villages
were removed and relocated in less desirable areas.

Bantu Education
  1953
 Resources allocate to white schools
 Less than 10% of the per capita income was spent on Black education.
 Teachers in Black schools had little training while the curriculum and
textbook content was designed to prepare the people only for menial
jobs.
 Ethnic identity defined the degree to which educational opportunity was
to be provided.
 English was stopped in primary schools and limited in secondary schools.
 In 1953, prior to the apartheid government’s Bantu Education Act, 90% of
black South African schools were state-aided and were mission schools.
o The Act demanded that all such schools register with the state, and
removed control of African education from the churches and
provincial authorities.
o Almost all the mission schools closed down.
 The Bantu Affairs Department had to approve teachers, and also
controlled the local school boards consisting of parents and officials
which managed the everyday running of schools.
 The 1953 Act also separated the financing of education for Africans from
general state spending and linked it to direct tax paid by Africans
themselves, with the result that far less was spent on black children than
on white children.

The Soweto Uprising

 Bantu education was greeted with a great deal of resentment

 Where there were 18 students in a European classroom, there were 40 in a
Black classroom.
 Few teachers in Black schools were certified to teach while very low
standards were maintained for graduation from schools.
 Many African leaders South Africans had been jailed or killed, or had
simply “gone missing.”
 In 1976, when compulsory Afrikaans language instruction was enforced in
high schools there were mass protests.
 In the violence that followed in Soweto in Johannesburg, hundreds of
people died, many of them school children.
 Thus, the path was laid for calls for freedom for the Africans, and the term
Liberation before Education became a motto for the people involved in
the struggle.
African Rule

 It was only in the 1990s that apartheid was considered outdated and non-
racial education was considered for implementation in South Africa.
 Other aspects of government began to change as pressure mounted for
Black rule in South Africa.
 Nelson Mandela, was released from prison in 1990, and led the country to
its first free elections in 1994.
 The country began to assume a new identity, and informally referred to
itself as the Rainbow Nation of Africa.
 The new government embraced a culturally diverse people with 11
different official languages and a very rich history.
 The plan to formulate a new policy framework and to restructure
education began with the setting up of the National Education and
Training Forum in 1993.
 A substantial amount of resources - 23% of the national budget - were set
aside for education.
 Compulsory education with a single core syllabus for all South Africans
from age seven to sixteen was introduced.
 The first instance of integration of government-run primary and secondary
schools at the national level was in 1995.

6. In South Africa, curriculum reforms were introduced following the

restructuring of its education system. Discuss the following reforms:
a. Lifelong Learning through a National Curriculum Framework 1996.[10
marks]
b. Curriculum 2005. [10 marks]

Discuss THREE (3) features of Curriculum 2005 in South Africa. (10 marks)

Various measures that were taken to provide equal and fair access to
education

The New Constitution

 Section 29 of the Constitution states: (1) Everyone has the right (i) to a
basic education, including adult basic education; and (ii) to further
education, which the state, through reasonable measures, must make
 progressively available and accessible. (2) Everyone has the right to
receive education in the official language or languages of their choice in
public educational institutions where that education is reasonably
practicable.
 The state must consider all reasonable educational alternatives, including
single medium institutions, taking into account: (i) equity; (ii) practicability;
and (iii) the need to redress the results of past racially discriminatory laws
and practices.
 There is a provision in the constitution for not only basic education, but
also for adult and further education.
o The latter was considered important as, under apartheid, many
adults were not able to take part in literacy-oriented activity, and
many qualified Africans had been denied access to tertiary
education.
 In addition to this, the plan also included a provision for instruction in the
pupils own language, which may be in any one of the eleven officially
recognised languages in the country.
 The state has to take steps to remedy or make compensations for far-
reaching inequities that were caused by years of apartheid rule.

Lifelong Learning through a National Curriculum Framework (1996)

 This Framework was informed primarily by principles contained in three

other documents:
o The White Paper on Education and Training 1995
o The South African Qualifications Act No. 58, 1995
o The National Education Policy Act 1996
 gave a rationale for major changes in the education system
 emphasised the need to transform teaching and learning in all schools.
 recommended a shift to a new instructional paradigm, from the aims-
and-objectives approach to the outcomes-based approach.
o to produce graduates of the quality and standards necessary for
the future.
 provided a philosophical base for policy makers and educationists.
 a set of principles and guidelines on organisational structure for curriculum
development at the national, provincial, community and the school level.
 Lifelong learning
 o Years of under-education, inadequate infrastructure and a lack of
resources had left large number of adult learners with inadequate
skills for the job market.
o the Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET) programme which
focused on building partnerships with businesses and community
groups for the purpose of human capacity building in a variety of
areas.
 provide a general basic education, promote critical thinking
and empower individuals to participate in all aspects of
society, and promote active learning methods
 lead to nationally recognised certificates based on clear
national standards assessed as learning outcomes.
o the Further Education and Training (FET) programme provides both
academic and applied learning tracks.
 access to lifelong learning, higher education and training, as
well as employment in a number of areas.
 three tracks of education: academic, vocational and
occupation-specific.
 For adults, classes in basic literacy, in technical and in
vocational subjects have also been made available.
 The University of Cape Town and Witwatersrand University
offer courses for those who wish to become adult education
instructors.

Curriculum 2005

 The new curriculum based on the outcomes-based approach

o Outcomes-based education or OBE focuses on what the learners
should know and can do at the end of a course of learning and
teaching, instead of the means which are to be used to achieve
those results.
 learners’ progress was to be measured against agreed criteria; formal
assessment would employ criterion-referencing in a transparent manner.
 All learners who met the agreed criteria for specified learning outcomes
would receive the appropriate credit or credits.
 Learners receive the necessary assistance to meet the required standards.
 The new curriculum will be based on the principles of co-operation,
critical thinking and social responsibly, and should empower individuals to
participate in all aspects of society.
  To achieve these aims, the curriculum was organised along eight newly
created Learning Areas, which were: (i) Language, Literacy and
Communication; (ii) Mathematical Literacy, Mathematics and
Mathematical Sciences; (iii) Human and Social Sciences; (iv) Natural
Sciences; (v) Technology; (vi) Arts and Culture; (vii) Economic and
Management Sciences; and (viii) Life Orientation.

Topic 7

2. Using examples from the various countries that you have studied about in
the course, discuss the considerations guiding the formulation of the
public primary school curriculum.
Your essay should touch on the following aspects:
a. Curricular goals
b. Philosophy
c. Curricular control
d. Curricular content

The primary school curriculum is determined by the following factors:

a. Curricular goals
b. Curricular control
c. Curricular content
Select any TWO (2) countries. Discuss how both the countries’ primary
school curriculum is determined by each of the above factors

Curricular goals
 The public school curriculum is driven by economic needs as well as social
issues such as cultural integration and national unity.
  The goals of personal, national and social development are addressed
either implicitly across the curriculum or are explicitly included in religious,
moral or ethics education and/or in subjects such as health education.
o The Malaysian public school curricula aim for intellectual
development (e.g. thinking skills and learning how to learn through
mathematics, science, history, etc.) as well as spiritual development
(e.g. good behaviour through religious and moral education).
o The Malaysian education philosophy stresses the need for its citizens
to be intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced.
There is also a call for the people to believe in God, possess high
moral standards and contribute to the betterment of the family.
 The curriculum must help a people achieve life-goals which they see as
relevant to their culture and livelihood.
o E.g. A specific curriculum was developed for Maori medium
education to meet the specific needs for Maori language groups or
Iwi by the New Zealand Ministry of Education.

Curricular control
 The curriculum of a country is characterised by specific input, that is,
curriculum content, and output, that is, children’s achievement.
 Education planners aim to secure a minimum entitlement for all children
o there is basic or core content that all children have to be exposed
to.
o ensuring equity in all parts of the country
o adequate preparation for secondary school or for adult life
o to facilitate continuity for those who change schools.
 often centralised at national, regional or local government level.
o For example, South Korea practices decentralised curricular control.
o Schools are encouraged to modify the national curriculum or to
develop new subjects to meet the needs, circumstances and
interests of schoolchildren and the local community.
 greater adaptation to suit the needs of people in smaller localities or
specific language groups.
Formulation of the curriculum

 Generally, the curricula in primary schools aim to achieve two ideals:

o Equip learners with core essential skills which children need as the
basis for future learning, e.g. reading, writing, and mathematics;
and
o Provide access to a broad and balanced curriculum, e.g. content
areas (such as history, science, etc.), art, music, physical and moral
education.

Curricula content

(a) Languages and literacy: mother tongue, national/ regional/ foreign

language;
 Malaysian example:
 There are primary schools that use Bahasa Malaysia, Chinese and
Tamil language as a medium for instruction.
  Bahasa Malaysia is classified both as a medium of instruction and as
a national language.
 In schools where Bahasa Malaysia is a medium of instruction, English
is accorded the position of second language.
(a) Mathematics, science and technology;
(b) Humanities, religious/ moral education and citizenship: social studies/ civics,
history, geography;
(c) The arts: art, music; and
(d) Physical education: sports, personal/ social/ health education.

3. A) One of the main aims of curricular in all primary schools is to achieve

literacy and numeracy skills among their students. by the following two
terms: Explain what is meant
a. Literacy skills and
b. Numeracy skills. [4 marks]

Literacy skills are all the skills needed for reading and writing. They include such
things as awareness of the sounds of language, awareness of print, and the
relationship between letters and sounds. Other literacy skills include vocabulary,
spelling, and comprehension.

Numeracy skills is the skills required to reason and to apply simple numerical
concepts, including comprehending fundamental arithmetics like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division, number sense, operation sense,
computation, measurement, geometry, probability and statistics.

B) Language and literacy instruction is one of the most significant parts of

a curriculum. Highlight what is meant by the following by giving specific
examples from countries around the globe:
c. National language instruction,
d. Medium of instruction,
e. Foreign / Second language and Regional / minority language. [16
marks]
National language instruction.
 A national language is a language that has some connection—de facto
or de jure—with people and the territory they occupy.
 A national language may be included in the school curriculum for the
purpose of social cohesion and inter-cultural integration.
 In Switzerland, children learn one of the country’s four national languages
i.e. French, German, Italian and Rhaeto-Romanic [Romansch] although
64% of the Swiss speak German.
Medium of instruction.
 A regional or national language may be used as a medium of instruction
for some or all of the learning areas in the curriculum.
 In Wales and Ireland, provision is made for part of the curriculum to be
taught through the medium of Welsh and Gaeilge respectively. In other
schools, children learn these languages but receive most of their
education through the medium of English.
 In Singapore, the common language is English and children learn their
mother tongue (Mandarin Chinese, Malay or Tamil) as a second core
subject.
Regional language or minority language or mother tongue instruction.
 Instruction in a third language may be included if it is different from the
national language or the medium of instruction.
 In Hungary, for example, all 13 minorities have the right to education in
their mother tongue.
 In New Zealand the education system is bilingual throughout. Maori
language has to be provided to all children or parents who request it.
Demand may therefore mean that this subject is offered from the
beginning of primary education. There are Maori schools and all
curriculum statements are available in both English and Maori.
 Additionally, in Singapore and Hungary, primary school children generally
receive moral, values and/or cultural education in the mother tongue, as
it is generally accepted that such subjects are most appropriately taught
and understood in the mother tongue.
Foreign language.
 A foreign language may be included to enhance the people’s ability to
connect with people in other places/regions.
 In Italy, a foreign language is usually offered from Year 2 or 3 (from age 7
or 8)
  In Korea, a foreign language is compulsory from the start of Year 3 (nine-
year-olds).
 In the Netherlands, English is a compulsory subject at primary level, at least
in the final two years (age 10-12).
 In New Zealand, a language other than English or Maori is increasingly
offered to children aged 10 onwards, although this is not mandatory.

4. The following are some of the main learning areas found in primary school
curriculum of many countries around the world.
a. Languages and literacy
b. Mathematics, science and technology
c. Humanities, religious/moral education and citizenship, social studies
/civics, history, geography
d. Arts, music
e. Physical education: sports, personal/social/health education
Compare and contrast the implementation of any TWO (2) of the above
mentioned areas with examples from countries around the world.

Mathematics, Science and Technology

 All primary level curricula feature mathematics or numeracy as a
separate subject, except in France, where it is taught as part of science in
upper primary (from age eight).
 At primary level, the study of science usually incorporates aspects of
biology, physics, chemistry and sometimes astronomy and geology. The
 place of technology in the curriculum varies. In some countries, it is
integrated with science as the application of science; in others, it
embraces craft and domestic science; in yet others, it includes
information and communications. Only in England and Wales is design
explicitly included.

Country Science Technology ICT

Australia Science Technology Integrated/Included
in most curricula
Canada General General A separate subject
science/technology science/technology in some provinces

Humanities

 history and geography, literature, moral or religious education, civics,

social studies and health education.
 Most countries include social studies as a core part of the curriculum.
 Religious education.
o Countries which proscribe religious education may consider values
and issues in moral education or ethics classes (Japan and Korea),
or across the curriculum (France and New Zealand).
o In Singapore, character education (values education) aims to
ensure the holistic education of the child with an emphasis on
strengthening the instincts for the community and the nation
through relevant subjects and programmes, such as the “National
Education” programme or through social studies and civic and
moral education (CME).
 A second approach cuts across the curriculum. For example,
primary school children develop a concern for living things,
and an awareness of their responsibility for the quality of the
environment (through science), endurance, sportsmanship
and fair play (through physical education, sports and games),
and appreciation for local and ethnic art and music and a
sense of pride in their national and cultural heritage (through
the arts).
o However, in the USA, New Zealand and most regions of France,
state schools are secular and religious education is prohibited.
o Similarly, in Japan and Korea, only private schools (which otherwise
generally follow the compulsory curriculum for publicly-funded
schools), may offer religious education.
 o In New Zealand, religious denominations who run their own formerly
private schools, have integrated into the state sector in so-called
“integrated schools”
o State-subsidised Roman Catholic schools in Australia are permitted
to provide religious instruction.
o In England, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Spain and Wales, religious
education is a statutory element of the school curriculum. Although
schools must provide religious education, individual children (or their
parents) may seek exemption, in which case children undertake an
alternative programme or private study.
o The Italian Government has recently approved financial support for
private (Catholic) schools, and the Minister is stressing Roman
Catholic religious values, for example, by requiring state schools to
display the crucifix and to celebrate Roman Catholic feast days.
 Citizenship education.
o In Australia, the Commonwealth Government initiative, “Discovering
Democracy”, made the study of citizenship compulsory for all
children from the mid-primary to upper secondary years (age 9 to
18). Since 1999, children have begun to learn about democracy
and citizenship and are examined each year to test their
knowledge of the history and workings of government and the
nation’s democratic foundations. They study topics such as the
history of the Australian constitution, the role of parliament, cabinet
and the courts, freedom of speech, religion, the role and
responsibility of the governor general and the history of indigenous
Australians.
o England has recently introduced a broad programme of citizenship
and personal, social and health education to primary schools. A
non-statutory national framework has been provided which sets out
what children might be expected to know and be able to do, but
leaves details of content and delivery to schools. The aim is for
seven-year-olds to know the difference between right and wrong;
consider simple social and moral dilemmas; learn to share and
cooperate; be able to recognise their likes, dislikes and justify their
opinions; name and manage their feelings; and understand that
bullying is wrong. By 11 years of age, children should study current
affairs, basic law and democracy and discuss topical issues, as well
as understand puberty and the consequences of racism and
bullying.
 o In Singapore, the character development programme was
introduced in 2001 as a reaction to the fact that technological
advancements had brought a knowledge explosion and easy
access to good and bad ideas and influences. In addition,
globalisation had led to families relocating and breaking away from
their roots. The programme aims to guide schools in providing a
balanced programme for each child in three domains: leadership,
citizenship, and personal and social development. Under the
citizenship domain, activities are organised to help children acquire
values such as loyalty and commitment to the nation.
Arts Education

 In Canada, France, Hungary, Ireland and Spain, art(s) education includes

at least the disciplines of visual arts (drawing, painting, crafts, etc), music
and the study of drama; and sometimes includes dance and occasionally
media studies.
 For example, in Singapore and Sweden, crafts are linked to the arts, but in
other places they may be classed as technology.
 Conversely, drama may be included in language or language arts
courses, while dance may be taught as part of physical education.
 Where there is pressure to focus on particular areas, for example, literacy
and numeracy, the time dedicated to the arts tends to decrease.
Physical Education and Sports

 Physical education is part of the curriculum in all countries and may be

combined with health education.
 Spain is one country where physical education is an examination subject
at the secondary level.
 England has recently introduced a broad programme of citizenship and
personal, social and health education (PSHE) to primary schools.
 In Ireland, social, personal and health education (SPHE) was introduced
as a statutory new curriculum area with the 1999 primary school
curriculum
 In Wales, a programme of personal and social education (PSE) has
recently been introduced and has recently become compulsory.
 In Japan, health and personal welfare are taught as part of several
subjects. For example, health is an important element of physical
education, family life is taught in home economics and moral character
and social relationships are taught in moral education.
Cross-curricular Areas
  In addition to core learning areas, education constantly needs to pay
attention to new topics or areas of social concern, such as international
understanding, education for the world of work, computer or information
technology, health education and environmental studies.
 Non compulsory
Any country
One of the features of comparative studies in education is to examine the
similarities and differences between countries.
a. Select ONE (1) issue on education and TWO (2) countries.
 b. Briefly describe TWO (2) similarities and TWO (2) differences.

5. The education structure in most countries consists of five levels, namely:

pre-school; primary; lower secondary; upper secondary; and pre-tertiary.
Select on specific country. Discuss critically the characteristics of the
countries:
a. Primary education. [10 marks]
b. Lower secondary education. [10 marks]