Comparative education Comparative education is a discipline in the social sciences which

entails the scrutiny and evaluation of different educational systems, such as those in various
countries.
Comparative is characterized by the following features:
• Comparison of one or more aspects of education, within a country or between /
among countries
• A quest for similarities and differences
• An analysis of issues and problems
• Context-based adoption of solutions to problems.
• Multidisciplinary perspective - An intersection of social sciences, education and
cross-national study
The focus of comparative education are only focused on the comparison of one education
system to the other education system. It is not necessary comparing between education
systems among different countries. It can also be done within the same country, such as
comparing the origins of Malay-medium schools in the state of Perak against those in
Sabah. In addition, examining similarities and differences of an education system to
another is only the most basic scope of the study. At another level, comparative studies in
education may also be an in depth analysis of issues and problems, such as gender
discrimination, to re-examine or reconfirm a theory and to search for solutions for these
problems.

•basic level comparisons o one aspect

- similarities and differences o to learn from practice of another o to engage in an
intellectual exercise o e.g. curriculum in Japan and Malaysia
•advance level comparison
- in-depth inquiries of issues that are of concern to policy makers o to confirm or
disapprove theory and to make policy decision o e.g. gender disrimination
Intra country = within one country Inter
country = different countries
• Diversity – demographic, racial mix, political system, internal and international
colonisation e.g. Hong Kong, Macau vs rest of China, England vs India
• Decentralize system in some countries such as Canada
• Complexity in obtaining qualitative and quantitative data
• single unit within-country study: The politics of preschool education vouchers in
Taiwan
• large scale comparative study: Asian universities: historical perspectives and
contemporary challenges
Sir Michael Sadler
• The first person to attempt a definition of the subject of comparative education -
Problem method for educational research and inquiry o Viewed comparative
education as an examination of the set up and problems of other countries in order to
better understand the workings of one’s own system (Sodhi, 1998) - Required
investigators to deal with specific problems and to identify related factors within the
social context where these problems occurred- Worked on the implications of these
problems and to make suggestions for future action- The publication of eleven
volumes known as Special Reports- Document the educational developments in
several European countries during the late 19th century. -Contain extensive
historical accounts of educational practice in the United States and in the various
territories occupied by Great Britain-educational systems could not be directly
transferred from one country to another
Isaac Leon Kandel
• Author of several influential works, including Twenty-Five Years of
American Education (1924), Essays in Comparative Education (1930), The Cult of
Uncertainty (1943) and his landmark work, Comparative Education (1933).
• Proposed that educators uncover the causes of educational problems first and then
examine the solutions and the rationale of selecting that particular solution that a
nation uses to address problems.
• Recommended that comparative educationists should to have a working knowledge
of more than one language, and to be knowledgeable in a number of subjects e.g.
political developments, anthropology, economics, sociology and geography.
• Historical functionalism o Education systems are inextricably intertwined with
other historical, social and political forces.
o Comparative education is a continuation of the study of the history of
education into the present.
• Like Sadler, Kandel believed that educational systems could not be directly
transferred from one country to another (1959).
o could stimulate further action in another, i.e. nations can learn from each
other’s experiences.
• lifelong learning, parent participation in public schooling, well-thought out curricula
and teacher effectiveness.
Nicholas Hans
• Perceived that a number of common traits underlie the customs, traditions, policies
and socio-historical factors that influence educational practice in different countries.
• These commonalities may be studied to provide insight into the factors that lead to
educational decision making in a country.
• Hans was of the opinion that the solutions to educational problems that have been
attempted in one country should be examined in light of the common educational
and socio-historical backgrounds of other countries under scrutiny.
George Bereday
• Wrote Comparative Methods in Education o attempts to define the field by method,
and talks about systematic data collection and comparison.
o To conduct research using a systematic form, Bereday proposed a four-stage
procedure, commonly known as the “descriptioninterpretation-juxtaposition-
comparison” method.
o Emphasised the collection of precise, similar data from each country being
studied, with the overall purpose of constructing theory about schooling and
society.
• multilingualism
• one of the main objectives of comparative education was to gain a comprehensive
understanding of the qualities and shortcomings of different systems of education in
the world.
• making the field part of mainstream education.
Philip Altbach o addressed many issues in international higher education e.g. academic
freedom; student political activism, educational structures and politics of various
countries; education and scientific development; and trends in higher education in
USA, India, Africa and Japan.

Saravanan Gopinathan o specialist in comparative education, focussing his work on

language policy, planning, bilingualism and higher education.
 o focused on economic restructuring and educational reform in Singapore, and on the
role of language and society in university education reform.
o a countrys educational policies are often determined by national factors
(1996). These factors may be a country’s national economic agenda, its ethnic
composition and its socio-historic profile.
The purpose of Comparative Education can be seen from the following five
perspectives:
a. Subject and Process
b. Comparative Analysis
c. Effect of Education Policy
d. Macro-level Impact
e. Influence of Culture on Education
a. To determine the basic principles underlying different national systems of education, or in
fact to understand the different ways in which educational practice is realised.
b. To enhance their understanding of their own educational system based on ideas borrowed
and adapted from education systems in other countries.
c. To compare so that educational practice may be explained in consideration of the many
internal and external factors governing education systems across countries.
o Internal factors: student enrolment, school structure, composition of students, etc.
o External factors: national educational policy, economics, history, social strata and
demography.
d. To examine how different groups of people are affected by education polices
e. To understand the effect of policy on marginalised or disadvantaged groups of people e.g.
The Semelai from central Pahang or the orang Ulu from Sarawak in Malaysia.
f. To understand the ways in which countries expand, upgrade and reform education. – macro
level impact o For policymakers and practitioners to address issues and challenges as well
as to solve problems that are associated with success and failure in schools.
o To build a knowledge base for teacher education and trainer training whilst taking into
account the cultural, philosophical and economic factors governing education
g. To examine the influence of culture on education o Bruner’s The Culture of
Education (1996) o Culture influence the learning process o Knowledge of the culture is
essential for teaching effectiveness

Understand our own - Crossley and Watson (2003) propose that the fundamental purpose of
comparative education is that educationist be able to better understand and work on
education in their own country, and outlined the following purposes of comparative
education:
•Gain a better understanding of our own systems
•Satisfy intellectual and theoretical curiosity about other cultures
•Better understand the relationship between education and society
•Explain and analyse similarities and differences
•Understand problems in education
•Contribute to improvement of educational policy and practice
•Promote intellectual understanding and cooperation though improved sensitivity to differing
world views and cultures
Understand and affect -T. S. Sodhi (1998)
a.Intellectual activity that gives us insight and knowledge that may be used to contribute to
the social sciences and improve pedagogy.
b. Planning and making rational and progressive plans for formulating educational
objectives and how these objectives may be achieved.
c.Practicality - to implement more practical ideas and to discontinue practices that are
impractical.
d. Humanitarian - to assist poor nations to improve livelihood through education.
e.International - institute reform and attempt solutions in one country by studying how other
countries have overcome their problems.
f. Innovation - abreast of developments and innovations that are taking place in other
countries.
g. Economics - how nations can use education to tackle problems such as unemployment,
poverty and lack of productivity.
Understand us and others - Roby Kidd
a. Become better informed about the educational systems of other countries;
b. Become better informed about the ways in which people in other cultures have carried
out certain social functions by means of education;
c. Become better informed about the historical roots of certain activities and thus to
develop criteria for assessing contemporary developments and testing possible
outcomes;
d. Better understand the educational forms and systems operating in one’s own country;
e. Satisfy an interest in how human beings live and learn;
f. Better understand oneself; and
g. Reveal how one’s own cultural biases and personal attributes affect one’s judgment
about the possible ways of carrying on learning transactions.

Describe TWO (2) key goals of comparative education.

• Planning o the means by which a country formulates educational policies, determines
objectives and identifies strategies that will help to meet its human resource needs.
o proper planning helps build community relations and improves the social well-being
of a people
o planning a school system that is responsive to the needs of a multicultural and
multilingual Malaysian society.
o takes into account both internal factors such as multiculturalism, and external
factors such as globalisation.
• Improvement and innovation o to provide a mechanism for implementing measures
that will improve the social and economic status of a people
o keeping abreast of international developments in innovative forms of teaching and
learning so that nations can achieve greater success in their efforts to provide
education for their people.
o E.g. Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) was a pencil-and-paper test,
now in many parts of the world TOEFL is taken electronically.
o six broad areas where innovation may be applied, as follows:
(a) The learning context;
(b) The curriculum to accommodate learners’ previous knowledge and experiences
and set them on a course of improved understandings;
(c) Learning activities that achieve learning outcomes;
(d) Assessment that is integrated with desired learning outcomes;
(e) Achievement that is tracked at a formative and summative level; and
(f) Our roles as teachers, from expert content providers to people who can create
and support learning communities, both with our students and among our peers.
• Education for international understanding o to promote international understanding,
which refers primarily to amicable cross-border relations through the exchange of
 ideas, information, points of view and knowledge among educationists from different
countries.
o To promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or
religious groups
o The roots of this dimension of comparative education are in the Recommendations
for Education for International Understanding, Co-operation and Peace and
Education relating to Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms drawn by
UNESCO in 1974
o E.g. UNESCO Institute for Education in Germany, the International Bureau of
Education in Switzerland and the International Institute of Educational Planning in
France.

Describe TWO (2) principles underlying the education philosophy of Malaysia (or of your
own country). [4 marks]
The government plays a critical role in providing education to its citizens. This includes
providing basic education, formal education and non-formal education. The education
goals and objectives guide the government in implementing these initiatives. This is
reflected in the education structure of the country.
Explain in detail the following concepts using examples from your home country.
a. Basic Education
b. Formal Education
c. Non-formal education
d. Education Goals and Objectives
e. Education structure
Educational philosophy
• the values, aspirations and ideals underlying the nature of its education.
• a broad statement of what education means to the people of a country, how they
hope to achieve the national agenda through education, and how the people of the
country can benefit from the education that is provided by the government.
• the basis for educational planning and development of educational policy.
• Malaysia o Education in Malaysia is an on-going effort towards further developing
the potential of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner so as to produce
 individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced
and harmonious, based on a firm belief in and devotion to God.
• Such an effort is designed to produce Malaysian citizens who
are knowledgeable and competent, who possess high moral standards, and who are
responsible and capable of achieving a high level of personal wellbeing, as well as
being able to contribute to the betterment of the family, the society and the nation at
large. Education planning
• an action plan that a country wishes to undertake to achieve the goals, objectives and
strategies that are consistent with its educational philosophy.
• the result of analysis of a country’s human resource needs, and encompasses the
formulation and the implementation of programme that will meet these needs.
• Educational planning may include whole-nation plans or regional or sector plan
• Malaysia o The country must raise the capacity of its people by: (i) Undertaking
comprehensive improvement of the education system, from preschool to tertiary
level, from the aspects of curriculum and teaching to school facilities, with a special
focus on raising the standard of schools in the rural areas; and (ii) Creating more
avenues for skills development, training and lifelong learning for the labour force at
all levels and for all ages, including in ICT.

Education policy
• a guiding principle or a course of action that steers a country’s educational
programmes or decisions. Commonly, a government devises a policy after
deliberation and discussion among lawmakers, educationists, social scientists and
other interested parties.
• circumscribe a country’s national educational philosophy, and usually include a
justification for a course of action that has been/will be taken.
• Singapore o The bilingual policy is a fundamental feature of the Singapore
education system. It ensures that children learn at least two languages in schools -
English and their mother tongue. English is essential as it is the language of
commerce, technology and administration. The learning of the mother tongue, which
could be Chinese, Malay or Tamil, enables the children to keep in touch with their
heritage and cultural values.

Education goals and objectives

Goal Objectives
statements of a vision, specifying what is to statements of the specific activities required
be achieved to achieve the goals
Broad Narrow
General intentions Precise
Intangible Tangible
Abstract Concrete
Cannot be validated Can be validated
not specific enough to be measured Specific and measurable

• European union o three major goals

(i) To improve the quality and effectiveness of EU education and training systems;
(ii) To ensure that they are accessible to all; and
 (iii) To open up education and training to the wider world.
o thirteen specific objectives covering the various types and levels of education and
training (formal, non-formal and informal) aimed at making a reality of lifelong learning.
Systems have to improve on all fronts: teacher training; basic skills; integration of
Information and Communication Technologies; efficiency of investments; language
learning; lifelong guidance; flexibility of the systems to make learning accessible to all,
mobility, citizenship education, etc.

Education structure
• the way in which teaching and learning in schools and tertiary institutions are organised in a
country.
o The order or sequence in which institutions providing basic education are to be attended,
e.g. attending primary school before secondary school or a post-secondary institution;
o The number of years one spends at each level, e.g. six years or seven years at the primary
school
o The pathways to admission and graduation, e.g. attending primary school at the age of
seven or how one can qualify for admission to an institution of higher education such as a
university.
• China o Pre-school Children of 3 to 5 years old receive pre-school education at
kindergartens.
o Primary School For children of 6 to 11 years old. Primary schools are generally run by local
government. Some are run by enterprises and individuals.
o Secondary School For teenagers of 12 to 17 years old. Secondary schools are generally run
by local governments and educational departments. Secondary schools include common
middle schools, vocational schools and specialised secondary schools. Common middle
schools include junior schools and senior schools, each with three-year period of schooling.
Some junior middle school graduates are accepted by senior middle schools while some go
to vocational schools and specialised secondary schools, with a schooling period of three to
five years.
o Higher Education Including two to three years short higher education, undergraduate
education and graduate education.

Japanese education at all levels comes under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (also known as Monbusho or Monbukagakusho or
MEXT).
o This Monbukagakusho sets education standards and is responsible for the formulation and
implementation of national education policy.
• Three levels of government administration help administer the various financial and
supervisory educational services in the country.
o national level: work that is carried out at the ministerial level or within the
Monbukagakusho.
o prefectures o municipalities

Preschool: Yohchien/Hoikusho
• either run by the government or privately run (most private)
• Article 78 of Japan’s School Education Law, the main objectives are:
o To cultivate good habits o To experience and taking part in group life o To
cultivate good attitudes toward the surrounding social life o To guide
 language use and foster reading habits o To cultivate expression through
music, dances etc.
• the kindergarten or Yohchien o guided by the School Education Law, which means
that it comes under the aegis of the Monbukagakusho
o Children from the ages of 3 to 5 can attend kindergarten for 4 hours a day.
o Guidelines for teaching and learning in kindergarten are given in the Course
of Study for Kindergartens  the day care centre or Hoikusho.
o follow the Guidelines of Education and Care in Day Care Centres issued by
the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare
o babies and young children below the age of 5 attend day care for about 8
hours a day.
Primary School: Shogakkou
• compulsory
• free for all schoolchildren
• begins at age six, with primary education offered from Grade One to Grade Six.
• the Monbukagakusho introduced the Course of Study for Primary Schools in 1989.
o nationally designed
o government-approved textbooks (free from grade one to nine)
 heavy emphasis on Japanese language and moral education.
• shaping children’s attitudes and moral character.
• cooperation, proper ways to interact in society and the importance of working as a
unified group.
 complexities of written Japanese and about the different registers in spoken language.
 Other academic subjects that are emphasised are arithmetic, science and history.
 “daily life” course which focuses on character development and teaches children the
importance of communal effort and teamwork.
 Children also learn art, handicraft, music, homemaking and physical education. o
generally have 30 to 40 students in a class.
o good facilities such as teaching materials and audiovisual equipment for academic
work.
o For co-curricular activities, most schools are equipped with a gymnasium and/or a
swimming pool.
Lower-secondary School: Chugakkou
• attend three years of free and compulsory education.
• attend a minimum of 1,050 periods (50 minutes per period) of study for each year of junior
high
• the Course of Study for Lower-Secondary Schools, o Japanese language, moral education,
mathematics, social studies, science, music, fine arts, health, industrial arts, homemaking
and physical education.
o A foreign language such as English is also included as an elective.
o Subject specialisation does not take place at the lower-secondary school level.
• aim to secure a place in a prestigious or reasonably good uppersecondary school.
o take several short tests and two main examinations each semester.
o prepare for the standarised Upper-Secondary Entrance Examination
Upper-Secondary School: Koutougakkou
• not compulsory
• to prepare students for university placement and/or employment.
• follow curricular guidelines provided by Monbukagakusho - the Course of Study
for Upper-Secondary Schools since 1994.
 • categories: (i) Regular or academic track (futsu); or (ii) Vocational track which
prepares students for commercial (shogyo); or (iii) Industrial (kogyo) work.
• In the academic track, students take courses such as Japanese language, English,
mathematics and science.
• The vocational track includes anything from ICT to fish farming.
• An informal ranking system is used for upper-secondary schools based on the
number of graduates who get admitted into prestigious universities.
• One of the focal areas of this curriculum is the importance of family life and the role
of the family in society. o home economics
• the upper-secondary schools now offer history, geography and civics and not just
social studies
• Like lower-secondary schools, teachers in upper-secondary teachers teach courses in
their areas of specialisation.
Higher Education
• state and private universities.
• very few foreign students enrolled in Japanese universities and colleges.
• For most courses, the term of study in universities is four years; exceptions are
courses such as medicine, dentistry and veterinary science.
• According to the School Education Law in Japan, the purpose of universities is to
conduct teaching and research in depth in specialised academic subjects as well as to
provide broad knowledge as a centre of learning and to develop intellectual, moral
and practical abilities.
• Higher education in Japan consists of four categories of institutions: Universities;
Junior colleges; Colleges of technology; and Specialised training colleges.
• Entry into Japan’s top-ranked universities is highly competitive, with public national
universities being regarded as the most prestigious.
o take the University Entrance Examination.
o attend special intensive classes called Juku in order to prepare for this
examination.
o many universities have their own entrance examination and evaluation
methods to determine whether a candidate can cope with a course after
admission.
o Another pathway to universities is offered by the University Entrance
Qualification Examination.
 taken by students who have not graduated from uppersecondary school,
but seek admission to a university.

2. Compare and contrast the Japanese 6-3-3 education structure with the
education structure in your home country. Highlight the similarities and differences.
Japan’s elementary and secondary portion is organized along the lines of the common
American 6-3-3 model. The total structure includes the following types or levels of
institutions:
o preschools (yochien) and daycare centers (hoikuen).
o 6-year elementary schools (shogakko), o 3-year lower secondary schools
(sometimes called middle school, chugakko)--corresponding to junior high school
in the United States, o 3-year upper secondary schools (sometimes called high
school, kotogakko)--corresponding to senior high in the United States
Compulsory education begins at age 6 and lasts 9 years, encompassing the 6-year
elementary and 3-year lower secondary school period.
3. Education in Japan witnessed numerous changes before and after World
 War II.
Pre-World War II
 Early o localised o based Japanese values.
- first national public school system established in the 1870s o Until the end of
World War II, Japanese education was controlled by a centralised government.
o educational philosophy was guided by the Imperial Rescript on Education (1890) which
stressed Confucian principles.
 honour the hierarchical nature of human relations
 service to the country
 the pursuit of learning and morality. o early twentieth century, with
German and Christian influences being exerted on education at the tertiary level.
 Higher secondary school system was highly selective and elitist, with
few opportunities made available to women. Post-World War II
• new ideas were introduced by the United States Education Mission
(1946) o less elitist
o compulsory schooling for all Japanese was extended to nine years.
o the curriculum and content of textbooks were reviewed to be less focused on morality and
more on social studies.
o teachers’ unions were established o school boards were to be locally elected.
o new 6-3-3 structure aimed at democratising education was introduced
• when Japanese sovereignty was restored in 1952, the Ministry of Education of Japan
regained control. o Moral education was re-introduced and Japanese ideals were
brought back
o School boards were to be appointed.
• in the 1960s when the country was besieged by student riots.
o University Control Law (1969)
 Ministry could close departments or whole universities if conflicts is not settle
within nine months
o introduction of education reforms in the early 1970s.
4. The Japanese education system faces three major challenges:
a lack of instruction that deals with different levels of student ability
• The Japanese hold several important beliefs about education, that all children have
the ability to learn the material; that effort, perseverance, and self-discipline, not
academic ability, determine academic success; and that these study and behavioural
habits can be taught.
• Many children face difficulty as they are unable to conform to the strict demands
laid by a highly rigid education structure. For example, there is little room for
instruction for slow learners as teaching for some subjects is lecture-oriented.
• Japanese teachers and educators have also raised the issue of a lack of flexibility in
the lower-secondary school, where students are exposed to examination-oriented
teaching and learning. Teachers, in turn, are expected to cover all curricular
requirements within an allotted time.
• Additionally, students find that there is little opportunity to take subjects that are of
interest to individuals.
• The school-refusal syndrome (toko kyohi) or excessive absenteeism has been
observed in some lower-secondary schools.
pressure due to excessive competition
• children attend out-of-school extra classes called juku to become more proficient in
academic subjects.
 • From a young age, children are socialised into believing that educational excellence
is important and that they have to aim for the best universities, adding a serious tone
to the nature of school life and study habits.
strict regulation to ensure student discipline
• In many upper-secondary schools, there is a great deal of supervision by school
authorities to ensure that all students behave in an appropriate manner.
• There are strict codes that govern dress codes, hairstyles and leisure activities
outside of school.
What is meant by higher education policy?
The word policy refers to a written principle or rule to guide decision-making at the institutional
or national level. Often a policy directs the course of action at the national level or within an
organisation.
Higher Education Policy refers to how universities, colleges and other postsecondary
institutions operate within an education system to understanding how governments respond
to national labour and economic needs, and how they accommodate global trends in the
field.
Massification
• an increase in the demand for higher education (HE)
• the number of universities as well as the number of programmes that are offered has
increased.
• government policies have moved away from an exclusive-selective stance to a more
inclusive-open stance
• Policies have also been revised in order to provide people from all parts of the
country greater access to HE.
• In Malaysia, the number of universities in existence today far exceeds that of twenty
years ago. To cater to the needs of the masses, so to speak.
Diversification
• the character of programmes offered at tertiary level has changed.
• people become increasingly more specialised in their professions.
• institutions of higher education compete with one another to offer what is deemed
necessary for the modern world.
• In Malaysia o the expansion of private sector education.
o degree programmes offering a diverse range of subjects from tourism to
petroleum engineering.
Internationalization
• Education is now a commodity that can be exported and imported.
• Students study in foreign countries.
• Internationalisation has led to universities setting up branches in foreign lands, and
offering services beyond their geographical borders.
• A case in point is the Open University Malaysia which offers its programmes to
students in Yemen and in Bahrain. In tandem to this, Australi’Ês Monash University
has branch campuses in West Malaysia and in South Africa, while Curtin University
has opened up in Miri, Sarawak.
Marketisation
• moved away from being solely state-owned and state-directed to a more market-driven
enterprise.
o In Malaysia, during the 1970s, the setting up of universities appeared to be a
responsibility to be carried out only by the government. Today universities and university
colleges in Malaysia are also owned by individuals, private companies and foreign
organisations.
• HE to serve the needs of the public and the private sector o corporate sector universities
such as Universiti Teknologi Petronas Malaysia and University Tenaga Nasional which,
offer programmes that are suited for the needs of their own organisation. Thus,
liberalisation policies have led to the marketisation of education.
• Some organisations seeing education as an opportunity for investment or business.
Policies on Funding
• It refers to the amount of money given to HEIs, and the way in which money is
disbursed to them.
• the trend in many countries has been to reduce government funding in public
institutions of higher learning.
• many HEIs have to seek their own sources of funding, and/or set up a department
that will engage in entrepreneurial work to bring in funds.
• the cost of education has gone up for the consumer, often leading to an increase in
the fees charged to the student.
• determines the degree to which financial responsibility and control over spending
rests with the government or with the institution itself.
• In Malaysia, public universities (IPTAs) receive almost all their funding from the
state, while research grants and funding for special projects may be sourced from
corporate bodies or international organisations.
Policies on Planning and Development
• a policy on how and who should be involved in planning HE activities.
• These activities include criteria for admission to universities, development of new
programmes, fee structure, spending patterns, staffing as well as changes in the
curriculum.
• While some planning activity is centralised, i.e. carried out at the
Ministerial level, other activities are carried out by the institution itself.
• For example, in Vietnam, the policy on admission criteria to HEIs is centralised. In
planning for greater access to higher education for people from rural, remote and
mountainous areas, policies have been put in place to admit students from these
areas under special admission criteria. A student from the suburbs or towns has to
have higher scores in the university entrance examination than someone who comes
from rural or mountainous areas.
Policies on Regulation and Monitoring
• to bring about uniformity.
• Monitoring refers to ongoing supervision, observation or testing to make sure that
what is expected of an HEI is achieved.
• Regulation by the state is often done through a policy statement on standards to be
adopted for a number of processes.
• In Malaysia, HE is regulated by five legislations: Education Act, 1995;
University and University Colleges (Amendments) Act, 1995; Private Higher Education
Act, 1996; National Council of Higher Education Act, 1996; and National Accreditation
Board Bill, 1996. o Students in Malaysian HEIs are not allowed to form organisations
that are affiliated to political parties.
o In India, the maximum number of foreign students admitted in a single Indian
university is restricted by the Indian government.
Policies on Accreditation and Quality Assurance
• Accreditation of programmes of study is often carried out to ensure quality in
practice and to ascertain that an educational programme meets defined standards.
• Accreditation refers to the recognition or the granting of approval for a programme
of study against a set of criteria and/or specific requirements. o the standard and
 quality of courses of study offered at HEIs; the level of achievement specified for
graduation; facilities provided for the conduct of lectures, research, laboratory work
as well as consultation with academics; and the qualifications of academic staff.
• The National Accreditation Board or Lembaga Akreditasi Negara (LAN), which was
established in 1996, oversees all activity in private HEIs.
• The Quality Assurance Division (QAD) of the Ministry of Higher Education,
Malaysia, which was established in 2001, governs activity in public universities.
• On 21 December 2005. This new entity, called the Malaysian Qualifications Agency
(MQA), is responsible for quality assurance of higher education for both the public
and the private sectors.
o With the vision to be a credible and internationally recognised higher education
quality assurance body and the mission to inspire the confidence of its

stakeholders through best practices

Accreditation: The process by which a (non-) governmental or private body evaluates the quality
of a higher education institution as a whole or of a specific educational programme in order to
formally recognize it as having met certain predetermined minimal criteria or standards. The
result of this process is usually the awarding of a status (a yes/no decision), of recognition, and
sometimes of a license to operate within a time-limited validity. The process can imply initial
and periodic self-study and evaluation by external peers.
Quality assurance: An all-embracing term referring to an ongoing, continuous process of
evaluating (assessing, monitoring, guaranteeing, maintaining, and improving) the quality of a
higher education system, institutions, or programmes. As a regulatory mechanism, quality
assurance focuses on both accountability and improvement, providing information and
judgments (not ranking) through an agreed upon and consistent process and well-established
criteria.
The 1977 Reforms
Centralisation and Unification o assimilating all four sectors (universities, university colleges,
institutes and vocational schools) so that there would be greater regulation and control of their
activities by the government.
o administration of all HEIs would come under the Ministry of Education o a single
central body would oversee all forms of curriculum planning in all HEIs.
This policy was formulated to achieve the following aims:
 Create a more level playing field so that different kinds of institutions would have
equal standing.
 Promote a culture of cooperation among HEIs.
 Provide students from diverse backgrounds equal HE access and opportunity.
Vocational Education o all students should benefit from vocational
education.
o introduced vocational skills training into almost all undergraduate programmes to prepare
all students for the workplace.
o vocational courses combine a practical orientation with in-depth theoretical knowledge in
areas such as engineering, trade and tourism, agriculture or forestry, information
technology and health care
 • Criticism: too narrow, fragmented and vocationally-oriented o The inclusion of a
vocational bearing in HE courses meant that individual talent and preferences were
not accommodated.
o centralisation did not help reduce the financial burden on the public sector
o research, competition and growth in HE was not stimulated.
The 1993 Higher Education Act
• the stated purpose of HE was to provide education and carry out research and
development.
• Other areas of emphasis were quality of practice, effective use of resources, gender
equality and the development of international partnerships in the field.
• Autonomy and Decentralisation o self-management of resources, finance
and programme design. Universities and other o more freedom in terms of
assessment and the awarding of degrees.
Teacher Education
• in 2001, eight teaching degrees were consolidated and only one teaching degree was
offered for the entire public school system.
• programme specialisation was allowed for different age groups and subject areas
• all students were to spend the first one and a half years on a common programme of
study.
• More emphasis was to be given to teaching methods, special education and teaching
practice.
Lifelong Learning
• In 1998, HE was designed to provide education for employees engaged in full-time
work by allowing them to earn credits toward a degree or diploma.
• Later, in 2001, the Open Higher Education Bill opened more pathways to HE.
• Policy changes were also made to provide more people access to HE, to provide for
lifelong learning, to create programmes and degrees that were aligned to students’
vocations and to include ICT in HE (Salerno, 2002).
• HEIs were given the flexibility to implement admission requirements that
commensurate with the type of programmes that were offered.
Regulation and Monitoring of Swedish Higher Education
• The Swedish Riksdag (Parliament) and the Ministry of Education, Research and
Culture make decisions on regulation and monitoring, on funding and on the
objectives and guidelines for HE.
• National Agency for Higher Education or Högskoleverket takes care of all matters
related to assessment, supervision, reviews, research and evaluation.
• As university education in Sweden is free, all academic and nonacademic staff who
work in HEIs are employees of the state.
Education and the Degree Ordinance
• The freedom of choice with regards to courses and degrees.
In Sweden, all education is provided in the form of courses, which may or may not be
directly linked to degree programmes.
o Students make their own choices about how they can combine courses to earn a
degree.
o All HEIs have a system of credits (poäng), whereby a student earns one (1) credit for
every week of successful full-time study. o During one academic year a student can
earn 40 credits.
o Based on this centralised system, the completion rates for different degrees differ
from student to student.
 o Under the Swedish Degree Ordinance, the government has prescribed how general
and professional degrees may be awarded.
• Sweden also has what is known as “Contract Education” which is also referred to as
commissioned education.
o Contract education may be given to an organisation or individual at an agreed
upon price that covers the cost of education.
o The price and content of the programme of study is presented in the form of a
contract, which is guided by regulations concerning commissioned education.
• In 2005, the Swedish government proposed a new higher education programme and
degree structure to facilitate international comparison of its degrees.
o This will most likely pave the way for more structured system where the HEI, and
not the student, makes key decisions about courses and degree programmes.


• access
has come to be understood as enrolling larger percentages of the population who
desire higher education
• equity requires that these opportunities are equally available to all citizens.
• Admission is restricted it is determined by
– Examinations
– Grades
– Recommendations
– Portfolio
– Extra-curricular activities
• Factors Affecting Access o Education of parents o Family income o Aspirations –
Patterns of social reproduction o Supportive agents – Parents – Teachers – Peers
• The economic prosperity of most countries depends on an increasingly well-educated
workforce
• important component of building stable and prosperous modern societies o Non-
financial benefits: The Wider Benefits of Learning Group at the Institute of Education
in the United Kingdom has demonstrated (for cohorts born in 1958, 1970 and now
2000) that participants in HE in the UK are likely to be happier, healthier and more
democratically tolerant (Schuller et al. 2004).
o correlate directly with individuals reporting excellent health, less likelihood of criminal
activity, higher levels of participation in elections and a greater inclination to do
volunteer work
• Elite institutions, which can influence future opportunities and channel privilege,
generally remain beyond the reach of the rural poor e.g. China
Topic 6
1. Discuss ONE educational planning activity in your home country.
• usually done at a national level
• involves economic, social and legal dimensions: curricula, structure, policy, staffing,
teacher training, funding, formulating goals, objectives and implementing policies.
Here are some reasons why educational planning is considered to be of great importance:
• There is a strong link between educational planning and national development o An
education system is expected to deliver a number of outcomes that help a population grow
intellectually, economically and socially.
o Example, a ten-year education master education plan was launched in 2005 for the
Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao, Southern Philippines.
 a basic education development plan
  allowing the citizens access to resources and effective education management
 aims to improve the economic standing of this Mindanao community and to create
greater social integration with neighbouring Christian communities.
• Educational planning reflects the national agenda, such as economic goals and social
integration policies o For example, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia was set up in the
1970s because of the nation’s need to train people for the agricultural sector.
o As a response to the dominance of ICT at the end of the 20th century, the
Multimedia University was established.
o For the purpose of social integration, the Sekolah Wawasan was considered for
implementation in some parts of West Malaysia.
• Planning and delivery of education reflects the ideological position of the political forces
within a country o based on the ideology ascribed to by the ruling party.
o For example, in the late 1800s, the French established schools in Ivory Coast to
train clerks and interpreters to help manage the country.
 To create an “elite” African political group that would identify with France and
French culture, higher education was offered to a small group of Ivorians (there were
only four Ivorian university graduates by 1945).
 Today, the education system in Ivory Coast is an adaptation of the French education
system, mainly because the new government worked on the model developed by the
French.
 Similar trends may be observed in other countries that were under foreign rule at one
time.
• Educational planning involves a process that requires the cooperation of many key
institutions in a country o The Ministry of Education in our country frequently calls
upon groups of content experts, religious scholars, economists, psychologists and social
scientists when making key decisions in the planning process.
o the need for the parties involved in the planning to believe in the goals of the
mission.

The
planner may be the government, the Ministry or the Curriculum Development Centre, but all
these three functions have to be carried out diligently and carefully in order to ensure success of
an educational plan. Take for instance the move to use English for science and mathematics
instruction in Malaysia. Prior to implementation, the planners had to amass a large knowledge
base on the subject. They had to evaluate the existing programme, hold discussions at various
levels and conduct research on the implementation of such programmes in other contexts.
The second area, communication, refers to how the information is passed from one level to
another, both within the planning community and among the receiving community, that is
teachers, students and administrators. Thus, when plans for the shift to English for science and
mathematics had been drawn up, everyone in the country had to be informed. Training had to be
conducted at many levels and key personnel from the Ministry of Education had to be
summoned to help with the implementation of this new plan.
Finally, educational planning has to be accompanied by a keen sense of advocacy. This means
that groups of planners have to work with the public to bring about change that is desired. To
use our earlier example, the move to use English for science and mathematics was advocated
through a change in education policy at the national level and by training teachers in the wider
use of the English language. Thus, educational planning involves an upward process, that is,
changes in policy, and a downward process, that is, working with people on the ground such as
students and teachers.
The need for human capital development
• Human capital development refers to improving the quality and level of education, skills
and experience of people so that they can better serve themselves and the economy of a
country.
• The implementation of policies in education and training designed to boost stocks of
human capital by centrally planned, universally available, standardised and state driven
education systems, which created the national subjectivities necessary for affiliation to
the states’ modernisation, project.
• The return of investment on education was such that the states could justify the
expansion and diversification of education as high priority; wealth generated by
economic growth justified further investment in education.
The Need for National Development Education
• Nations that are at a post-war stage or those that have recently achieved independent
status for self-government.
• Countries that have plural societies, i.e. multilingual or multicultural groups, and places
where there is a great deal of income disparity.
• involves building a curriculum and formulating policies aimed at national integration,
bridging the rich-poor divide and increasing access to education for rural, poor and
marginalised sectors.
Sate FIVE (5) reasons why educational planning was critical to the success of the education system
in South Africa
a. The need for human capital development.
b. The need for national development
i. European rule and apartheid .
ii. There is a provision in the constitution for not only basic education, but also for adult and
further education.
1. The latter was considered important as, under apartheid, many adults were not able to take
part in literacy-oriented activity, and many qualified Africans had been denied access to
tertiary education.
iii. In addition to this, the plan also included a provision for instruction in the pupils own
language, which may be in any one of the eleven officially recognised languages in the
country.
iv. The state has to take steps to remedy or make compensations for far-reaching inequities
that were caused by years of apartheid rule.
Discuss how historical and sociology factors play a key role in educational planning in South
Africa.
 Strong tradition of informal education  European Rule - . . .
 Apartheid – different set of rules for Africans . . .
 Bantu Education - . . .  Soweto Uprising – resentment  African Rule – 1990s . . .
 The new Constitution
 Life long learning through . . .
  Curriculum 2005
 Need for human capital & national development
Select any 5 points above and discuss in detail

South Africa.
Traditions
• a strong tradition of informal education  the Koi and the San of South Africa.
o At the village level o Oral tradition. o Carried out through stories of heroism, bravery
and treachery.
o Emphasis on skills needed for agriculture and other occupations associated with survival.
European Rule
• The advent of colonialism and with the arrival of the French, Dutch and British on the
shores of South Africa.
• From the 1800s, European schools were set up, leading to instruction in Christianity and
literacy and numeracy skills.
• Many English schools were established, as were schools that used Afrikaans as a
medium of instruction.
• The country was rich in resources and coal and diamond mines were opened in many
parts of the country.
o From the late 19th century, groups of men were taken away to work in the mines,
leaving women in charge of homes.
o The traditional informal education system was then disrupted among
communities affected by such moves.
• There was a system of segregated and unequal education in the country.
o While schooling for the Europeans was free, compulsory and expanding,
education for Africans and other non-Europeans was neglected.
o There were insufficient facilities for schooling, teachers and educational
materials due to a serious lack of funding.
o Ethnic identity defined the degree to which educational opportunity was to be
provided.
 Under the apartheid system there were four ethnic classifications: Blacks,
Coloureds, Indians and Whites
 They lived separately, and the education they received prepared them for
different roles in society.
Apartheid
• 1948 – 1994 apartheid (separateness in Afrikaans) became entrenched as a system of
government.
• the National Party (NP) won the elections
• Under this system, there were a different set of rules for the Africans and the Europeans
not only in terms of schooling but also in terms of where they lived and how they should
travel from one place to another.
• The NP also gave the Afrikaans language new status in schools, and after that, all high-
school graduates were required to be proficient in both Afrikaans and in English.
• Many of the local people lost their land and their homes as entire villages were removed
and relocated in less desirable areas.
Bantu Education
 • 1953
• Resources allocate to white schools
• Less than 10% of the per capita income was spent on Black education.
• Teachers in Black schools had little training while the curriculum and textbook
content was designed to prepare the people only for menial jobs.
• Ethnic identity defined the degree to which educational opportunity was to be
provided.
• English was stopped in primary schools and limited in secondary schools.
• In 1953, prior to the apartheid government’s Bantu Education Act, 90% of black
South African schools were state-aided and were mission schools.
o The Act demanded that all such schools register with the state, and removed
control of African education from the churches and provincial authorities.
o Almost all the mission schools closed down.
• The Bantu Affairs Department had to approve teachers, and also controlled the local
school boards consisting of parents and officials which managed the everyday
running of schools.
• The 1953 Act also separated the financing of education for Africans from general
state spending and linked it to direct tax paid by Africans themselves, with the result
that far less was spent on black children than on white children.
The Soweto Uprising
• Bantu education was greeted with a great deal of resentment
• Where there were 18 students in a European classroom, there were 40 in a Black
classroom.
• Few teachers in Black schools were certified to teach while very low standards were
maintained for graduation from schools.
• Many African leaders South Africans had been jailed or killed, or had simply “gone
missing.”
• In 1976, when compulsory Afrikaans language instruction was enforced in high
schools there were mass protests.
• In the violence that followed in Soweto in Johannesburg, hundreds of people died,
many of them school children.
Thus, the path was laid for calls for freedom for the Africans, and the term Liberation
before Education became a motto for the people involved in the struggle.
African Rule
• It was only in the 1990s that apartheid was considered outdated and nonracial
education was considered for implementation in South Africa.
• Other aspects of government began to change as pressure mounted for Black rule in
South Africa.
• Nelson Mandela, was released from prison in 1990, and led the country to its first
free elections in 1994.
• The country began to assume a new identity, and informally referred to itself as the
Rainbow Nation of Africa.
• The new government embraced a culturally diverse people with 11 different official
languages and a very rich history.
• The plan to formulate a new policy framework and to restructure education began
with the setting up of the National Education and Training Forum in 1993.
 • A substantial amount of resources - 23% of the national budget - were set aside for
education.
• Compulsory education with a single core syllabus for all South Africans from age
seven to sixteen was introduced.
• The first instance of integration of government-run primary and secondary schools at
the national level was in 1995.

Discuss THREE (3) features of Curriculum 2005 in South Africa.

The New Constitution
• Section 29 of the Constitution states: (1) Everyone has the right (i) to a basic education,
including adult basic education; and (ii) to further education, which the state, through
reasonable measures, must make progressively available and accessible. (2) Everyone
has the right to receive education in the official language or languages of their choice in
public educational institutions where that education is reasonably practicable.
• The state must consider all reasonable educational alternatives, including single
medium institutions, taking into account: (i) equity; (ii) practicability; and (iii) the need
to redress the results of past racially discriminatory laws and practices.
• There is a provision in the constitution for not only basic education, but also for adult
and further education.
o The latter was considered important as, under apartheid, many adults were not
able to take part in literacy-oriented activity, and many qualified Africans had
been denied access to tertiary education.
• In addition to this, the plan also included a provision for instruction in the pupils own
language, which may be in any one of the eleven officially recognised languages in the
country.
• The state has to take steps to remedy or make compensations for farreaching inequities
that were caused by years of apartheid rule.
Lifelong Learning through a National Curriculum Framework (1996)
• This Framework was informed primarily by principles contained in three other
documents:
o The White Paper on Education and Training 1995 o The South African
Qualifications Act No. 58, 1995 o The National Education Policy Act 1996
• gave a rationale for major changes in the education system
• emphasised the need to transform teaching and learning in all schools.
• recommended a shift to a new instructional paradigm, from the aimsand-objectives
approach to the outcomes-based approach.
o to produce graduates of the quality and standards necessary for the future.
• provided a philosophical base for policy makers and educationists.
• a set of principles and guidelines on organisational structure for curriculum
development at the national, provincial, community and the school level.
Lifelong learning
o Years of under-education, inadequate infrastructure and a lack of resources had left large
number of adult learners with inadequate skills for the job market.
o the Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET) programme which focused on building
partnerships with businesses and community groups for the purpose of human capacity
building in a variety of areas.
 provide a general basic education, promote critical thinking and empower individuals to
participate in all aspects of society, and promote active learning methods
 lead to nationally recognised certificates based on clear national standards assessed as
learning outcomes. o the Further Education and Training (FET) programme provides both
academic and applied learning tracks.
 access to lifelong learning, higher education and training, as well as employment in a
number of areas.
 three tracks of education: academic, vocational and occupation-specific.
 For adults, classes in basic literacy, in technical and in vocational subjects have also been
made available.
 The University of Cape Town and Witwatersrand University offer courses for those who
wish to become adult education instructors.
Curriculum 2005
• The new curriculum based on the outcomes-based approach o Outcomes-based
education or OBE focuses on what the learners should know and can do at the end of a
course of learning and teaching, instead of the means which are to be used to achieve
those results.
• learners’ progress was to be measured against agreed criteria; formal assessment would
employ criterion-referencing in a transparent manner.
• All learners who met the agreed criteria for specified learning outcomes would receive
the appropriate credit or credits.
• Learners receive the necessary assistance to meet the required standards. The new
curriculum will be based on the principles of co-operation, critical thinking and social
responsibly, and should empower individuals to participate in all aspects of society.
• To achieve these aims, the curriculum was organised along eight newly created
Learning Areas, which were: (i) Language, Literacy and Communication; (ii)
Mathematical Literacy, Mathematics and
Mathematical Sciences; (iii) Human and Social Sciences; (iv) Natural Sciences; (v)
Technology; (vi) Arts and Culture; (vii) Economic and Management Sciences; and
(viii) Life Orientation.

Curricular goals
 The public school curriculum is driven by economic needs as well as social issues such
as cultural integration and national unity.
• The goals of personal, national and social development are addressed either implicitly
across the curriculum or are explicitly included in religious, moral or ethics education
and/or in subjects such as health education. o The Malaysian public school curricula aim
for intellectual development (e.g. thinking skills and learning how to learn through
mathematics, science, history, etc.) as well as spiritual development (e.g. good behaviour
through religious and moral education).
o The Malaysian education philosophy stresses the need for its citizens to be
intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced. There is also a call for
the people to believe in God, possess high moral standards and contribute to the
betterment of the family.
• The curriculum must help a people achieve life-goals which they see as relevant to their
culture and livelihood.
o E.g. A specific curriculum was developed for Maori medium education to meet the
specific needs for Maori language groups or Iwi by the New Zealand Ministry of
Education.

Curricular control
• The curriculum of a country is characterised by specific input, that is, curriculum content,
and output, that is, children’s achievement.
• Education planners aim to secure a minimum entitlement for all children o there is basic or
core content that all children have to be exposed to.
o ensuring equity in all parts of the country o adequate preparation for secondary school or
for adult life o to facilitate continuity for those who change schools.
• often centralised at national, regional or local government level. o For example, South
Korea practices decentralised curricular control.
o Schools are encouraged to modify the national curriculum or to develop new subjects to
meet the needs, circumstances and interests of schoolchildren and the local community.
• greater adaptation to suit the needs of people in smaller localities or specific language
groups.
 For
mulation of the curriculum
• Generally, the curricula in primary schools aim to achieve two ideals:
o Equip learners with core essential skills which children need as the basis for future
learning, e.g. reading, writing, and mathematics; and
o Provide access to a broad and balanced curriculum, e.g. content areas (such as
history, science, etc.), art, music, physical and moral education.
Curricula content
(a) Languages and literacy: mother tongue, national/ regional/ foreign language; Malaysian
example:
•There are primary schools that use Bahasa Malaysia, Chinese and Tamil language as a medium
for instruction.
•Bahasa Malaysia is classified both as a medium of instruction and as a national language.
•In schools where Bahasa Malaysia is a medium of instruction, English is accorded the position
of second language.
(a) Mathematics, science and technology;
(b) Humanities, religious/ moral education and citizenship: social studies/ civics, history,
geography;
(c) The arts: art, music; and
(d) Physical education: sports, personal/ social/ health education.
Literacy skills are all the skills needed for reading and writing. They include such things as
awareness of the sounds of language, awareness of print, and the relationship between letters and
sounds. Other literacy skills include vocabulary, spelling, and comprehension.
Numeracy skills is the skills required to reason and to apply simple numerical concepts,
including comprehending fundamental arithmetics like addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division, number sense, operation sense, computation, measurement, geometry,
probability and statistics.
National language instruction.
• A national language is a language that has some connection—de facto or de jure—with
people and the territory they occupy.
• A national language may be included in the school curriculum for the purpose of social
cohesion and inter-cultural integration.
• In Switzerland, children learn one of the country’s four national languages
i.e. French, German, Italian and Rhaeto-Romanic [Romansch] although 64% of the
Swiss speak German.
Medium of instruction.
• A regional or national language may be used as a medium of instruction for some or all
of the learning areas in the curriculum.
• In Wales and Ireland, provision is made for part of the curriculum to be taught through
the medium of Welsh and Gaeilge respectively. In other schools, children learn these
languages but receive most of their education through the medium of English.
• In Singapore, the common language is English and children learn their mother tongue
(Mandarin Chinese, Malay or Tamil) as a second core subject.
Regional language or minority language or mother tongue instruction.
• Instruction in a third language may be included if it is different from the national
language or the medium of instruction.
• In Hungary, for example, all 13 minorities have the right to education in their mother
tongue.
• In New Zealand the education system is bilingual throughout. Maori language has to
be provided to all children or parents who request it. Demand may therefore mean that
this subject is offered from the beginning of primary education. There are Maori
schools and all curriculum statements are available in both English and Maori.
• Additionally, in Singapore and Hungary, primary school children generally receive
moral, values and/or cultural education in the mother tongue, as it is generally accepted
that such subjects are most appropriately taught and understood in the mother tongue.
Foreign language.
• A foreign language may be included to enhance the people’s ability to connect with
people in other places/regions.
• In Italy, a foreign language is usually offered from Year 2 or 3 (from age 7 or 8)
• In Korea, a foreign language is compulsory from the start of Year 3 (nineyear-olds).
• In the Netherlands, English is a compulsory subject at primary level, at least in the
final two years (age 10-12).
• In New Zealand, a language other than English or Maori is increasingly offered to
children aged 10 onwards, although this is not mandatory.
Mathematics, Science and Technology
• All primary level curricula feature mathematics or numeracy as a separate subject,
except in France, where it is taught as part of science in upper primary (from age
eight).
• At primary level, the study of science usually incorporates aspects of biology, physics,
chemistry and sometimes astronomy and geology. The place of technology in the
curriculum varies. In some countries, it is integrated with science as the application of
 science; in others, it embraces craft and domestic science; in yet others, it includes
information and communications. Only in England and Wales is design explicitly
included.
Country Science Technology ICT
Australia Science Technology Integrated/Included in
most curricula
Canada General General A separate subject in
science/technology science/technology some provinces
Humanities
•history and geography, literature, moral or religious education, civics, social studies and
health education.
•Most countries include social studies as a core part of the curriculum.
•Religious education.
o Countries which proscribe religious education may consider values and issues in moral
education or ethics classes (Japan and Korea), or across the curriculum (France and New
Zealand).
o In Singapore, character education (values education) aims to ensure the holistic education
of the child with an emphasis on strengthening the instincts for the community and the
nation through relevant subjects and programmes, such as the “National Education”
programme or through social studies and civic and moral education (CME).
 A second approach cuts across the curriculum. For example, primary school children develop
a concern for living things, and an awareness of their responsibility for the quality of the
environment (through science), endurance, sportsmanship and fair play (through physical
education, sports and games), and appreciation for local and ethnic art and music and a sense
of pride in their national and cultural heritage (through the arts). o However, in the USA, New
Zealand and most regions of France, state schools are secular and religious education is
prohibited.
o Similarly, in Japan and Korea, only private schools (which otherwise generally follow the
compulsory curriculum for publicly-funded schools), may offer religious education.
o In New Zealand, religious denominations who run their own formerly private schools, have
integrated into the state sector in so-called
“integrated schools” o State-subsidised Roman Catholic schools in Australia are permitted
to provide religious instruction.
o In England, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Spain and Wales, religious education is a statutory element
of the school curriculum. Although schools must provide religious education, individual
children (or their parents) may seek exemption, in which case children undertake an alternative
programme or private study.
o The Italian Government has recently approved financial support for private (Catholic) schools,
and the Minister is stressing Roman Catholic religious values, for example, by requiring state
schools to display the crucifix and to celebrate Roman Catholic feast days.
• Citizenship education.
o In Australia, the Commonwealth Government initiative, “Discovering Democracy”, made the
study of citizenship compulsory for all children from the mid-primary to upper secondary years
(age 9 to 18). Since 1999, children have begun to learn about democracy and citizenship and are
 examined each year to test their knowledge of the history and workings of government and the
nation’s democratic foundations. They study topics such as the history of the Australian
constitution, the role of parliament, cabinet and the courts, freedom of speech, religion, the role
and responsibility of the governor general and the history of indigenous Australians.
o England has recently introduced a broad programme of citizenship and personal, social and health
education to primary schools. A non-statutory national framework has been provided which sets
out what children might be expected to know and be able to do, but leaves details of content and
delivery to schools. The aim is for seven-year-olds to know the difference between right and
wrong; consider simple social and moral dilemmas; learn to share and cooperate; be able to
recognise their likes, dislikes and justify their opinions; name and manage their feelings; and
understand that bullying is wrong. By 11 years of age, children should study current affairs, basic
law and democracy and discuss topical issues, as well as understand puberty and the
consequences of racism and bullying.
o In Singapore, the character development programme was introduced in 2001 as a reaction to the
fact that technological advancements had brought a knowledge explosion and easy access to
good and bad ideas and influences. In addition, globalisation had led to families relocating and
breaking away from their roots. The programme aims to guide schools in providing a balanced
programme for each child in three domains: leadership, citizenship, and personal and social
development. Under the citizenship domain, activities are organised to help children acquire
values such as loyalty and commitment to the nation.
Arts Education
• In Canada, France, Hungary, Ireland and Spain, art(s) education includes at least the
disciplines of visual arts (drawing, painting, crafts, etc), music and the study of drama;
and sometimes includes dance and occasionally media studies.
• For example, in Singapore and Sweden, crafts are linked to the arts, but in other places
they may be classed as technology.
• Conversely, drama may be included in language or language arts courses, while dance
may be taught as part of physical education.
• Where there is pressure to focus on particular areas, for example, literacy and
numeracy, the time dedicated to the arts tends to decrease.
Physical Education and Sports
• Physical education is part of the curriculum in all countries and may be combined with
health education.
• Spain is one country where physical education is an examination subject at the
secondary level.
• England has recently introduced a broad programme of citizenship and personal, social
and health education (PSHE) to primary schools.
• In Ireland, social, personal and health education (SPHE) was introduced as a statutory
new curriculum area with the 1999 primary school curriculum
• In Wales, a programme of personal and social education (PSE) has recently been
introduced and has recently become compulsory.
• In Japan, health and personal welfare are taught as part of several subjects. For
example, health is an important element of physical education, family life is taught in
home economics and moral character and social relationships are taught in moral
education.
Cross-curricular Areas
• In addition to core learning areas, education constantly needs to pay attention to new
topics or areas of social concern, such as international understanding, education for the
world of work, computer or information technology, health education and
environmental studies.
• Non compulsory
• Any country