Power Electronics EECE 473

Chapter 1

Power Electronics and Energy


1.1 Introduction - 1
• Electric energy takes a wide range of
different forms. It may be obtained from
a Li ion battery at 3.6V to power a smart
phone, or from a 220 V ac outlet to
power various appliances at a home, or
from ac three-phase distribution grid
points at 20 kV to power a town or a
factory.
• Power electronic systems help in
controlling the flow of electric energy to
match the voltages and current in a form
that is best suited to different types of
user loads.
• The diagram of a power electronics
system is shown in Fig. 1.1. It may
represent the electric supply of an
electric car. The load being an induction
motor driving the wheels of the car.
2
• The power processor, or converter, may
change the dc form of electricity from a
battery to a three-phase from to drive
the electric motor.
• The power delivered by the converter is
modified to match a desired reference.
This is done by the controller block that
measures output power and compares it
to a reference. It then provides control
signals to appropriately change the
delivered power level.
Fig. 1.1: Block diagram of a power electronic
system.

1.2 Power Electronics versus Linear Electronics – 1
• Consider the linear power supply circuit
of Fig. 1.2 (a), which provides a regulated
output voltage 𝑉𝑜 = 5 V to a load. The
input is typically at 220 V  10% around
its nominal value.
• The line frequency transformer provides
isolation and steps down the voltage. Its
turns ratio must be selected so that the
minimum input voltage 𝑉𝑑,min is larger
than the desired output voltage by about
2 V, the voltage drop across the diodes.
(a)
Fig. 1.2: Linear dc power supply (a), Variable input voltage (b)
3
• For the range of input voltage variation
shown in Fig. 1.2 (b), the transistor is
controlled to absorb the voltage
difference between 𝑣𝑑 and 𝑉𝑜 .
• As a linear regulator, the transistor
operates in its active region as an
adjustable resistor and dissipates
significant heat. This results in a low
energy-efficiency operation.
• The line frequency transformer is large
and heavy.
(b)
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1.2 Power Electronics versus Linear Electronics – 2

• In power electronics, a switched-mode • When transistor Q is turned on, the

power supply, Fig. 1.3 (a), would provide
the voltage isolation and step-down
functions through a high frequency (300
kHz) transformer, which is significantly
smaller in size.
• The circuit will be discussed in detail in
Chapter 5. The rectifier and filter
capacitor may be modeled by a dc voltage
source 𝑣𝑑 as shown in Fig. 1.3 (b).
diode is off because it is reverse biased
and the voltage across it is 𝑣𝑑 . The
current 𝑖𝐿 of the inductor is supplied
from the voltage source.
• However, when Q is off, the current 𝑖𝐿
circulates through the diode, which has
now a very small voltage across it. Let
the voltage across the diode be 𝑣𝑜𝑖 .

Q
(a) (b)

Fig. 1.3: Switched-mode dc power supply (a), equivalent circuit (b)

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1.2 Power Electronics versus Linear Electronics – 3

• The voltage 𝑣𝑜𝑖 is shown in Fig. 1.4 (a), • At the high switching frequency the
and it is given by: required sizes of the inductor and
capacitor are significantly smaller in
𝑣𝑜𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑜𝑖 + 𝑣𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑡 (1.1)
weight and volume than components at
• The low pass LC filter will filter out the the line-frequency. The switch-mode
ripple voltage, Fig. 1.3 (b), and pass the power supply is also considerably more
average 𝑉𝑜𝑖 so that efficient because of very small losses in
𝑉𝑜 ≅ 𝑉𝑜𝑖 (1.2) transistor Q.

• The output voltage is given by

1 𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑉𝑜 = න 𝑣𝑜𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = (1.3) (a)
𝑇𝑠 0 𝑇𝑠
• By adjusting 𝑡𝑜𝑛 Τ𝑇𝑠 , which is called the
duty ratio 𝐷 the voltage 𝑉𝑜 may be
controlled to the desired value, but with
significantly less losses in Q. When Q is on
it is operating in the saturation region (b)
with very small voltage drop, and when it
is off it has essentially zero current. Fig. 1.4: Input voltage of switch-mode dc power
supply (a), ripple voltage (b)
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1.3 Devices – 1

• The term rectifier was originally used for • Controlled rectifiers are used to
an ac motor driving a dc generator. produce adjustable voltages and
Rectifier diodes were discovered during currents for smelters, welders, motors,
the 1880s and were based on selenium, electro-chemical processes, and battery
copper oxide, and other nonlinear chargers, which have always been
materials. important applications.
• Today, silicon diodes can block 6 kV or • The silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)
more and carry thousands of amperes. invented at Bell labs in 1957 were first
Schottky diodes, built with SiC (silicon- produced by GE (Fig. 1.5). It acts like a
carbide) and GaN (gallium-nitride), can diode when a pulse is applied to its third
block about 1000V and carry thousands terminal, or gate (white lead in figure).
of amps while being switched at a
frequency of about 100 kHz.
• Vacuum tubes with small amounts of
mercury and extra control grids, known as
mercury arc valves, were invented by
Hewitt in 1902. They provided better
control of rectification and were mainly
used in controlled rectifiers.
Fig. 1.5: Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) with heat sink.
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1.3 Devices – 2

• During the 1970s, power bipolar junction • The power MOSFET is the most widely
transistors (BJTs) came into use for used power semiconductor device in
inverters, for up to several tens of the world. It accounts to more than 50%
kilowatts, in space power systems and of the power transistor market.
industrial motor controllers. • As of 2018, over 50 billion power
• However, power BJTs have limited gain, MOSFETs are shipped annually. They are
and power ratings were practically limited widely used in consumer electronics,
to about 250 kW. radio frequency applications, and
automotive electronics.
• The power MOSFET, introduced in the
late 1970s, is a voltage-controlled device
that proved easy to operate. It quickly
replaced the BJT in applications up to
about 1 kW.
• Today, inverters for solar energy, radio-
frequency transmitters, audio amplifiers,
and small motor controllers generally use
power MOSFETs. Typical individual
devices can handle up to 10 kW.
Fig. 1.5: IRF 740 power MOSFET 400 V 10 A.
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1.3 Devices – 3

• The insulated-gate bipolar transistor • For power ratings above 1 MW, the best
(IGBT) has been commercialized in the choice is the gate turn-off SCR or GTO, a
late 1980s. It has the benefits of voltage device with high current (2000A) and
control over power BJTs, which are voltage (4500V) ratings. However, they
current-controlled devices. need significant reverse gate current
(745A) to turn off. The integration of a
• The IGBT dominates mid-range inverters,
MOSFET with the gate unit on the device
up to about 500 kW or more, and is the
wafer diverts the anode current and
reason hybrid and electric vehicles have
completes turn off. High switching losses
enjoyed renewed success.
limit the frequency to about 500 Hz.
• Practical devices capable of operating
over an extended current range were
first reported by B. Jayant Baliga et al. in
1982. Baliga was inducted into the
National Inventors Hall of Fame for the
invention of the IGBT.
• IGBTs have reached ratings beyond 4 kV
and 2000 A, with power handling ratings
above 200 kW. The IGBT module of Fig.
Fig. 1.6: IGBT module with a rated current of
1.6 is used in ac induction motor drives. 1,200 A and a maximum voltage of 3,300 V.

1.4 Applications – 1
• Until about the mid 1980s, dc motors
were common in motor speed control
applications, because their speed can be
altered by adjusting the input dc voltage
level. However, they have major
disadvantages in cost and reliability: a dc
motor has brushes and mechanical
commutator to maintain.
• The ac induction motors are inherently
cheaper to build and maintain than dc
machines. They have better power-to-
weight ratio than dc machines and can
operate at higher speeds. Only the
bearings themselves require occasional
maintenance. However, their control
require motor drives with varying
frequencies. Motor drives based on
inverters built from power MOSFETs or
IGBTs meet such requirement.
9
• The cost of such ac motor drives started
to drop significantly in the mid-1990s
making an ac motor with its motor drive
cheaper than dc motors. Today, most
motor control applications are satisfied
using ac motor control.
• Permanent Magnet (PM) machines offer
performance and efficiency advantages
when driven by MOSFET or IGBT drives
to operate robots, disk drives, and wing
flaps in a modern jetliner (Fig. 1.7).
Fig. 1.7: Boeing 787 with wing flaps operated
using electronic motor drives.

1.4 Applications – 2
• Dc power supplies circuits built using
MOSFETs are ubiquitous for computers,
portable communications, television
sets, electrical appliances, and many
other applications.
• In a typical arrangement, similar to that
of Fig. 1.3 (a), an ac source from a wall
outlet is rectified without a transformer.
The high dc voltage is converted through
a dc-dc circuit to the 24 V, 12 V, 5V, or
other levels needed by the application.
Only a switched-mode dc power supply
can support such complex requirements
without high costs.
• Most high-power dc-dc converters are
really dc-ac-dc converters. A small high-
frequency transformer embedded inside
to alter the voltage level. The size of a 50
kHz transformer is 1000 smaller than a
50 Hz transformer with similar ratings.
10
• It is also possible to interconnect
switches, inductors, and capacitors to
perform dc-dc conversion without a
transformer. These circuits will be
considered in detail later in the course.
• In an advanced computer data center, a
dc-based distribution uses dc voltages at
hundreds or thousands of volts and then
converts to 12 V or 48 V at individual
boards or computers as needed.
• Miniature power supplies rated up to a
few watts use dc-dc conversion and are
built right into an ac plug, as in Fig. 1.8.
Fig. 1.8: A 5V 1A dc power supply built in a plug.
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1.4 Applications – 3

• Most electric energy from alternative • One way to connect a WT to the grid is
and renewable energy sources are not to rectify its variable ac power and then
compatible with the power grid. feed it to an IGBT- or GTO-based
Photovoltaic (PV) panels and fuel cells inverter, which transforms the electric
deliver dc power, while wind turbines power to an ac form at constant voltage
usually deliver variable-frequency ac and frequency compatible with the grid.
output.
• PV panels are usually connected via dc-
dc converters to IGBT inverters that
receive dc electricity and transform it to
ac electricity at a voltage and frequency
compatible with those of the grid. The
dc-dc converters maximize the power
delivered from the panels and match
their varying dc voltage to a constant dc
voltage required for the grid connection.
• Wind turbines (WT), Fig. 1.9, are
controlled for maximum power, and run
at varying speeds, which generates ac
power at a variable frequency. Fig. 1.9: A 12 MW wind turbine in Rotterdam.