Republic of the Philippines Course Code: Phys 1

INITAO COLLEGE Course Title: General Physics 1

Jampason, Initao, Misamis Oriental Unit: 3 (lecture)
2nd Semester, AY 2020 - 2021
Instructor / FB Name: Instructor FB Name:
KEVIN CLIENT MATUTES ROSHIN MARIELLE BRITOS
Mobile Number: Mobile Number:
09204956663 09389820278
e-mail: e-mail:
kcbm150@gmail.com rmnasirbritos@gmail.com
Class: Class:
Crim2 G1 & Crim2 G2 Crim1 G1, Crim1 G2, Crim1 G3,
Crim1 G4, Crim1 G5 & Crim1 G6
Module 8, 9, 10 and 11 (PRE-FINAL COVERAGE)
Topic: Desired Learning Outcomes:
 ROTATIONAL MOTION  Analyze the analogy of rotational motion to translational or linear
 FLUID MECHANICS motion.
 THERMAL EXPANSION  Use angular quantities in describing the system of rotational
 HEAT AND PHASE motion.
CHANGES  Understand the concept of density, pressure and buoyancy.
Duration: 12 hours  Use the concept in describing fluid statics, fluid at rest or in
equilibrium and effects of forces in motion.
 Distinguish temperature and heat.
 Understand the principle of thermal expansion.
 Calculate the heat energy transfer from different systems.
 Calculate the phase change from one system to another.
8. ROTATIONAL MOTION
All the motion that we have studied to this point is linear motion. All the objects travelled in
a straight line (or a series of straight lines). Objects do not always move in a straight line, they often
rotate or move in circles. Luckily, many of the concepts you have learned for linear motion have
analogues in rotational motion.

8.1 Angular Displacement, Speed and Acceleration

When describing linear motion, the important quantities are displacement Δx, velocity v
and acceleration a. For rotational motion we use the angular displacement Δθ, angular velocity
ω, and angular acceleration .

For linear motion, the displacement measured the change in linear position of the object.
For rotational motion, we want to measure the net change in angle as the object moves around
the circle. You are used to measuring angles in degrees, but a more natural unit for measuring
angles is the radian. Remember that the circumference of a circle of radius r is s = 2πr.
Rearranging this equation a little gives s/r = 2π. This quantity is dimensionless, but it tells us that the
displacement around any circle is 2π. A displacement around half the circle is π; a quarter circle
is π/2. This forms the basis of the unit of radians. Note that we can convert from degrees to radians
using the relation 180° = π. Angular quantities in physics must be expressed in radians, so be sure to
set your calculators to radian mode when doing rotation problems. We can find the angle
travelled by an object rotating at a distance r through an arc length s through

𝒔
π= (eqn 8.1)
𝒓

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 You might wonder why we bother defining a new type of displacement if we can just
measure the arc length and use our linear displacement equations. Consider a solid object, called
a rigid body, like a rotating compact disc where the entire object rotates as a unit. As the object
rotates, all points on the CD will have the same angular displacement, but the arc length travelled
by points on the disc will vary depending on the radius. Using the notion of angular displacement,
we can easily describe the motion of the entire CD, but using linear displacement makes it dicult
to treat the CD as a single object.

Let's properly dene the angular properties. Suppose an object starts at an angle θi and ends
at an angle θf after some time Δt. The angular displacement is determined by the initial and final
angles,
Δθ = θf - θi (eqn 8.2)

Note that for a rigid body the angular displacement is the same for all points on the object.
The unit for angular displacement is the radian (rad). The average angular velocity of an object is
the angular displacement divided by the time,
𝚫𝜽
ω= (eqn 8.3)
𝚫𝒕

For a rigid body, again, all points will have the same angular velocity. The units of angular
velocity are radian per second (rad = s). We will use the term angular speed when we are not
concerned with the direction, but just using the magnitude of the velocity. A positive angular
speed denotes counterclockwise rotation and a negative angular speed denotes clockwise
rotation. Angular velocity is a vector and the direction is specified by the right-hand rule. Take your
right hand, curl your fingers in the direction of the motion and your thumb will give the direction of
the vector. This rule specifies the rotation axis of the spinning object.

Problem 8.1: Spinning wheel

A wheel has a radius of 2.0m. (a) How far does a point on the circumference travel if the
wheel is rotated through an angle of 30 rad. (b) If this occurs in 2 s, what is the average angular
speed of the wheel?

(a) We are first asked to find the arc length travelled by a point on the edge of the wheel
when the wheel rotates through 30 rad. We use the equation relating the arc length to the
angle,
S = rθ

(b) Angular speed is the angular displacement divided by time,

𝚫𝜽
ω=
𝚫𝒕

9. FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid mechanics is the study of the effects of forces and energy on liquids and gases. Like
other branches of classical mechanics, the subject subdivides into statics (often called
hydrostatics) and dynamics (fluid dynamics, hydrodynamics, or aerodynamics). Hydrostatics is a
comparatively elementary subject with a few classical results of importance but little scope for
further development. Fluid dynamics, in contrast, is a highly developed branch of science that has
been the subject of continuous and expanding research activity since about 1840.

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 A fluid is any substance that flows. Although it is usually a liquid or a gas, a granular solid or
powder can behave as a fluid in certain processes such as fluidization. The study of fluids and fluid
flow is its own branch of mechanics, and an active area of research. Here we’ll present a broad
overview of the basics of fluid mechanics, including both fluid statics and fluid dynamics.

9.1 Density
As an example of a quantity involving mixed units, consider the important quantity called
density. Density is defined to be mass per unit volume:

𝑴
ρ=
𝑽

Here ρ is the density of a body, M is its mass, and V is its volume. The SI units of density are
kg/m3; mass has SI units of kg, and volume has SI units of m3. Density is a measure of how heavy
something is for a fixed volume. For example, iron bar has a high density; styrofoam has a low
density.

Often the density of a material is a useful clue to determining its composition. For example,
suppose you’re handed a gold-colored brick. Is the brick solid gold, or is it just a block of lead
covered with gold paint? Of course, you could just scratch the brick to see if the gold is just painted
on, but suppose you don’t want to damage the brick? One test you might do is determine the
brick’s density. First, determine the volume of the block (either by measuring the brick or by
immersing it in a calibrated beaker of water). Then place the brick on a scale to find its mass. Now
divide the mass by the volume to find the density, and compare with the densities of gold (19.3
g/cm3) and lead (11.3 g/cm3).

Table 1. Density of Common Substances

Density Trivia!

 Anything with a density less than 1 g/cm3 will float on water;

anything with a greater density will sink.

 The chemical element with the lowest density is hydrogen,

with a density of 0.0899 g/cm3 at standard temperature and
pressure. But excluding gases, the lightest element is lithium,
with a density of 0.534 g/cm3. Lithium and potassium are the
only two solid elements light enough to float on water
(although they will also chemically react with water).

9.2 Archimedes’ Principle

One of the simplest principles of fluid mechanics is Archimedes’ principle, which states that
if a body is wholly or partially submerged in a fluid, then it is buoyed upward by a buoyant force B
equal to the weight of the displaced fluid:
B=W
where B is the buoyant force, and W = ρgV is the weight of the displaced fluid: ρ is the density of
fluid displaced, V is the volume of fluid displaced, and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Suppose
we have a body of volume V and density ρb completely submerged in a fluid of density ρf. What

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will happen? There will be two forces acting on the body: the weight of the body, acting
downward (W = -ρbVg), and the buoyant force, acting upward (B = ρfVg). The net force is then
F = B + W which is equal to (ρf - ρb)Vg. This implies that:

• If ρb = ρf (the body is the same density as the fluid), then there is no net force on the body.
• If ρb < ρf (the body is less dense than the fluid), then F > 0 and there is a net upward force on the
body: the body will float up toward the surface.
• If ρb > ρf (the body is denser than the fluid), then F < 0 and there is a net downward force on the
body: the body will sink.

Problem 9.1. A piece of gold metal weighs 2.85g. Using the data in the table above, calculate
the volume of the gold metal assuming that is 100% pure. Will this metal float in water? Explain.

9.2 Pressure
Pressure P is defined to be force divided by the area over which that force is applied:
F
P= (Eqn. 9.2)
A

The pressure P is sometimes called the absolute pressure; this is to distinguish it from the
gauge pressure Pg, which is the difference between absolute pressure and atmospheric pressure
Pa: Pg = P - Pa.

9.3 Fluid Dynamics

Fluid dynamics is a complex subject; in fact it’s probably the most complex of the physical
sciences. Even fairly simple physical systems can have very complicated solutions, and some
subjects, such as fluid turbulence, are a long way from being well understood. The study of fluid
flow is of great importance in fields like chemical engineering and meteorology.

For a fluid, imagine placing a small area A inside the fluid. Then the pressure at the location
of A is the force due to the fluid on one side of A on the fluid on the other side of A, divided by the
area A. The flow of fluids can be characterized by a number of properties:

• Steadiness. Fluid flow may be steady (laminar) or full of irregular eddies (turbulent).
• Compressibility. Fluids generally change density with changing pressure; such fluids are called
compressible. A fluid that does not change density with changing pressure is called incompressible;
this is sometimes used as an approximation for real fluids.
• Viscosity. Real fluids exhibit a kind of internal friction called viscosity. Honey, for example, is a fluid
with a high viscosity.
• Rotation. A fluid is rotational if it exhibits angular momentum about some point (so that a small
paddle inserted at that point would begin to rotate). A fluid with no such points is called irrotational.

In many cases the fluid can be treated as though it had no viscosity, resulting in frictionless
flow. Such a fluid is called an ideal fluid. The flow of an ideal fluid can be incompressible or
compressible; it is neither laminar nor turbulent.

10. Thermal Physics

There is a form of energy that we have to date neglected to consider in our description of
objects. This is primarily because this form of energy is not typically involved in macroscopic motion.

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All objects have thermal energy, a type of energy which we intuitively detect as the object being
hot or cold.

10.1 Temperature
In determining whether an object is hot or cold is rather inexact and we would like to find a
more quantitative way of measuring thermal energy. We say that two objects are in thermal
contact if energy (particularly thermal energy) can be exchanged between them. Two objects
are in thermal equilibrium if they are in thermal contact but there is no net exchange of energy
between them. The Zeroth law of thermodynamics (law of equilibrium) states:

“If objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third object C , then A and
B are in thermal equilibrium with each other”.

This law allows us to use a thermometer to compare the thermal energies of two objects.
Suppose we want to compare the thermal energies of two objects A and B, we could put them
into thermal contact and try to detect the direction of energy flow. Suppose, however, that we
cannot put the two objects into thermal contact directly. We can then use a third object, C, to
compare the thermal energies of A and B. We first put the thermometer into thermal contact with
A until it reaches thermal equilibrium at which point we read the thermometer. We then put the
thermometer into thermal contact with B until it reaches thermal equilibrium and read the
temperature again. If the two readings are the same then A and B are also in thermal equilibrium.
This property allows us to dene temperature - if two objects are in thermal equilibrium, then they
have the same temperature.

The thermometer used to measure thermal energy must have some physical property that
changes with temperature. Most thermometers use the fact that substances (solids, gasses, liquids)
expand as temperature increases. This physical change can usually be measured visually allowing
us to put a number on the temperature. We must first, however, calibrate the thermometer. That
is, we must agree on a measurement scale for temperature. The Celsius temperature scale is
defined by measuring the freezing point of water which is set to be 0°C and the boiling point of
water which is set to be 100°C. The scale most commonly used in the US is the Fahrenheit scale. On
this scale, the freezing point is at 32°F and the boiling point is at 212°F. We can convert between
the two using the formula.

𝟗
°F = °C + 32 (Eqn. 10.1.1)
𝟓

The temperature scale most often used by scientists is the Kelvin scale. One of the problems
with both the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales is that the freezing point and boiling point of water
depend not only on the temperature but on the pressure. Scientists removed the pressure
dependence by observing that the pressure of all substances goes to zero at a temperature of
-273.15°C. This temperature is known as absolute zero and is defined to be 0 K. The second point
used to dene the Kelvin scale is the triple point of water. This is the temperature and pressure at
which water, water vapor, and ice exist in equilibrium. This point occurs at 0.01°C and 4.58 mm of
mercury. This temperature is defined to be 273.16 K. This means that the unit size of both the celsius
and kelvin scales are the same. We convert between the two using,

°C = K – 273.15 (Eqn. 10.1.2)

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Problem 10.1
1. What is 34.65°C in Kelvin and Fahrenheit?

10.2 Thermal Expansion

Most substances increase in volume as their temperature (thermal energy) increases. The
thermal energy of an object is actually a measure of the average velocity of the constituent atoms.
As temperature increases, atoms move faster. In solids and liquids, these atoms cannot actually
leave the substance, so their vibrational motion increases leading to an increased separation
between atoms. Macroscopically, we see this as an increase in volume. If the expansion is small
compared to the object's original size, the expansion in one dimension is approximately linear with
temperature,
0 ΔT (Eqn 10.2)
where ΔL is the change in length (not volume), L0 is the original length of the object, ΔT is the
change in temperature, and is the coefficient of linear expansion for a particular substance.

Problem 10.2
A steel railroad track has a length of 30:0 m when the temperature is 0°C. What is the length on a
hot day when the temperature is 40.0°C?
Note:
*Stress refers to the pressure experienced by the system.
*Coefficient of linear expansion of steel is 1.1 x 10-5 / °C

10.3 Ideal gas law

The effect of temperature change on a gas is somewhat more complex than in solids and
liquids. A gas will expand to fill a particular container no matter what the temperature. What will
change instead as the temperature increases is the pressure. There is usually a fairly complex
relationship between the pressure, volume and temperature of gasses, but for an ideal gas, we
can derive a simple relationship.

An ideal gas is a gas that is maintained at low density or pressure. In an ideal gas, particles
of the gas are so far apart that they rarely interact and so we can assume there are no forces
acting on any of the particles and no collisions take place. Each particle of the gas moves
randomly. Since gases contain large numbers of particles, we usually count the number of particles
in moles where one mole is 6.02 x1023 gas particles. The number 6.021023 is known as Avogadro's
number and is denoted by NA. Avogadro's number was chosen so that the mass in grams of one
mole of an element is numerically the same as the atomic mass units of the element. Carbon 12
has an atomic mass of 12 amu, so one mole of carbon 12 weighs 12 g.

For an ideal gas, the relationship between pressure, volume, and temperature is
PV = nRT (Eqn. 10.3)
where n is the number of moles of the substance, and R is the universal gas constant with a value
of R = 8.31 J/mol•K. The ideal gas law tells us that the pressure is linearly proportional to temperature
and inversely proportional to the volume. As temperature increases, pressure increases. As volume
increases, pressure decreases.

Problem 10.3: Expanding Gas

An ideal gas at 20.0°C and a pressure of 1.50 x 105 Pa is in a container having a volume of 1.0L. (a)
Determine the number of moles of gas in the container. (b) The gas pushes against a piston,
expanding to twice its original volume, while the pressure falls to atmospheric pressure. Find the
final temperature.

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Solution:
(a). We need to be careful that all quantities are in SI units. We will need to convert the temperature
to kelvins: T = 20 + 273 = 293 K. And we need to convert the volume to m 3: V = 1.0 L = 1.0 x 10-3 m3.
Now we can go ahead and plug the values into the gas law, PV = nRT where the unknown is n or
the number of moles.

(b) We can find the new temperature from the gas law, PV = nRT where the unknown is T.

Note: 1 Pa•m3 = 1 J

11. HEAT

So heat is the flow of energy from one thing to another due to a temperature difference.
Since heat is a form of energy, it is measured in joules. In the United States, a more common unit of
heat is the calorie. The calorie is defined as the amount of heat required to change the
temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 Celsius degree.
The energy ratings of foods and fuels are determined by burning them and measuring the
energy released. (Your body "burns" food at a slow rate.) The heat unit used to label foods is
actually the kilocalorie, which is 1000 calories (the heat required to raise the temperature of 1
kilogram of water by 1°C). To distinguish this unit from the smaller calorie, the food unit is sometimes
called a Calorie (written with a capital C). It is important to remember that the calorie and Calorie
are units of energy. These names are historical carryovers from the early idea that heat is an invisible
fluid called caloric. This view persisted into the nineteenth century. We now know that heat is a
form of energy, not a separate substance, so it doesn't need its own separate unit. Someday the
calorie may give way to the joule, an SI unit, as the common unit for measuring heat. (The
relationship between calories and joules is that 1 calorie = 4.184 joules.)

Problem 10.
An iron thumbtack and a big iron bolt are removed from a hot oven. Both are red hot and have
the same temperature. When dropped into identical containers of water of equal temperature,
which one raises the water temperature more?

10.1 Specific Heat Capacity

You've likely noticed that some foods remain hotter much longer than others do. If you
remove a piece of toast from a toaster and pour hot soup into a bowl at the same time, a few
minutes later the soup is still pleasantly warm, while the toast has cooled off considerably. Similarly,
if you wait a short while before eating a piece of hot roast beef and a scoop of mashed potatoes,
both initially at the same temperature, you'll find that the meat has cooled off more than the
potatoes.
Different substances have different capacities for storing internal energy. If we heat a pot
of water on a stove, we might find that it requires 15 minutes to raise it from room temperature to
its boiling temperature. But, if we put an equal mass of iron on the same flame, we would find that
it would rise through the same temperature range in only about 2 minutes. For silver, the time would
be less than a minute.
Different materials require different quantities of heat to raise the temperature of a given
mass of the material by a specified number of degrees. Different materials absorb energy in
different ways. The energy may increase the jiggling motion of molecules, which raises the
temperature; or it may increase the amount of internal vibration or rotation within the molecules
and go into potential energy, which does not raise the temperature. Generally, a combination of
both occurs.
Whereas 1 gram of water requires 1 calorie of energy to raise its temperature 1 Celsius
degree, it takes only about one-eighth as much energy to raise the temperature of a gram of iron
by the same amount. Water absorbs more heat per gram than iron for the same change in
temperature. We say water has a higher specific heat capacity (sometimes simply called specific
heats).

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 We can think of specific heat capacity as thermal inertia. Recall that inertia is a term used
in mechanics to signify the resistance of an object to a change in its state of motion. Specific heat
capacity is a sort of thermal inertia since it signifies the resistance of a substance to a change in its
temperature.

Problem 10.1
Which has a higher specific heat capacity, water or sand?

10.2 High Specific Heat of Water

Water has a much higher capacity for storing energy than all but a few uncommon
materials. A relatively small amount of water absorbs a large quantity of heat for a correspondingly
small temperature rise. Because of this, water is a very useful cooling agent and is used in the
cooling systems of automobiles and other engines. If a liquid of lower specific heat capacity were
used in cooling systems, its temperature would rise higher for a comparable absorption of heat.

Because water has a high

specific heat capacity and is
transparent, it takes more
energy to warm the water
than to warm the land. Solar
energy incident on the land
is concentrated at the
surface, but that hitting the
water extends beneath the
surface and so is "diluted."

Problem 10.2
Why does a piece of watermelon stay cool for a longer time than sandwiches do when both are
removed from a picnic cooler on a hot day?

10.3 Phase Changes

A phase change is when matter changes to from one state (solid, liquid, gas, plasma) to
another (see figure). These changes occur when sufficient energy is supplied to the system (or a
sufficient amount is lost), and also occur when the pressure on the system is changed. The
temperatures and pressures under which these changes happen differ depending on the
chemical and physical properties of the system. The energy associated with these transitions is
called latent heat.

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 Water is a substance that has many interesting properties that influence its phase changes.
Most people learn from an early age that water melts from ice to liquid at 0°C, and boils from a
liquid to a gas at 100°C; but this isn't true in all circumstances. The pressure affects these transition
points, so for water, the boiling point actually decreases as the pressure decreases. Water also has
certain intermolecular forces which govern the temperatures at which these transitions occur. This
difference in boiling point is why the directions for cooking at high altitudes are sometimes slightly
different (like boiling pasta longer).
The relatively large amount of energy needed to change the phase of water is one of the
reasons why water is used to cool power plants. It's also part of why humans sweat in order to stay
cool (through evaporation) and dogs pant. This high latent heat also makes water important for
moderating the climate.
Boiling/condensing and freezing/melting are the most common pairs of phase changes
experienced on Earth. However, there are other phase changes such as sublimation—which is
going straight from a solid to a gas. The figure also shows phase changes that are rare (on Earth,
at least) known as plasma. However, the figure does not show what happens when gases or liquids
get to sufficiently high pressures and temperatures that they can't be distinguished. This phase is
called the supercritical fluid state (which is useful for some modern power plants).

Problem 10.3
Evaporation is a cooling process. So is boiling. At first thought, this may
seem surprising - perhaps because we usually associate boiling with
heating. But heating water is one thing; boiling is another. When lOO°C
water at atmospheric pressure is boiling, its temperature remains
constant. That means it cools as fast as it warms. Since boiling is a
cooling process, would it be a good idea to cool your hot and sticky
hands by dipping them into boiling water?

ASSESSESSMENT TASK

Answer the problems indicated in the module.

REFERENCES

Dobrovolny, H., (2012). Lecture notes for Physics 10154: General Physics I. Department of Physics &
Astronomy, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX

Hewitt, P. G., (2006). Conceptual Physics 10th edition. 300 Beach Drive NE, 1103, St. Petersburg,
FL 33701. ISBN 0-321-31532-4

Simpson, D.G., (2014). General Physics 1: Classical Mechanics. Department of Physical Sciences
and Engineering Prince George’s Community College Largo, Maryland

http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physical_Chemistry/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/Atomic_and_Mol
ecular_Properties/Intermolecular_Forces/Van_der_Waals_Forces