4.
CONCLUSIONS
It is possible to achieve two antenna operating bands from a
simple, single-layer FSS with single-sided printing. In this
approach, both operating bands of the antenna are determined
by the same FSS resonance mode. The concept is demonstrated
by designing, constructing, and testing a prototype antenna that
operates well in two bands 11.4 GHz and 13.4 GHz. It is based
on a slot array FSS resonating at 12.12 GHz. The measured
directivities in the two bands are 16.8 dBi and 15.3 dBi, and the
measured gains are 15.2 dBi and 13.1 dBi, respectively. This
dual-band antenna concept relies on the change of the gradient
of the FSS refection phase versus frequency curve around the
FSS resonance frequency, from a small negative value to a large
positive value. Any simple or complex FSS with this character,
which is readily obtained, can be used to design a dual-band
EBG resonator antenna this way.
REFERENCES
1. P. Feresidis and J.C. Vardaxoglou, High gain planar antenna using
optimized partially reflective surfaces, IEE Proc Microw Antennas
Propag 148 (2001), 345–350.
2. L. Leger, R. Granger, M. Thevenot, T. Monediere, and B. Jecko,
Multifrequency dielectric EBG antenna, Microw Opt Tech Lett 40
(2004), 420–423.
3. D.H. Lee, Y.J. Lee, J. Yeo, R. Mittra, and W.S. Park, Design of
novel thin frequency selective surface superstrates for dual-band di-
rectivity enhancement, IET Microw Antennas Propag 1 (2007),
248–254.
4. E. Rodes, M. Diblanc, E. Arnaud, T. Monédière, and B. Jecko,
Dual-band EBG resonator antenna using a single-layer FSS, IEEE
Antennas Wireless Propag Lett 6 (2007), 368–371.
5. A. Pirhadi, M. Hakkak, F. Keshmiri, and R.K. Baee, Design of
compact dual band high directive electromagnetic bandgap (EBG)
resonator antenna using artificial magnetic conductor, IEEE Trans
Antenna Propag 55 (2007), 1682–1690.
6. Y. Ge, K.P. Esselle, and Y. Hao, Design of low-profile high-gain
EBG resonator antennas using a genetic algorithm, IEEE Antennas
Wireless Propag Lett 6 (2007), 480–483.
7. Y. Ge, K.P. Esselle, and T.S. Bird, Designing a partially reflective
surface with increasing reflection phase for wideband EBG resona-
tor antennas, IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society (AP-S) inter-
national symposium, North Charleston, SC, June 1–5, 2009.
8. Y. Ge, K.P. Esselle, and T.S. Bird, A method to design dual-band,
high-directivity EBG resonator antennas using single-resonant, sin-
gle-layer partially reflective surfaces, Prog Electromagn Res C 13
(2010), 245–257.
V
C 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
SECOND ITERATION FRACTAL KOCH
PLANAR LOG PERIODIC ANTENNA
DESIGN
M. K. A. Rahim, M. N. A. Karim, F. Zubir, O. Ayop,
and N. A. Samsuri
Department of Radio Communication Engineering, Faculty of
Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM
Skudai, Johor, Malaysia; Corresponding author:
mkamal@fke.utm.my
Received 19 October 2010
ABSTRACT: In this article, the design of log periodic fractal Koch
antenna using the second iteration has been developed for ultra high
frequency band applications. The ability to reduce the size as
maintaining the performances of the antenna such as input return loss
DOI 10.1002/mop MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL TECHNOLOGY LETTERS / Vol. 53, No. 8, August 2011
and radiation patterns brings fractal Koch and becomes enticing among
researchers. The design of the log periodic fractal Koch antenna has
been elaborated in this article. The computer simulation technology
software has been used to analyze the performances of the designed
antenna. This has been compared between simulation and measurement.
The results show that this antenna has been reduced by up to 27% in
size from the normal log periodic planar dipole antenna. The
performance of the antenna has been compared in terms of return
losses, bandwidths, and radiation patterns. V
C 2011 Wiley Periodicals,
Inc. Microwave Opt Technol Lett 53:1869–1875, 2011; View this article
online at wileyonlinelibrary.com. DOI 10.1002/mop.26111
Key words: fractal antenna; log periodic antenna; wideband antenna;
planar antenna
1. INTRODUCTION
Antenna design has become one of the most promising fields in
wireless communication. Historically, when radiofrequency was
discussed simple antenna designs were used as a device to trans-
mit electrical energy or radio waves through the air in all direc-
tions. This innovative way of communication to replace wired
technology to wireless technology was first introduced by Galileo
Marconi when he successfully initiated the first wireless telegraph
transmission in 1895 [1]. Wireless technology has since expanded
rapidly, not only for commercial but also for military purposes.
In modern telecommunication systems, the requirement for
antennas with wide bandwidth and smaller dimensions than con-
ventional has become popular. Therefore, in recent years, sev-
eral fractal geometries have been introduced for antenna applica-
tions with varying degrees of success for improving antenna
characteristics [2, 3]. Some of these geometries have been par-
ticularly useful in reducing the size of the antenna, whereas
other designs aim at incorporating multiband characteristics. A
few works have been made in designing the fractal properties
for the antennas [4, 5].
Several antenna configurations based on fractal geometries
have been reported in recent years [6, 7]. These are low profile
antennas with moderate gain and can be made operative at mul-
tiple frequency bands and are multifunctional. Fractal shape
antennas have already been proven to have unique characteris-
tics that, therefore, link to the geometrical properties of the frac-
tal. Fractals were first defined by Benoit Mandelbrot in 1975 as
a way of classifying structures whose dimensions were not
whole numbers [8].
There are several types that have been proved by other
researchers and some of these fractal types can be used to
reduce the antenna size [9]. Some papers discuss size reduction
of space filling antenna using Hilbert curve technique compared
with other methods, such as meander line and zig zag antenna
[10]. These configurations can reduce the antenna size further,
especially at lower frequency bands. Moreover, Minkowski frac-
tal patch antenna also has been proven to reduce the antenna
size by 47% as maintaining the same resonant frequency [11].
This reduction in size indirectly reduces the mutual coupling
between each element for array configuration antenna [12, 13].
Koch curves are a good example of self-similar, space-filling
fractals, which have been used to develop wideband/multiband
and/or miniaturized antennas. The features of the Koch geome-
try can overcome some of the limitations of small antennas [14–
16]. Koch curves are also used in radio frequency identification
(RFID) applications, ultra high frequency (UHF) bands, and
broadcasting applications [17–19]. The fractal antenna is also
used in mobile handsets [20]. Fractal Koch geometry has been
chosen in this article due to its capabilities to reduce the size of
1869
 Figure 1 0th and 2nd iteration Koch antennas

the elements by applying different numbers of iteration such as (l), width (w), and distance (d) of the antenna can be related to
0th and 2nd iteration to investigate the performances of the the scaling factor, s as shown in the Eq. (1) [21].
antennas, especially at the UHF band applications. These design
methodology of these antennas using a log periodic technique is ln wn dn
s¼ ¼ ¼ (1)
discussed and the detailed results of the proposed antenna are lnþ1 wnþ1 dnþ1
presented.
From this technique, the resonant frequencies of the antenna can
2. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS be combined to obtain wider.
Table 1 shows the number of elements for designed anten-
The designs of 2nd iteration fractal Koch antenna are based on
nas 0th and 2nd iteration, which cover the DTV frequency
the log periodic concept, which has been described in many
range. As can be seen from Table 1, the longest element for
antenna books [21]. Computer simulation technology (CST)
the 0th iteration antenna is 138 mm and for the 2nd iteration
software has been used as a tool to analyze the performances of
with 45 degree of flare angle the length is reduced to 100
the antenna [22]. Thus, several factors must be considered in the
mm. This shows that by applying the fractal Koch technique,
design process such as operating frequency, bandwidth, gain,
the size of the antenna can be reduced. The parameters that
and polarization. These factors play an important role in the
influence size reduction for this type of antenna are angle of
design of the antenna. The antenna is designed to cover the fre-
flares and the number of iterations. The increment on both the
quency range from 0.48 to 0.84 GHz that can be operated as a
number of iterations and flare angles reduces the size of the
TV antenna. The 0th and 2nd iteration fractal Koch antenna for
antenna. However, there is a ‘‘cut off value’’ or limit for both
DTV application using a log periodic technique has been
of these parameters and it has some significant effect on the
designed, analyzed, and the performances are discussed in this
performance of the antenna, such as frequency shift and mu-
section. Figure 1 shows the schematic of the designed antennas
tual coupling effects among the elements.
for both 0th and 2nd iteration antennas.
Additionally, the length of the 0th iteration antenna is 280
The log periodic antenna was originally designed at the Uni-
mm, whereas for the 2nd iteration antenna the length is about
versity of Illinois in the USA in 1955. Antenna exists in a num-
204 mm. This shows that size reduction of the 2nd iteration
ber of forms. The most common is the log periodic dipole array.
antenna is about 27% with a 45-degree flare angle. The per-
This consists of a number of dipole elements. One of the most
centage of the size reduction for both iterations is shown in
important parameters in this design is the scaling factor, which
Table 2.
is closely related to the log periodic. Dimensions such as length

3. SIMULATION AND MEASUREMENT RESULTS

TABLE 1 Dimension of Fractal Koch Antenna To investigate the validity of the simulations both 0th and 2nd
Dimension of Fractal Koch Antenna (0th and 2nd iteration)
iteration, fractal Koch has been fabricated using Fire Retardant-
4 laminated board. This fabrication process has been done using
Length Element (ln) photolithography and wet etching technique. This feeding of the
Distance
mm antennas has been excited at the smaller elements to ensure that
Width Between
Number of 0th 2nd Element Element
Element Iteration Iteration (wn) (mm) (dn) (mm)
1 61.0 44 2.2 10.0 TABLE 2 Comparison of Size Reduction of UHF Second
2 71.5 51 2.8 12.5 Iteration Fractal Koch Antenna
3 84.5 61 3.0 16.6
Antenna Type Dimension (l
W
t) mm Size Reduction (%)
4 99.5 72 3.6 19.5
5 117.5 85 4.3 24.4 0th Iteration 280
160
1.6 –
6 138.5 100 5.0 30.5 2nd Iteration 204
160
1.6 27%

1870 MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL TECHNOLOGY LETTERS / Vol. 53, No. 8, August 2011 DOI 10.1002/mop
 Figure 2 Fabricated antennas: (a) 0th iteration and (b) 2nd iteration

Figure 3 Simulated and measured input return loss for 0th and 2nd iteration fractal Koch antenna: (a) simulated and (b) measured.

Figure 4 Comparison between simulated and measured return loss UHF fractal Koch antennas: (a) 0th iteration and (b) 2nd iteration

DOI 10.1002/mop MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL TECHNOLOGY LETTERS / Vol. 53, No. 8, August 2011 1871
 Figure 5 Simulated 3D radiation pattern for 0th iteration fractal Koch antenna at 0.7 GHz and 0.8 GHz
the antenna is radiated in end fire radiation as simulated. Figures
2(a) and 2(b) show the fabricated 0th and 2nd iteration antennas.
The measurement process for the input return loss, radiation pat-
terns, and gain has been performed using Agilent network ana-
lyzer (8720ES), spectrum analyzer, Hittite signal generator, and
antenna measurement system. The measurement results are
shown in the next section.
3.1. Input Return Loss
Figure 3 shows the simulated and measured results for both the
0th and 2nd iteration fractal Koch antennas. The simulated
return losses for the 0th and the 2nd iterations are shown in Fig-
ure 3(a).The return loss for 0th iteration antenna resonates from
480 up to 840 MHz with respect to 10 dB. Also the return
loss for the 2nd iteration antenna gives good agreement with the
0th iteration antenna. The simulated bandwidth for both anten-
nas is 79%. The simulated return loss of the 0th iteration
antenna is shifted up to 8 dB but can still produce a good per-
formance because at this level only 15% of the power will be
reflected back. In some cases, the return loss can be referred at
6 dB, which means that 25% of the power will be reflected
back to the system.
Figure 3(b) shows the measured return loss for 0th and 2nd
iteration antennas. From the graph, the 2nd iteration antenna is
slightly shifted to the upper frequency. However, the resonant
frequency is still under the operating region. The calculated
bandwidth from the measured return loss is around 67% (fh ¼
Figure 6 Simulated 3D radiation pattern for 2nd iteration fractal Koch antenna at 0.7 GHz and 0.8 GHz
1872 MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL TECHNOLOGY LETTERS / Vol. 53, No. 8, August 2011
0.85 GHz, fl ¼ 0.44 GHz). The simulated bandwidth is wider
than the measured bandwidth.
Comparisons for each simulated and measured input return
loss results for both antennas are shown in Figure 4. As can be
seen, the simulated and measured, for 0th iteration fractal Koch
antenna exhibit similar patterns. This also occurs at the 2nd iter-
ation antenna where the measured data are similar to the simu-
lated results as shown in Figure 4(b). These correlations show
that the simulated result is sufficient enough for the analysis. It
can also be seen that the simulator bring much benefits to the
antenna designer because it helps him to analyze before pro-
ceeding to the fabrication process.
3.2. Analysis of Radiation Patterns for Fractal Koch Antennas
The simulated 3D radiation patterns for 0th iteration and 2nd
iteration fractal Koch antenna were conducted using CST simu-
lation tools and presented in Figures 5 and 6. These figures
show that the radiation patterns for both design antennas radi-
ated toward the smaller elements are indicated by the black
color. Figures 5(a) and 5(b) show the strength of the radiated
field at 0.7 GHz and 0.8 GHz for 0th iteration antenna,
respectively.
To plot the simulated and measured radiation patterns on the
same graph, both sets of data have been normalized. The radia-
tion patterns for the fabricated antennas have been measured in
an anechoic chamber at two difference frequencies, 0.7 GHz
and 0.8 GHz for both E-plane and H-plane (co-polar and cross-
DOI 10.1002/mop
Figure 7 Simulated and measured radiation patterns for 0th iteration fractal Koch antenna: (a) E-plane at 0.7 GHz, (b) H-plane at 0.7 GHz, (c) E-plane
at 0.8 GHz, and (d) H-plane at 0.8 GHz. [Color figure can be viewed in the online issue, which is available at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

polar). The comparison for simulated and measured radiations
patterns for both antennas are shown in Figures 7 and 8. The E-
co and H-co for both simulated and measured patterns have
been plotted and give a similar pattern at 0.7 GHz, as depicted
in Figures 7(a) and 7(b). However, there is a small difference at
the lower part for the measured E-co. This may be due to the
inaccuracy of the measurement process or some reflection during
the measurement due to the cable in the chamber itself. How-
ever, this is a normal situation in any measurement setup, and
the radiation pattern of the antennas is comparable with the
simulated result. Figures 7(c) and 7(d) show the comparison for
E-co and H-co polar at frequency 0.8 GHz. As can be seen,
both graphs also exhibit similar patterns with the simulated
result.
The comparison between simulated and measured radiation
patterns for 2nd iteration antenna at 0.7 GHz and 0.8 GHz are
depicted in Figure 8. The E-co and H-co polar at a frequency of
0.7 GHz are shown in Figures 8(a) and 8(b). It is shown that the
simulated and measured radiation patterns give a very similar
pattern, but the measured E-co is bigger than the simulated. At
a frequency of 0.8 GHz, a similar pattern to the simulated result
is obtained. As a conclusion, the performances of the antennas
are comparable with those computed by simulation and the gain
of the antenna is between 4 and 6 dB.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The 0th and the 2nd iteration of the Koch fractal antennas have
been designed, simulated, fabricated, and the performances have
been analyzed. Simulated results such as input return loss and
radiation patterns have been elaborated in this article. The
antenna gives similar patterns for measured results as compared
with the simulated for input return loss and radiation patterns.
As a conclusion, the comparison between 0th and 2nd iteration

DOI 10.1002/mop MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL TECHNOLOGY LETTERS / Vol. 53, No. 8, August 2011 1873
Figure 8 Simulated and measured radiation patterns for 2nd iteration fractal Koch antenna: (a) E-plane at 0.7 GHz, (b) H-plane at 0.7 GHz, (c) E-
plane at 0.8 GHz, and (d) H-plane at 0.8 GHz. [Color figure can be viewed in the online issue, which is available at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

Koch fractal antenna shows that the antenna size reduces by
27% in size with minimal degradation of the antenna’s perform-
ance and both designs show good agreements with simulated
and measured results.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank the Ministry of Science, Technology and Inno-
vation (MOSTI), the Research Management Centre (RMC), the Ra-
dio Communication Engineering Department (RaCED), and the
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) for the support of the
research works.
REFERENCES
1. K.J. Vinoy, Fractal shape antenna elements for wide band and
multi band wireless applications, PhD Thesis, The Pennsylvania
State University, PA, August (2002).
2. N. Cohen, Fractal antenna applications in wireless telecommunica-
tions, In: Professional Program Proceedings of Electronics Indus-
tries Forum of New England, IEEE, 1997, pp. 43–49.
3. D.H. Werner and S. Gangul, An overview of fractal antenna engi-
neering research, IEEE Antennas Propag Mag 45 (2003).
4. A. Kordzadeh and F.H. Kashani, A new reduced size microstrip
patch antenna with fractal shaped defects, Prog Electromagn Res B
11 (2009), 29–37.
5. B. Mirzapour and H.R. Hassani, Size reduction and bandwidth
enhancement of snowflake fractal antenna, IET Microwaves Anten-
nas Propag (2008), 180–187.
6. C. Puente-Baliarda, J. Romeu, R. Pous, J. Ramis, and A. Hijazo,
Small but long Koch fractal monopole, Electron Lett 34 (1998),
9–10.
7. L.K. Kim, J.G. Yook, and H.K. Park, Fractal shape small size
microstrip patch antenna, Microwave Opt Technol Lett 34 (2002).
8. J.P. Gianvittorio and Y. Rahmat-Samii, Fractal antenna: a novel
antenna miniaturization technique, and applications, IEEE Antenna
Propag Mag 44 (2002).

1874 MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL TECHNOLOGY LETTERS / Vol. 53, No. 8, August 2011 DOI 10.1002/mop
 9. J. Gianvittorio, Fractal antenna: design, characterization, and appli-
cation, Master Thesis, University of California, 2000.
10. K.J. Vinoy, K.A. Jose, V.K. Varadan, and V.V. Varadan, Hilbert
curve fractal antenna: a small resonant antenna for VHF/UHF
applications, Microwave Optical Technol Lett 29 (2001).
11. L.X. Zheng, X.X. Ming, L.S. Li, and Z. Xiang, Analysis of patch
antenna based on the Minkowski fractal, In: International Conference
on Microwave and Milimeterwave Technology Proceeding, 2004.
12. C. Puente, J. Romeu, R. Bartoleme, and R. Pous, Fractal multiband
antenna based on Sierpinski gasket, Electron Lett 32 (1996), 1–2.
13. C. Puente-Baliarda, J. Romeu, R. Pous, and A. Cardama, On the
behavior of the Sierpinski multiband fractal antenna, IEEE Trans
Antenna Propag 46 (1998), 517–524.
14. N. Cohen, Fractal antenna applications in wireless telecommunica-
tions, In: Professional Program Proceedings of Electronics Indus-
tries Forum of New England, 1997, pp. 43–49.
15. C. Puente-Baliarda, J. Romeu, R. Pous, J. Ramis, and A. Hijazo, Small
but long Koch Fractal monopole, Electron Lett 34 (1998), 9–10.
16. P. Johnson, Fractal antenna design for RFID application, Mid-Swe-
den University, Department of Information Technology and Media,
Electronic Design Division, 2006.
17. S.H. Zainud-Deen, H.A. Malhat, and K.H. Awadalla, Fractal
antenna for passive UHF RFID, Prog Electromagn Res B 16
(2009), 209–228.
18. M.N.A. Karim, M.K.A. Rahim, and T. Masri, Fractal Koch dipole
antenna for UHF band application, Microwave Opt Technol Lett
51 (2009), 2612–2614.
19. M.N.A. Karim, M.K.A. Rahim, H.A. Majid, M. Abu, O. Ayop, and
F. Zubir, Log periodic fractal Koch antenna for UHF band applica-
tions, Prog Electromagn Res 100 (2010), 201–218.
20. N.A. Saidatul, A.A.H. Azremi, R.B. Ahmad, P.J. Soh, and F.
Malek, Multiband fractal planar inverted F antenna (F-PIFA) for
mobile phone application, Prog Electromagn Res B 14 (2009),
127–148.
21. C.A. Balanis, Antenna theory: analysis and design, 2nd ed., Wiley,
New York, 1997.
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V
C 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
AN ANALYTICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF
TRANSMISSION THROUGH A BUILDING
FOR DETERMINISTIC PROPAGATION
MODELING
Sanjay Soni and Amitabha Bhattacharya
Department of Electronics and Electrical Communication
Engineering, IIT Kharagpur, West Bengal, India; Corresponding
author: sanjoo_ksoni@yahoo.co.uk
Received 26 October 2010
ABSTRACT: An accurate deterministic model for propagation through
buildings is presented. The proposed model gives significant
improvement over earlier predicted results. The application of the
proposed model is considered for a single building scenario and urban
microcellular scenario to demonstrate its accuracy. VC 2011 Wiley
Periodicals, Inc. Microwave Opt Technol Lett 53:1875–1879, 2011; View
this article online at wileyonlinelibrary.com. DOI 10.1002/mop.26152
Key words: radio propagation; transmission; microcellular scenario;
path loss; ray tracing
1. INTRODUCTION
The accurate planning of the cellular network requires complete
knowledge of the propagation conditions and the losses in the
DOI 10.1002/mop MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL TECHNOLOGY LETTERS / Vol. 53, No. 8, August 2011
wireless channel. In general, deterministic propagation models
consider reflections from the surface of the building and diffrac-
tions from the edge as two major physical phenomenons to com-
pute the field at the mobile station. High-frequency asymptotic
solution such as uniform theory of diffraction (UTD) [1] along
with ray tracing is the most commonly used model to obtain
field prediction at the receiver (Rx).
In certain scenario, physical phenomenon like reflection and
diffraction alone are not enough to accurately model the chan-
nel. Earlier, extensive measurement in the area of microcellular
environment revealed that there is significant gap between field
prediction and the measurement even though the model included
multiple reflections and diffractions [2, 3]. Additional measure-
ment on a high-resolution angle-of-arrival estimation showed
that there is a significant portion of energy that actually propa-
gates through the building [4]. The field propagating through the
buildings can significantly contribute to the total field at the re-
ceiver in the deep shadow regions where the rays propagating
through reflections and diffractions are rather weak.
A number of studies on propagation loss in the buildings are
available in literature [5–7]. In [5], an empirical formulation is
presented based on the measurement considering 10 medium
sized buildings. The results showed that penetration loss
decreases with increase in the frequency. In [6], various meas-
urements were conducted under different scenario such as when
the receiver (Rx) is inside the building and the receiver is out-
side the building and empirical formulations were presented for
those kinds of scenarios.
In [7], a quasi 2D model is presented for propagation of ra-
dio waves through buildings. Here, an empirical effective propa-
gation coefficient was proposed to take into account the scatter-
ing inside the building in the transmission model. The wall
parameters such as permittivity and conductivity were assumed
to be 5 and 0, respectively. Good agreement between predictions
and measurements was obtained. Addition of scattering from
trees gave better agreement between the measured and predicted
results. However, there remained considerable differences near
street intersections. The mean and standard deviation error
between measurements and predictions were reported to be 2.1
dB and 5.9 dB, respectively.
In this article, the urban scenario of Bern city [7] is reconsid-
ered with a more analytical formulation compared with the ear-
lier empirical formulation using available data to predict path
loss in Rodtmatt St. Here, average values of wall width and
wall permittivity as well as conductivity and building height are
assumed to characterize the propagation through buildings as
well as rooftop diffraction. The mean and standard deviation
error between available measurements and present predictions
are 0.4 dB and 0.51 dB, respectively.
2. PROPAGATION ENVIRONMENT
The scheme of the propagation environment considered in this
work is shown in Figure 1. The figure shows the three-dimen-
sional view of a building scenario where a receiver is located in
the deep shadow of the building. Transmitter (Tx) is at the
height below the building height. Building material is assumed
to be lossy dielectric with finite conductivity and permittivity. In
this scenario, wave propagation from the transmitter to the re-
ceiver is considered by different physical phenomenon such as
edge diffraction, transmission-through- building, rooftop diffrac-
tion, and scattering from a tree. Total field at the receiver ‘‘P’’
is given as coherent addition of diffracted, transmitted, rooftop-
diffracted, and tree-scattered ray components:
1875