International Journal of

Environmental Research
and Public Health

Article
Worry and Permissive Parenting in Association with
the Development of Internet Addiction in Children
Barbara Chuen Yee Lo 1, *, Romance Nok Man Lai 1 , Ting Kin Ng 2 and Haobi Wang 2
1 Department of Applied Psychology, Lingnan University, New Territories 100020, Hong Kong, China;
nokmanlai@ln.hk
2 Wofoo Joseph Lee Consulting and Counseling Psychology Research Centre, Lingnan University, Tuen Mun,
New Territories 100020, Hong Kong, China; ngtingkin@gmail.com (T.K.N.); haobiwang@ln.edu.hk (H.W.)
* Correspondence: barbaralo@ln.edu.hk




Received: 18 September 2020; Accepted: 17 October 2020; Published: 22 October 2020


Abstract: The Internet has experienced a rapid increase in use globally. Specifically, more than 90%
of Hong Kong’s citizens use the Internet, and 70% of children in the age group of 6–17 years have
daily access to it. However, internet addiction could pose serious social and health issues. Therefore,
conducting research to investigate its causes and risk factors is fundamental. The current study
examined the relationship between worry and Internet addiction among children in Hong Kong
and investigated the moderating effect of the permissive parenting style on such a relationship.
The participants consisted of 227 fourth- and fifth-grade students (120 males, 52.9%) with a mean age
of 9.55 (standard deviation (SD) = 0.58) in Hong Kong. Each participant was asked to complete the
questionnaires, including the Internet Addiction Test for Internet addiction, the Penn State Worry
Questionnaire for Children for worry, and the Parental Authority Questionnaire for the permissive
parenting style. The results indicated that worry was related to greater Internet addiction among
children. Furthermore, there was a moderating effect of the permissive parenting style such that
the positive association between worry and Internet addiction was stronger when the permissive
parenting style was higher. Our findings imply that parenting styles are influential in the prevention
of Internet addiction.

Keywords: internet addiction; internet use; permissive parenting style; worry

1. Introduction

1.1. Internet Use among Children

With growing accessibility and need, the use of the Internet has increased rapidly over the past
few decades [1]. With rapid and advanced development in information technology, more than 90% of
the citizens in Hong Kong use the Internet [2], and 70% of children (aged 6 to 17 years) have daily
access to it [3]. These statistics imply that Internet use has become essential specifically among the
adolescent population. The recent COVID-19 pandemic and the preventive measures (e.g., suspensions
of face-to-face classes, lockdown of shops and restaurants) has led to increased use of the Internet in
the daily lives of children [4]. Therefore, Internet addiction has become an increasingly important
public health issue worldwide.

1.2. Negative Impacts of Internet Addiction

Undoubtedly, the Internet provides various benefits to people’s daily lives. For example,
the Internet is a tool for people to obtain information and knowledge [5]. Moreover, online social
interactions might help to build social relationships [6]. However, Internet addiction could pose

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Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 7722 2 of 12

serious social and health issues, including related negative influences on one’s physical health, mental
health, and social development [7,8]. According to the World Health Organization [9], Internet
addiction is characterized by excessive or poorly controlled preoccupations, urges, or behaviors
regarding internet use that lead to impairments or distress. This includes problematic Internet use,
virtual addiction, pathological Internet use, pathological computer use, and compulsive Internet use.
Empirical evidence has suggested an association between excessive use of the Internet and physical
health problems such as obesity, vision problems, musculoskeletal problems, hearing impairments,
and sleep deprivation [10–14]. Furthermore, more than four hours per day of screen-based activities
(including the use of the Internet) could result in a higher risk of having somatic symptoms such
as dizziness, headaches, tremors, or stomach aches [15]. Additionally, the authors pointed out that
overuse of the Internet could cause numerous psychological distress symptoms, including feeling
sad or hopeless [15]. Internet addiction may also lead to other poor mental health outcomes such
as problematic substance use and suicidal ideation [5]. In sum, Internet addiction negatively affects
addicts’ lives in numerous ways. Therefore, research on the risk factors for Internet addiction is of
great importance.

1.3. Internet Addiction and Worry

Research on Internet addiction has demonstrated that worry is closely associated with Internet
addiction and serves as a risk factor for Internet addiction [16]. Worry refers to an attempt to
mentally problem-solve an issue whose outlook is uncertain and focuses on the possibility of negative
outcomes [17]. Thus, worry is closely related to fear. Furthermore, the definition of worry has
extended to an anxious apprehension for future negative events [18], which involves “a predominance
of negatively valence verbal thought activity” and minimal levels of imagery [19]. Scholars have
suggested that the experience of worry results from cognitive processes involved in anxiety, which
function to maintain a great degree of vigilance for threat and danger [20]. Synchronously, worry is also
a dominant feature of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), and it could be reflected by apprehensive
expectations regarding concerns in real-life (e.g., relations, finances, work, and school) [18,21].
Research has documented that negative emotions such as anxiety are related to addictive
behaviors [22]. People who worry might adopt addictive behaviors, such as gambling, smoking and
overuse of alcohol [23,24] as compensatory coping strategies to deal with negative emotions [23]
or enhancing positive emotions [22]. Similarly, it is plausible that people who worry, who are
characterized by having a relatively high intolerance for uncertainty, would suffer from the addictive
use of smartphones and the Internet. There are several possible reasons for this. First, people who worry
may constantly focus on uncertainties in their daily lives. From their perspective, the Internet could
help them by providing various information resources, such as information surrounding health-related
issues [25–32]. As a result, people with a high level of worry may excessively use the Internet to
seek information and answers regarding their concerns [33]. People who worry usually experience
ruminations and repetitive negative thinking when they face difficulties in life [16]. Since these
obsessive thoughts are unpleasant experiences, they would like to find a way to stop them. Using
smartphones or the Internet could be one of the strategies that help them distract or escape from
negative feelings [34]. Therefore, when they experience challenges in life and suffer from many
negative emotions, they would cope with them through compulsive Internet use. Briefly, people prone
to worrying and those with a high intolerance of uncertainty would use the Internet more, and more
easily suffer from Internet addiction.

1.4. The Role of Parents in Child Psychopathology and Internet Addiction

To prevent Internet addiction and the subsequent development of other psychopathologies among
children, it is crucial to explore how parents influence children’s development, and how they can
be helpful in risk identification in this context [35–37]. Many studies have indicated that parenting
styles have important influences on child psychopathology and youth Internet dependency [35,38–42].
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 7722 3 of 12

According to Buri [43] and Baumrind [44], parenting styles can be understood in terms of two
dimensions, including parental demandingness or control and parental responsiveness or warmth.
Parental demandingness refers to the extent to which a parent controls and monitors the child,
whereas parental responsiveness refers to the extent to which a parent shows affective warmth,
acceptance, nurturance and support to the child [43–45]. The two dimensions can be combined
to form four parenting styles: (1) authoritative (high responsiveness and high demandingness),
(2) authoritarian (low responsiveness and high demandingness), (3) permissive (high responsiveness
and low demandingness), and (4) neglectful (low responsiveness and low demandingness).
Parenting styles that provide either no autonomy or unlimited autonomy for children would
negatively influence children’s mental health. For example, children with controlling parents feel that
they are not able to engage with the environment efficiently and independently. These children tend to
perceive little control over their lives because their controlling parents typically do not involve them in
decision making [46]. Hence, these children develop a low level of self-confidence, and cannot use
effective emotional coping skills, leading to anxiety or other psychopathologies [44,47,48]. Besides,
permissive parenting without being domineering would also result in childhood anxiety since there is
insufficient guidance and direction for children to learn how to effectively manage their emotions [44,47].
Moreover, parenting styles are closely related to problematic behaviors among children, such as
Internet addiction [49,50]. Recent research has showed that adolescents’ addictive Internet use is
positively predicted by the permissive parenting style and negatively predicted by the authoritative
parenting style [49,51]. It is argued that children with authoritative parents who have sufficient parental
behavioral control will have a lower level of Internet addiction [39]. In contrast, due to a lack of
expectations and monitoring, the permissive parenting style might increase the probability of Internet
addiction among children [52]. Additionally, it is more likely that children who received permissive
parenting will experience identity confusion, thereby enhancing the chance of Internet addiction [51].
These results reveal the importance of parenting styles on children’s addictive use of the Internet.

1.5. Permissive Parenting Style as a Potential Moderator

Although past research has demonstrated the significant role of parenting styles in children’s
mental development, whether parenting styles can moderate the detrimental effect of worry on Internet
addiction have not been well investigated [53,54]. A study found that the permissive parenting style
moderated the relationship between sensation seeking and problematic internet use in adolescents [55],
suggesting that it is possible for the permissive parenting style to moderate the effects of child
characteristics on internet addiction.
Previous research has suggested that people who are prone to worrying are likely to develop
problematic Internet use [34,56,57]. However, there are different levels of Internet use and addiction.
Some children who worry use the Internet excessively but still have certain controls, while others
with Internet addiction encounter numerous negative consequences in their daily lives [58]. There is a
possibility that a maladaptive parenting style might be a moderator in this context that exacerbates the
harmful effect of worry on Internet addiction.
As stated earlier, worrying children seek information to resolve uncertainty on the Internet,
and use it as a tool to overcome negative thoughts. Under these circumstances, if parents provide
more monitoring, children’s worry and negative emotions may not result in Internet addiction [50].
Conversely, if parents do not provide guidance and impose restraints, children’s worries will continue
to recur, and they will have difficulties stopping anxiety-provoking compulsions and balancing the
time spent on the Internet [50]. Additionally, the permissive parenting style provides too much
freedom and too little advice and control on children, resulting in more self-doubts in children. This,
in turn, makes them prone to becoming dependent on others, incapable of controlling their impulses,
and unable to face complicated situations with confidence [59,60]. A vicious cycle may develop,
in which anxious children seek assistance, reassurance, and support from surfing the Internet, finally
resulting in compulsive Internet use [50].
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In view of this, the present research aims to investigate the moderating effect of the permissive
In view of this, the present research aims to investigate the moderating effect of the permissive
parenting style on the relationship between worry and Internet addiction among children. Based on
parenting style on the relationship between worry and Internet addiction among children. Based on the
the above theoretical framework and past studies [61], it is feasible that the permissive parenting style
above theoretical framework and past studies [61], it is feasible that the permissive parenting style could
could moderate the relationship between children’s vulnerable traits and problematic behavioral
moderate the relationship between children’s vulnerable traits and problematic behavioral outcomes.
outcomes. Specifically, for this study, it is hypothesized that the permissive parenting style will
Specifically, for this study, it is hypothesized that the permissive parenting style will exacerbate the
exacerbate the detrimental effect of worry on Internet addiction in children (Figure 1). Fourth- and
detrimental effect of worry on Internet addiction in children (Figure 1). Fourth- and fifth-grade primary
fifth-grade primary school students in Hong Kong were investigated in this research with a cross-
school students in Hong Kong were investigated in this research with a cross-sectional design.
sectional design.

Figure 1. Hypothesized moderating effect of the permissive parenting style on the relationships
Figure 1. Hypothesized moderating effect of the permissive parenting style on the relationships
between worry and Internet addiction.
between worry and Internet addiction.
2. Methodology
2. Methodology
2.1. Participants and Procedures
2.1. Participants and Procedures
A total of 227 fourth- and fifth-grade children were recruited from primary schools in Hong
Kong.AThere
total of 227120
were fourth-
malesand fifth-grade
(52.9%) and 107 children
femaleswere recruited
(47.1%). Theirfrom primary
age ranged schools
from in years
8 to 12 Hong
Kong. (M)
(mean There werestandard
= 9.55, 120 males (52.9%) (SD)
deviation and 107 females
= 0.58). The(47.1%).
researchTheir age ranged
purpose was firstfrom 8 to 12toyears
explained the
(mean (M)
school, and =the
9.55, standardasked
researchers deviation (SD) = 0.58).
for approval The research
to conduct purpose
the study. was first explained
The questionnaires wereto the
then
school,
sent andschool
to the the researchers asked for
and distributed to approval
students by to conduct
teachers.theParticipation
study. The questionnaires
was voluntary,were and then
the
sent to the were
participants schoolkeptand distributedThe
anonymous. to students by teachers.
process took 20 min to Participation was voluntary,
complete, in which and the
the questionnaires
participants
were wereinkept
distributed anonymous.
the class under the The process took
supervision 20 min to
of trained complete,
teachers. Allinquestionnaires
which the questionnaires
are written
were
in distributed
Chinese; hence,inthetheparticipants
class underwerethe supervision
required to ofbetrained
capableteachers.
of readingAlland
questionnaires
understanding are related
written
in Chinese;
Chinese hence,
words. Thethecompleted
participants were requiredwere
questionnaires to becollected
capable of byreading and understanding
the researchers at the end related
of the
Chinese words.
experimental The completed
session. This studyquestionnaires
received ethical were collected
approval frombythe
theOffice
researchers at theSupport
of Research end of the
of
experimental
Lingnan session.
University This code
(ethical studynumber:
receivedEC-007/1819)
ethical approval
on 13from the Office
November 2018.of Research Support of
Lingnan University (ethical code number: EC-007/1819) on 13 November 2018.
2.2. Measures
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Internet Addiction Test (IAT)
2.2.1.Internet
Internetaddiction
Addictionwas Test (IAT)
measured using a Chinese version of the Internet Addiction Test (IAT).
The IAT Internet addiction was measured using a Likert
contains 20 items rated on a 5-point Chinese scale (1 = of
version not all, 5 = Addiction
atInternet
the always) [58].TestIt(IAT).
was
developed based on20the
The IAT contains Young
items Diagnostic
rated Questionnaire
on a 5-point Likert scale(YDQ),
(1 = and
not atwasall,used
5 = to measure
always) theItlevel
[58]. was
of Internet involvement and addiction from the perspective of one’s psychological
developed based on the Young Diagnostic Questionnaire (YDQ), and was used to measure the level symptoms and
behaviors,
of Internetincluding
involvement psychological dependence,
and addiction from the compulsive
perspective use, withdrawal,
of one’s problems
psychological with daily
symptoms and
routine, sleeping pattern, family, social life, and time management. A
behaviors, including psychological dependence, compulsive use, withdrawal, problems with higher score indicates greater
daily
problems due to Internet
routine, sleeping pattern,use. According
family, to Young
social life, and time[58], individuals A
management. arehigher
placedscore
into indicates
one of thegreater
three
categories:
problems due average onlineuse.
to Internet users (from 20 to
According to 39) who[58],
Young haveindividuals
complete control
are placedoverinto
the one
usage; persons
of the three
who experience frequent problems due to excessive Internet use (from 40 to
categories: average online users (from 20 to 39) who have complete control over the usage; persons 69); and persons who
have numerous problems because of Internet addiction (from 70 to 100).
who experience frequent problems due to excessive Internet use (from 40 to 69); and persons who Previous studies [62–65]
showed that that problems
have numerous IAT possesses strong
because internal addiction
of Internet consistency and 70
(from goodto test–retest
100). Previousreliability.
studiesThe IAT
[62–65]
also
showed that that IAT possesses strong internal consistency and good test–retest reliability. The IAT
demonstrated a favorable internal consistency in a Hong Kong sample [66]. In this study, the IAT
showed high internal consistency reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.919).
also demonstrated a favorable internal consistency in a Hong Kong sample [66]. In this study, the
IAT showed high internal consistency reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.919).

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Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 7722 5 of 12

2.2.2. Penn State Worry Questionnaire for Children (PSWQ-C)

The level of worry was measured using the Chinese version of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire
for Children (PSWQ-C) [67]. This scale consists of 14 items assessed on a 4-point Likert scale (0 = not
at all typical of me, 3 = very typical of me) to assess worry in children aged 6 to 18 years. A sample
item is, “Once I start worrying, I can’t stop”. The total scale score ranges from 0 to 42. Higher scores
represented a greater tendency to worry. Past research has found that the PSWQ-C demonstrated
strong reliability in terms of internal consistency and test–retest stability [67]. In this study, the PSWQ-C
exhibited good internal consistency reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.889).

2.2.3. Parental Authority Questionnaire

Parenting style was measured using the Chinese short version of the Parental Authority
Questionnaire (PAQ) [43]. The PAQ is a 30-item questionnaire based on Baumrind’s [44]
model of parenting, assessing children’s perceptions of parental permissiveness, authoritarianism,
and authoritativeness. The degree of agreement with the statements regarding both mothers’ and
fathers’ parenting is rated on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Due to
the sole interest of permissive parenting in our research, only 10 items measuring the level of permissive
parenting style were used. Sample items include: “As I was growing up, my parents seldom gave me
expectations and guidelines for my behavior,” and “As I was growing up, my parents allowed me
to decide most things for myself without a lot of direction from them.” In this study, the permissive
parenting style subscale yielded an adequate internal consistency reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.741).

2.3. Data Analysis

Data were analyzed using the SPSS software (IBM, New York, NY, United States). To test
the moderation hypothesis, a moderated regression analysis was conducted using the SPSS Macro
PROCESS [68] (Model 1). The predictor (worry) and moderator (permissive parenting style) were
mean-centered. An interaction term was formed by multiplying the centered predictor and moderator.

3. Result

3.1. Preliminary Analyses

Fisher’s F tests were first adopted to explore the impacts of gender on study variables. As shown
in Table 1, the results indicated that there were no significant differences between boys and girls in
their levels of worry and Internet addiction as well as in their parents’ permissive parenting style.

Table 1. Gender differences in worry, the permissive parenting style, and Internet addiction. M: mean;
SD: standard deviation.

Overall Boys Girls

Variable F
M SD M SD M SD
Worry 17.921 9.339 17.592 9.033 18.290 9.700 0.315
Permissive
29.427 6.999 30.142 7.308 28.626 6.578 2.671
parenting style
Internet addiction 46.560 16.516 47.883 16.892 45.075 16.033 1.640
Note: none of the gender differences was significant. M = mean; SD = standard deviation; F = F-test.

3.2. Analyses of Moderation

Moderated regression analysis was conducted to examine whether the relationship between
children’s worry and Internet addiction would be moderated by their parent’s permissive parenting style.
As displayed in Table 2, the results found a significant children’s worry × permissive parenting style
interaction effect on Internet addiction when controlling for children’s gender and age (unstandardized
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 7722 6 of 12

coefficient (b) = 0.029, t-test (t) = 2.115, p = 0.036). The interaction was plotted by substituting
high Int.
(one standard deviation above the mean), medium (mean), and low (one standard6 deviation
J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, x of 12
below the mean) values of worry and permissive parenting style into the regression equation
substituting
(see Figure 2). Thehigh (one standard
results of simple deviation above the
slope analyses mean), that
showed medium (mean),
when and lowparenting
permissive (one standard
style was
deviation
low, the below the
relationship mean)children’s
between values of worry
worry and
and permissive parentingwas
Internet addiction style into the regression
non-significant (b = 0.188,
equation
t = 1.142, p = (see Figure
0.255). When2). The results ofparenting
permissive simple slope analyses
style showed that
was medium, when permissive
children’s worry was parenting
significantly
style was low, the relationship between children’s worry and Internet addiction was non-significant
and positively related to Internet addiction (b = 0.388, t = 3.294, p = 0.001). When permissive parenting
(b = 0.188, t = 1.142, p = 0.255). When permissive parenting style was medium, children’s worry was
style was high, the relationship between children’s worry and Internet addiction was significant
significantly and positively related to Internet addiction (b = 0.388, t = 3.294, p = 0.001). When
(b = 0.588,
permissivet = 4.301, p < 0.001).
parenting style was high, the relationship between children’s worry and Internet
addiction was significant (b = 0.588, t = 4.301, p < 0.001).
Table 2. The moderating effect of the permissive parenting style on the relationship between worry
Table 2. The
and Internet moderating effect of the permissive parenting style on the relationship between worry
addiction.
and Internet addiction.
Variable b SE β t p
Variable b SE β t p
Age 3.824 1.782 0.232 2.146 0.033
GenderAge −2.727 3.8242.045 1.782 −0.165 0.232 −1.333 2.146 0.033
0.184
WorryGender 0.388 −2.7270.118 2.045 0.179 −0.165 3.294 −1.333 0.184
0.001
Worrystyle
Permissive parenting 0.422 0.3880.154 0.118 0.2190.179 3.294
2.742 0.001
0.007
Permissiveparenting
Worry × permissive parentingstyle
style 0.029 0.4220.014 0.154 0.1130.219 2.742
2.115 0.007
0.036
Worry × permissive parenting style 0.029 0.014 0.113 2.115 0.036
Note: b = unstandardized coefficient; SE = standard error; β = standardized coefficient Beta; t = t-test.
Note: b = unstandardized coefficient; SE = standard error; β = standardized coefficient Beta; t = t-test.

Figure
Figure 2. Simple
2. Simple slopes
slopes forfor
thethe effect
effect ofofworry
worryon
onInternet
Internet addiction
addiction at
atlow,
low,medium,
medium,and high
and levels
high levels of
of the permissive parenting
the permissive parenting style. style.

4. Discussion
4. Discussion

4.1. Discussion
4.1. Discussion of Major
of Major Findings
Findings
In this
In this study,
study, we we explored
explored whetherthe
whether the permissive
permissive parenting
parenting style moderates
style moderatesthe relationship
the relationship
between worry and Internet addiction among children. We found a moderating effect effect
between worry and Internet addiction among children. We found a moderating of the of the
permissive
permissive parenting style on the relationship between worry and Internet addiction in primary
parenting style on the relationship between worry and Internet addiction in primary school children.
school children. In particular, a high level of permissive parenting, characterized by high warmth but
In particular, a high level of permissive parenting, characterized by high warmth but low parental
low parental monitoring, significantly enhanced the positive relationship between worry and
monitoring,
Internet significantly enhanced children.
addiction in school-aged the positive relationship between worry and Internet addiction in
school-agedThischildren.
result could be explained by the distinct characteristics of school-aged children. In Erikson’s
stages of psychosocial
This result development
could be explained by [69], school-aged
the distinct children areof
characteristics developing
school-aged competence
children.andIn thus
Erikson’s
stages of psychosocial development [69], school-aged children are developing competence andand
it is necessary for them to gain new knowledge and skills, along with relative achievement thus it is
recognition
necessary fromtoinfluential
for them gain newpeople such asand
knowledge parents and
skills, teachers.
along withIfrelative
they failachievement
to achieve this, they
and may
recognition
from influential people such as parents and teachers. If they fail to achieve this, they may develop a
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Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 7722 7 of 12

sense of inferiority regarding their abilities and could feel uncertain about their future. During this
period, children would experience many “first times”, such as presentation, school camp, and puberty’s
physical and psychological changes, which create certain stresses [70]. Therefore, parents play a
major role in helping their children in this stage to gain the necessary knowledge and skills and build
self-confidence. To be a supportive parent, it is fundamental to consider children’s interests, to have
reasonable expectations, and to provide encouragement, reinforcement, and some insights for problem
solving [70]. However, some parents, especially those who are permissive, may provide care and love,
but may not be able to assist their children by setting goals or teaching them the way to deal with their
uncertainty and problems. Hence, it is also possible for school-aged children to develop worry or find
answers on the Internet, especially for those who are prone to worrying and who are learning to be
independent from their parents. Accordingly, these explanations provide possible support for the
observed result that a high level of permissive parenting strengthens the relationship between worry
and Internet addiction for school-aged children.
As reflected in past studies [71], parental monitoring is an important protective factor for Internet
addiction, especially for senior high school students. The present results suggest that this effect
could possibly extend to younger primary school children as well. Although permissive parents
usually actively respond to children with love and warmth, there is a lack of monitoring, expectations,
and given explanations, which may not help to address children’s concerns [59]. In this context,
children may be prone to becoming doubtful, which may result in confusion in themselves [51],
thus promoting Internet addiction. With the unlimited freedom given by the Internet, children are
incapable of controlling themselves [60]. Consequently, when they face uncertainty and problems,
they feel worried, and doubt whether their parents could help them solve the difficulties. This fosters
the development of compulsive behaviors such as Internet addiction. With less parental monitoring or
support, parents might also fail to set limits or rules on bedtimes and daily schedules of their children,
and thus increase their risk for Internet addiction [72]. In general, a high level of permissive parenting
without clear rules and effective monitoring would enhance the effect of worry on the development of
Internet addiction.
Parental monitoring could be especially important for Chinese children. Chinese culture puts a
great emphasis on parents’ responsibility in disciplining and monitoring their children [48]. With a lack
of parental control, Chinese children may not feel loved by their parents. Chao [73,74] reported that
instead of being permissive, being strict, controlling, and highly involved in children’s lives are key
characteristics of traditional Chinese parenting practices. Compared with Western parents, Chinese
parents tend to be more controlling and overinvolved [48]. More importantly, it was found that Chinese
students linked the perception of parental psychological control with parental involvement [60,75].
This suggests that with lower parental control, children may think their parents are not involved.
Additionally, Chinese parents usually exercise control, concern, and governance, rather than hugging
or verbal expressions, to express their love, warmth, and support [73,74]. It is possible that the
participants who were Chinese children with permissive parents perceived their parents as inattentive
and neglectful. They may perceive that when their parents do not monitor and communicate their
expectations, it indicates that their parents do not care about them. In view of this perspective,
a high level of permissive parenting may not only be characterized by low control, but also could be
interpreted as low responsiveness. Thus, these parents cannot help minimize the effect of worry on
Internet addiction by implementing controls or emotional support.

4.2. Implications
Our findings reveal that the problematic use of technology might be one of the outcomes of a high
level of worry, and, more importantly, permissive parenting can moderate the relationship between
worry and Internet use. Supported by the analysis, parents should avoid implementing a high level of
permissive parenting or insufficient monitoring regulations, in order to diminish the effect of children’s
worry on problematic behaviors. As noted in both previous research and this research, school-aged
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 7722 8 of 12

children have many new experiences, including physical changes in the body and different events in
school, which might negatively influence their emotions and cognitions [70]. By fourth or fifth grade,
young children try to regulate their emotions and uncertainties by themselves [34,76,77]. Under these
circumstances, the role of parents is important. If parents adopt a low level of permissive parenting
with more guidance, education, and monitoring, their children will be more likely to manage negative
thoughts with a clear and appropriate direction, instead of being confused and using the Internet
to escape [50]. Parental warmth, support, advice, monitoring, and expectations could significantly
influence the relationship between worry and Internet addiction among young children. Therefore,
we suggest that parents pay attention to the psychological state of their children, understand the factors
behind the psychopathology, and provide direction for children to cope with it. Accordingly, doing so
will lead to a lower probability of children prone to worrying who develop Internet addiction.
Apart from parents’ parenting behaviors, the attitudes of parents and teachers are also important
to reduce children’s Internet addiction. Parents’ and teachers’ non-permissive attitudes are related to
less deviant and addictive behaviors among children [78]. Moreover, parents’ and teachers’ frequent,
open, and positive communication patterns with children can prevent children from engaging in
addictive behaviors [79]. As the recent COVID-19 pandemic has made children more dependent on
the Internet in their daily lives, parents and teachers are suggested to involve children in more offline
activities such as physical exercise to decrease their Internet use [4].

4.3. Limitations and Conclusions

The present study has several limitations. First, the cross-sectional design of this study precludes
any causal inferences. In the future, it is important to apply a longitudinal design to further examine the
relationship between worry and Internet addiction, along with the moderating effect of parenting style.
Second, our sample was limited to fourth- and fifth-grade students from primary schools in Hong
Kong. As a result, the presented findings may not generalize to younger children, adolescents, adults,
or children from different cultural backgrounds. As indicated by past research, children in different
age groups may have different perceptions towards parents, and the parental influences for older
children might not be as crucial as younger children, possibly driving differences in the observed
patterns [80,81]. Future studies could seek to replicate the current findings using samples with a
diverse range of child age and cultural backgrounds.
Third, the present study used child-reported data. It is possible that self-reporting bias would
occur, although it is generally believed that children’s subjective experiences of parenting styles are more
meaningful to their development than the objective measure of parenting patterns [82,83]. In future studies,
one can consider other informant sources, and use multiple data collection methods to avoid method bias.
For example, we can examine the effect of parenting using an observational measure [84] or an experimental
approach [85]. Besides, future work may use a qualitative approach such as interviews to assess the
parenting of Chinese-speaking parents in the Chinese cultural context [86]. By combining different kinds of
measuring instruments, the validity and reliability of the research could be enhanced.
Lastly, additional variables could be collected for a more comprehensive assessment of Internet
addiction. Children’s use of time for different activities on the Internet, the venue used to access the
Internet, perceptions of Internet use, and examination of other parenting styles are some examples that
could be included in corresponding studies. For example, Rozgonjuk’s [33] recent study considered
smartphone use. Hence, future studies could discuss the relationship between intolerance of uncertainty
and problematic smartphone use with more factual descriptions. In short, with detailed reported
information from the participants, we could interpret our results with in-depth and more valid
explanations in relation to the causes of Internet-addicted behaviors.
In conclusion, this purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which the association
between worry and Internet addiction in children was moderated by the permissive parenting style.
Consistent with our prediction, it was found that the relationship between worry and Internet addiction
was significantly moderated by the permissive parenting style. More importantly, a high level of
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 7722 9 of 12

permissive parenting would exacerbate the detrimental influence of worry on Internet addiction among
children in Hong Kong. It is suggested that parents of worried children should exert monitoring efforts
in order to prevent their children from engaging in addictive Internet use.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, B.C.Y.L., T.K.N. and H.W.; methodology, B.C.Y.L., T.K.N. and H.W.;
software, T.K.N. and H.W.; validation, T.K.N. and H.W.; formal analysis, T.K.N. and H.W.; investigation,
B.C.Y.L.; resources, B.C.Y.L.; data curation, T.K.N. and H.W.; writing—original draft preparation, B.C.Y.L.,
R.N.M.L., T.K.N. and H.W.; writing—review and editing, B.C.Y.L., R.N.M.L., T.K.N. and H.W.; visualization, H.W.;
supervision, B.C.Y.L.; project administration, B.C.Y.L.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was supported by the Direct Grant (Project No. 101128) from Lingnan University.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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