Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal

An evaluation of two qualitative methods (focus group interviews and cognitive maps) for conducting
research into entrepreneurial decision making
Tony Hines
Article information:
To cite this document:
Tony Hines, (2000),"An evaluation of two qualitative methods (focus group interviews and cognitive maps) for conducting
research into entrepreneurial decision making", Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, Vol. 3 Iss 1 pp. 7 - 16
Permanent link to this document:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/13522750010310406
Downloaded on: 31 January 2016, At: 04:34 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 28 other documents.
To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 4985 times since 2006*
Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:
Antonio Armillotta, (2006),"Assessment of surface quality on textured FDM prototypes", Rapid Prototyping Journal, Vol. 12
Iss 1 pp. 35-41 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/13552540610637255
Downloaded by Duquesne University At 04:34 31 January 2016 (PT)

(2002),"Corrosion Inhibitors: Principles and Applications", Anti-Corrosion Methods and Materials, Vol. 49 Iss 3 pp. - http://
dx.doi.org/10.1108/acmm.2002.12849cae.001
Jose Arturo Garza-Reyes, (2015),"Green lean and the need for Six Sigma", International Journal of Lean Six Sigma, Vol. 6
Iss 3 pp. 226-248 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJLSS-04-2014-0010

Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-srm:368748 []
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service
information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please
visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company manages a portfolio of
more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online
products and additional customer resources and services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication
Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation.

*Related content and download information correct at time of download.


An evaluation of two
qualitative methods
(focus group interviews
and cognitive maps) for
conducting research
into entrepreneurial
decision making
Tony Hines
The author
Tony Hines is Principal Lecturer at the London Institute,
London, UK.
Downloaded by Duquesne University At 04:34 31 January 2016 (PT)
Keywords
Entrepreneurialism, Decision making, Focus groups
Abstract
Reports on a qualitative approach to conducting research
in small firms. Two cases are reported that fall within the
EU definition of small firms (with fewer than 99
employees). One case is drawn from the clothing industry
and one other from the publishing industry. The clothing
company had fewer than 50 employees and the
publishing company had fewer than ten employees, the
latter being regarded as a micro-firm. The purpose of the
research was to investigate decisions taken by owner-
managers in relation to their future strategies.
Consideration is given to alternative methodological
approaches before justifying the selection of a
combination of focus group interviews and cognitive
mapping in each of the cases. Comparisons are drawn
that demonstrate the utility of the research methods
chosen. The work then identifies issues and considers
implications for the conduct of future research into SMEs
using these methods. The purpose of the paper is to
explain and to evaluate the usefulness of the methods
rather than to explain the particular cases in detail.
Electronic access
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is
available at
http://www.emerald-library.com
Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal
Volume 3 . Number 1 . 2000 . pp. 7±16
# MCB University Press . ISSN 1352-2752
7
Introduction
Focus groups are often seen as a means of
eliciting consumer preference. The historical
development of this technique is attributed to
two social scientists, Robert Merton and Paul
Lazarsfeld, who developed the technique to
assess war-related communications
conducted by radio (Merton, 1987). The
work was first reported by Merton and
Kendall (1946). An up-to date account is
given in Merton et al. (1990). The technique
was originally labelled ``focus research''.
Bagozzi (1994, p. 51) reports on the growth
in use of focus groups as a process of
intellectual continuity and as obliteration by
incorporation, meaning that the technique
was adapted and adopted by someone to
conduct marketing research and that later
users simply replicated the technique without
knowing its original use. There are a number
of different types of focus group that are
considered below together with relative
merits.
Cognitive mapping is a qualitative
technique designed to identify cause and
effect as well as to explain causal links (Eden,
1990; Eden and Ackerman, 1992). It is used
to structure, analyse and make sense of
problems (Ackerman et al., 1993). There are
a small number of computer programs that
can be used to conduct this type of work. One
of those is COPE developed by Colin Eden
and now renamed as Decision Explorer. This
particular computer program was used in
combination with the focus groups to explore
the decision-making processes adopted by key
figures in the two small organisations
examined that are reported here.
It is important for all researchers to have a
clear understanding of the most appropriate
philosophical position from which to derive a
suitable research method. Easterby-Smith
et al. (1994) report a long-standing debate
within the social sciences about the most
appropriate philosophical stance to take, from
which the research methods should be
derived. There is an absence of consensus
about which position is best to help a novice
researcher make simple choices in deriving
methods to conduct the work. Nevertheless, it
is essential to have a clear understanding of
the philosophical basis for the research
strategy selected and this helps to provide the
researcher with clarification, focus and
consistency of research design. More
 An evaluation of two qualitative methods
Tony Hines
specifically, it helps the researcher in a
number of ways:
. to determine whether or not their own
research design is appropriate to the
questions being asked;
. to create designs beyond past experience
(Easterby-Smith et al., 1994); and
. to provide grounding in research methods
located within an accepted
epistemological paradigm. Houldsworth
(1995) remarks that this distinguishes
academic work from lay knowledge.
Researchers often take two diametrically
opposing philosophical stances (positivism
and phenomenology) and they may be
regarded as two poles on a methodological
continuum. Each one is discussed briefly
before justifying the stance taken by this
Downloaded by Duquesne University At 04:34 31 January 2016 (PT)
research. The ontological implications for
both positions are often seen as being
mutually exclusive by researchers and this
requires some further explanation. Ontology
is concerned with reality and being. Deciding
whether or not the object of investigation is
the product of consciousness (nominalism) or
whether it exists independently (realism) has
a bearing on the research approach, the
methods, the tools and the tactics employed.
Epistemology is concerned with our grounds
for knowledge and this will be dependent on
the research design and the types of evidence
we collect (Remenyi et al., 1998, p. 103).
Positivism
Positivism follows the traditional scientific
approaches to developing knowledge,
research strategies, methods and interpreting
results. This manifests itself in terms of the
structure of research design reminiscent of
experiments conducted in the science
laboratory at school. The processes follow a
number of steps. It begins with aims usually
in the form of a hypothesis to be proven or
disproven. Second, a method to achieve the
aims, usually a quantitative approach, is
adopted to measure variables in the data. The
data are collected or generated through means
of a survey, an experiment or observation and
results are then declared and a conclusion is
drawn that accepts or rejects the hypothesis
being tested. It is through deductive reasoning
in this way that results are derived. The
researcher is external to the events being
8
Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal
Volume 3 . Number 1 . 2000 . 7±16
examined such that measures taken are
objective. Researchers focus on facts and
search for cause and effect.
Phenomenology
Phenomenologists recognise that the world in
which we live is socially constructed (Berger
and Luckman, 1967). Observations are prima
facie subjective and the observer is a part of
what is being observed. Research focus is on
understanding meaning, context and
complexity. Ideas are developed through
inductive reasoning. The task of social
scientists is ``to appreciate different
constructions and meanings that people place
upon their experience'' (Easterby-Smith et al.,
1994). Easterby-Smith et al. (1994, p. 27)
provide a useful summary description of the
two paradigms and this is shown in Table I.
Access
The nature of the research questions and the
research strategy chosen will determine the
type of research site and the sources of
evidence to which access is required
(Remenyi et al., 1998, p. 109). It often
appears to be rather straightforward in many
research texts and papers that access will be
obtained if the researcher plans well and is
orderly in approach. However, the reality may
be as reported by Buchanan et al. (1988)
whereby ``. . . members of organisations block
access to information, constrain time allowed
for interviews, lose questionnaires, go on
holiday and join other organisations in the
middle of your study''. Gummesson (1991,
p. 21) describes access as the researcher's
biggest problem. This is particularly the case
when it is a one-off study for academic
purposes that needs to be completed within a
short time-frame. The nature of the research
and the questions being addressed will
determine the types of access required.
Remenyi et al. (1998, p. 109) list criteria for
what constitutes a good research site:
. Entry should be possible.
. There is the possibility of gathering
appropriate evidence.
. Trust can be established with the
respondents.
. Evidence quality and credibility of the
research can be assured.
 An evaluation of two qualitative methods
Tony Hines
Table I The positivist and phenomenological paradigms
Positivist paradigm
Basic beliefs The world is external and
objective
Observer is independent
Science is value free
Researcher should Focus on facts
Look for causality and
fundamental laws
Reduce phenomenon
to simplest elements
Formulate hypotheses
and test them
(deductive reasoning)
Preferred methods Operationalising
include: concepts so they can
be measured
Use large samples
Downloaded by Duquesne University At 04:34 31 January 2016 (PT)
Source: Easterby-Smith et al. (1994)
In the context of this study access was
achieved through personal contacts known to
the researcher. In both cases during
discussions in a social context potential
benefits for both parties (researcher and
researched) were explored. Agreement was
reached following the discussions and access
was secured to the owner-managers in each of
the two firms. Follow-up after the initial
discussions was by letter, telephone, facsimile
and e-mail to confirm the agreements and to
agree specific details regarding the protocols
and dates. It was important to keep the
project live through regular contact with each
company until the research was completed.
People need to be reminded of agreements
and benefits but should not feel pestered to
such an extent that they become annoyed and
access is subsequently denied. All four criteria
listed by Remenyi et al. (1998, p. 109) were
met.
The study
The particular work conducted was trying to
establish how owner-managers in the two
small firms being examined made decisions
relating to organisational strategies.
Context
One firm was a small clothing manufacturer
based in the north-west of England. The firm
had been bought out by the management
9
Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal
Volume 3 . Number 1 . 2000 . 7±16
Phenomenological paradigm
The world is socially constructed and
subjective
Observer is part of what is being observed
Science is driven by human interests
Focus on meanings
Try to understand what is happening
Look at the totality of each situation
Develop ideas through induction from data
Using multiple methods to establish
different views of phenomenon
Small samples investigated in depth or over
time
team from a larger company that had at one
time been a listed company on the London
Stock Exchange. In effect this was a firm in a
declining industry that had become a small
firm as a result of the management buy-out.
There were three owner-managers who
looked after functional areas for sales and
marketing; production and sourcing; and
finance and information systems. These
managers were selected as the subjects of the
study. Although classified as a small firm, it is
typical of the majority (99 per cent) of all
clothing manufacturing firms in the UK.
Their customers are large retailing groups
with multiple stores. In contrast, a second
small firm was selected from a different
industry ± publishing. This firm also had
three owner-managers who were responsible
for sales and marketing, production and print,
and editorial. In addition each firm had a
managing director with overarching
responsibility. Despite a growing
concentration of large publishing groups in
the UK, this firm is typical of the many
smaller publishing firms that comprise 97 per
cent of the industry. It operates in specialist
educational markets and is located in the
north of England. The company was founded
20 years ago by two of the current
management team who themselves had been
lecturers. The third member of the company
joined later, as the company grew, and he had
experience in publishing and distribution.
 An evaluation of two qualitative methods
Tony Hines
The work is essentially pragmatic and it
needed to be carried out expediently, in small
time-frames, at infrequent visits. Inhabitants
who operate in that environment, although
influenced by externalities, nevertheless
internalise them in shaping their own views of
the world which they socially construct. The
academic interest in the decision-making
processes is concerned with human
behaviours. In this context, to understand
what is happening, it is important to focus on
meanings (Gergen, 1988). Focus groups were
chosen as being an appropriate methods of
eliciting meanings. The method is also
efficient, being capable of obtaining a number
of points of view in a short period of time.
Inductive approaches were preferred to
ensure that the views obtained were those of
the entrepreneurs and not determined by the
Downloaded by Duquesne University At 04:34 31 January 2016 (PT)
prescriptive approaches that are so often
observed in positivist research. Having
previously used cognitive mapping techniques
in one-to-one interviews, to explore
management decisions, I was aware of how
useful the technique might be in relation to
this work. The work could have been
conducted in other ways using flip charts or
alternative recording devices. However, it is
important not simply to record but also to
analyse the meanings and it seemed
appropriate, therefore, to use a cognitive
mapping program to record and analyse
evidence in relation to their meanings.
Furthermore, it is important not to overlook
the power of the ``gizmo''. The cognitive maps
were drawn in the presence of managers who
could revise the maps as the discussions
progressed. Maps were projected on to a large
screen as discussions progressed. The
participants were also able to take away copies
of the maps and analysis in the form of print-
outs. The ``gizmo'' effect seemed definitely to
encourage participation and commitment.
Nature of the problem
The research issue in both cases was to
determine the major factors that have a
bearing on strategy decisions in small firms.
The purpose was to find out the views and
experiences of the management teams in each
case. Interpretation of the focus group
interviews and the maps is discussed later.
Research questions
The research was designed to find out how
managers made decisions together in their
10
Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal
Volume 3 . Number 1 . 2000 . 7±16
own organisations and to provide
explanations of why they regarded particular
issues important in the context of their own
small firms and in relation to industry-wide
influences.
Traditional use of focus group
interviews
A number of important approaches can be
observed in the marketing research literature
in relation to ``focus group'' research. As
Bagozzi (1994, p. 53) observes, the manager
who says, ``Let's conduct some focus groups'',
is likely to get inappropriate evidence.
Researchers need to be rigorous in their
approach. Researchers need to be very clear
about the nature of the evidence required,
which in turn will depend on the purpose of
the research and the philosophical stance
taken. Therefore, the researcher's notion of
what a focus group is will influence the quality
and therefore the utility of responses received.
Focus groups have traditionally been used in
marketing research as follows:
. Phenomenological interaction-centred
focus groups
. Clinical focus groups
. Exploratory research.
The types of focus group explained
The phenomenological focus group is
designed to share the experience of a group of
people and to participate in that shared
understanding. The researcher therefore
attempts to experience the view of the world
from the point of view of the managers or
entrepreneurs being observed. It is a way of
experiencing their experiences through
discussion. In discussing decision-making
approaches the researcher gains some
understanding of the issues, processes and
experiences of the people involved. This is
essentially the type of focus group that this
research focused upon. Interaction between
the participants is an essential feature of the
interview to identify and report the ``true
feelings'' of the group.
The other two reported types have been
used more often in a marketing research
context, exploratory research being most
common to examine a topic quickly and at
low cost before conducting follow-up survey
work. Clinical focus groups are used to obtain
a deeper understanding of individual
 An evaluation of two qualitative methods
Tony Hines
behaviours. It is often a means of going
beyond the individual's own experience to
find out things that participants cannot
articulate fully. For example, research into
beliefs, behaviour and the unconscious mind.
Psychotherapists typically adopt this
approach.
The focus group interview has the following
advantages and disadvantages listed in Table
II. Group research is useful if it is the opinion
of the group under investigation that is of
paramount importance. For example, in the
case of this research it was important to
establish the views of the management team
determining the strategy of the organisation.
In this respect some of the disadvantages
listed in the Table were less important. For
example, dominant personalities often listed
as a disadvantage of conducting this type of
Downloaded by Duquesne University At 04:34 31 January 2016 (PT)
work may simply reflect the decision-making
process in the organisation. This could mean
that a particular member of the management
team or an owner of the firm may have more
say in the group and in the reality of a
decision-making process. Therefore, the
experience being reported and observed,
rather than obscuring realities, may reveal
them. Similarly the weakness of conducting
research into sensitive issues is not as
important if the team being interviewed agree
confidentiality and are the people who need to
work together to set the agenda for the whole
business.
Table II Advantages and disadvantages of focus group research
Advantages
Relatively inexpensive to conduct research
Data-rich
Flexible
Stimulating to respondents
Aids recall
Allows accumulation of responses from
all participants
It is possible to ask open-ended questions
allowing the experience of participants to emerge
Useful in phenomenological research because
emergent themes can be pursued with the group
to shape experiences
Sources: adapted from Fontana and Frey in Denzin and Lincoln (1998, p. 55) and Hines (1998)
11
Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal
Volume 3 . Number 1 . 2000 . 7±16
Cognitive maps
There are many ways in which researchers
could approach the use of cognitive mapping;
some are reported in Miles and Huberman,
(1994, p. 32). One useful example is that
reported by Novak and Gowan (1984) who
used the techniques after first conducting pre-
mapping interviews to obtain concept
definition. When the mapping interview takes
place the researcher presents the interviewee
with the concepts and is then asked to arrange
them searching for cause and effect. It is also
possible to use cognitive maps for the purpose
of identifying a conceptual framework or to
apply it to an interview transcription.
However, it was not concept definition but
rather construct definition that was important
to this research and, therefore, this approach
was not appropriate (Kelly, 1955). There
were three specific reasons for rejecting this
type of approach in the current research; these
were:
(1) The time required conducting individual
interviews before mapping and during
mapping. Group interviews and interactive
development of maps were preferred to
individual interviews and any preliminary
shaping. The preliminary shaping may have
destroyed the spontaneity and creative
development of the cognitive maps.
Mapping is an iterative process and
preliminary interviewing may inhibit this.
Disadvantages
Dependent on the skills of the interviewer
Can deteriorate into an unfocused group
with poor interviewer, poor planning or dominance
of strong individuals
It may be difficult to research sensitive issues in a group
Group think may mislead individuals in the group
and the researcher
Access to appropriate people denied in an
organisational setting, e.g. on holiday, off sick,
too busy, away on business
 An evaluation of two qualitative methods
Tony Hines
(2) It would not have been possible to gain
unlimited access to the groups for the
purpose of preliminary interviews nor was
it considered appropriate to the
phenomenological stance taken by this
research. The group dynamics were more
important to the development of the
maps. However, each member of the
focus group had been briefed verbally by
telephone and supported by email
documentation as to the purpose and
protocols.
(3) Perhaps most importantly, the purpose of
the mapping in this research was to allow
owner-managers the opportunity to
construct a map of their collective
decision-making processes. In this
context it was constructs rather than
concepts that were important to the
Downloaded by Duquesne University At 04:34 31 January 2016 (PT)
process of decision making in these small
firms. In particular the personal
constructs of the owner-managers. This
was achieved by reporting the issues
during a focus group interview to reveal
how and why the managers did what they
did.
Cognitive mapping as a personal
construct approach
Cognitive mapping is based on personal
construct theory developed by Kelly (1955).
The theory suggests that people make sense of
their world in order to predict how that world
will be in the future. It is also regarded as
more than a theory by some and they refer to
it as an approach to conducting research work
(Jahoda, 1988, p. 2). Therefore, its place in
the current work is as an approach using the
computer program as a tool and cognitive
mapping as a method. It enables actors
involved to shape their world through
intervention. It is suggested that researchers
begin their work not with theories but with
involvement in the life situation of the people
they have chosen to study (Kelly, 1986, p. 1).
``Only when man [sic] attunes his ear to
recurrent themes in the monotonous flow
does his universe begin to make sense to him''
(Kelly, 1955, p. 53). Personal constructs, as
Kelly refers to our personal frameworks, are
made up of a large number of similarity-
difference dimensions or bi-polar constructs.
Each individual construes the world in which
they live both systematically and uniquely to
the individual. There are constructs that are
central to our existence and they are core
12
Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal
Volume 3 . Number 1 . 2000 . 7±16
constructs that impose a personal order on
our life. Other constructs are subordinate to
the core constructs. Fransella and Dalton
(1990) referred to personal constructs as
being capable of anticipating future actions
but raise concerns that in so doing individuals
become prisoners of the biography that they
construe. This concern, although important
in a wider context, is not so important to the
current work, where an examination of how
and why decisions are being made rather than
any investigation of specific problems or
constraints applied to those individuals
making the decision.
Ackerman et al. (1993, p. 2) suggest that
cognitive mapping can be used for note-
taking at interviews with the problem owner.
It may also be used to record transcripts of
interviews or other documentary evidence in a
way that promotes analysis, questioning and
understanding. In addition I have used
cognitive maps on other occasions to
interrogate transcripts of individual interviews
with the aim of analysing and mapping causal
relationships.
Describing the detail
The mapping meetings lasted approximately
two hours for each firm. Diary dates for the
meeting were fixed well in advance, as it was
essential that the participants could all attend.
The managing directors of each organisation
recognised the importance of the meeting in
helping them to formulate their new
strategies. The meetings were therefore given
sufficient priority to ensure attendance.
Furthermore, because the mapping meetings
were seen as an important senior management
development process, individuals were keen
to take part. This is an important point that
relates back to access discussed earlier.
Research is important to participants when
they can see personal benefit. Often
researchers are the only people who think the
research is important and they fail to sell the
benefits to the participants.
During the interviews, the focus groups
were guided by the researcher and invited to
discuss freely issues relating to the small
firm's strategy. The discussion points were
recorded on the computer and projected onto
a large screen for all participants to see. As
discussions developed, so too did the map.
The combination of the focus group interview
in conjunction with the cognitive mapping
allowed individuals in the groups to reflect
 An evaluation of two qualitative methods
Tony Hines
and moderate their views as the discussion
progressed. Probing was also possible to
clarify meanings and interpretations of the
owner-manager comments. It was also
possible to record different maps by saving
versions at different stages of the interview.
One advantage of this is that key changes can
be examined later after the meeting. This can
give the researcher further insight into the
dynamic nature of decision-making processes.
After the meetings, the researcher is able to
analyse the map and explore the relationship
between different aspects of it. This can be
done using the analysis clustering tools in the
program. It is possible to identify some
further relationships that may have been
overlooked during the meeting. These items
can then be further examined in a new
Downloaded by Duquesne University At 04:34 31 January 2016 (PT)
meeting or they can be discussed with
individuals who made specific contributions
to check meanings and the researcher's
interpretations. In both these cases this
process was followed.
Figure 1 illustrates a cognitive map
produced during a focus group interview with
a group of five managers (the three owner
managers previously mentioned, the
managing director and a factory manager),
running a clothing manufacturing company in
North West England. Themes emerged that
the group was able to explore more
thoroughly during a meeting to determine
their future corporate strategy. The
arrowheads in the map show a causal link. For
example, the managers decided that Number
10 ± ``Good people'' led to Number 5 ±
``Quality of the product and service''. Number
10 ± ``Good people'' also leads to Number 7 ±
Figure 1 Cognitive map produced by managers in a small clothing
manufacturer
13
Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal
Volume 3 . Number 1 . 2000 . 7±16
``The customer's perceived view of the
organisation''.
Figure 2 shows the influences on decisions
taken by the management team in a small
educational publishing company. Once again,
the group of four managers began their
discussions by identifying key influences on
their strategy formulations. For example,
Number 3 ± ``The demise of the net book
agreement'' had the effect of reducing the
publisher's profit margin. Larger book
retailing groups became more demanding
regarding trade discounts for shelf space,
while at the same time they raised the prices
charged in the stores. To get the same
volumes through the supply chain to retailers
it became necessary to increase the trade
discounts. Order sizes tended to diminish
after the net book agreement was abandoned,
according to the management team. Smaller
order quantities increased the cost of
distributing orders. This led the team to
consider missing out the booksellers by
attempting to get directly to their customers
using new technologies in the form of Internet
Web pages. This is shown as Number 9. The
cognitive maps presented the team with a
visual display of the key issues, which they
could then discuss further. They were able to
change the maps in the light of the
discussions, but only after group agreement.
Discovery and discussion
In effect, a grounded theory approach was
adopted for the interpretation of the maps
Figure 2 Future strategy map produced by owner-managers at a small
book publishing company
 An evaluation of two qualitative methods
Tony Hines
(Glaser and Strauss, 1967). This was so that
the views given remain those experienced by
the managers themselves without too much
interference from the researcher who was
bringing different knowledge and experiential
influences to the scenario. Strauss and Corbin
(1990, p. 17) provide a useful definition of the
term ``qualitative research'' as any kind of
research that produces findings not arrived at
by means of statistical procedures or other
means of quantification. They go on to
explain that this could be research about
people's lives, stories, behaviour,
organisational functioning, social movements
and, most interestingly, interactional
relationships. The type of research being
explained here is just that ± interactional
relationships related to future strategy
decisions. Strauss and Corbin (1990, p. 18)
Downloaded by Duquesne University At 04:34 31 January 2016 (PT)
list the skills for doing qualitative research as:
. An ability to step back and critically
analyse situations.
. To recognise and avoid bias.
. To obtain valid and reliable data.
. To think abstractly.
The authors go on to explain that to do this a
researcher needs to have: ``theoretical and
social sensitivity, the ability to maintain
analytical distance while at the same time
being able to draw on past experience and
theoretical knowledge to interpret what is
seen; astute powers of observation and good
interactional skills''.
The skills of the researcher are therefore
essential to the successful implementation of
this type of work. It may be important to
practise some of these skills before entering
the field. A useful way is to work with fellow
researchers and research students to refine
your skills before subjecting unsuspecting
managers to your inadequacies. This will save
time in the conduct of the real research and
help avoid any pitfalls with the tools and
techniques that can be ``ironed out'' through
preliminary practice.
Construct validity is achieved by
participants being able to contribute as
individuals in a team context through the
focus group interviews. Participants are also
able to modify and remodel constructs and
concepts as the discussion progresses.
Internal validity is achieved through the
identification and confirmation of causal
relationships in the group discussions. Rival
explanations for cause and effect relating to
14
Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal
Volume 3 . Number 1 . 2000 . 7±16
the decision-making processes can be
examined with the aim of either eliminating
them or alternatively modifying the cognitive
maps. External validity is achieved by
pursuing a general analytic strategy that rules
out alternative interpretations (Yin, 1994,
p. 103).
Developing theories from this type of
research
Theoretical frameworks, developed from
qualitative work adopting a phenomenological,
social constructive perspective employing
multiple methods, recognise that there are
different versions of the world (Goodman,
1978), where there are continuous revision
and reconstruction. The combination of focus
group interviews and cognitive mapping allows
those different perspectives to emerge and fit
well with a grounded theoretical approach.
The interactive approach of focus group
interviews together with the dynamic process
of cognitive mapping is in stark contrast to the
static approaches that many quantitative
researchers adopt to investigate decision
making by examining data relating to the
consequences of decision making rather than
the processes (Bagozzi, 1994).
Summary
In summary, the work set out to explain the
utility of mixed method research using two
particular techniques in a qualitative study. A
phenomenological use of focus group
interviews was explained combined with
cognitive mapping to reveal the key concepts
that managers hold in their heads when
exploring decisions relating to an
organisation's future strategy. The work was
interpreted using a social constructionist
perspective.
Conclusions
The two methods combined seemed to offer a
way of making science through the
participation of managers in a research
process. This is not simply passive
observation, recording, analysis and
interpretation but enables the whole research
process to be live. It is most appropriate to
conducting management research where,
unlike deductive approaches to scientific
 An evaluation of two qualitative methods
Tony Hines
research, replication of the conditions is not
the aim. However, it is suggested that
replication of the research process could be
achieved. The methods are usefully combined
when investigating small firm owner-manager
decision-making processes. The steps
involved are to: agree access to the
owner-managers in the small firms you want
to investigate; agree protocols; specify
benefits for those participants being
researched; agree dates for interviews; ensure
that all owner-managers you want to
interview will be present; use interactive focus
group interview techniques and map the
responses during the discussion; probe and
clarify any ambiguities during the interview;
finally, analyse the evidence using the
cognitive mapping program beyond the
interviews. Furthermore, it may be possible to
Downloaded by Duquesne University At 04:34 31 January 2016 (PT)
extend the multiple methods combined.
Indeed, further work currently being
undertaken has taken this process a stage
further, by combining the two techniques
reported with repertory grid interviewing, to
explore further the personal constructs of the
participants (Kelly, 1955).
Limitations of the research approach
It is important to recognise and reiterate the
limitations of the research methods used. In
particular, the group approach may
encourage a group response whereas key
individuals may hold their own beliefs and
views about the future strategies decided in
the group, even though they appear to go
along with them when they discuss matters
with their peers. A number of explanations
are possible for this. One possibility is that
they are dominated by a member, or other
members collectively. Another is that they
want to be seen as part of the management
team and do not, therefore, want to be seen to
disagree. This is especially the case when
managers are new to their role or to an
organisation. There may be further
explanations of this. Another limitation is that
it is not always possible to get all the key team
members together at one time and therefore
at the time the group interview takes place a
key member is missing and their views are
omitted from the maps drawn and analysed.
This could be a serious flaw. It is essential
that interview dates be rescheduled where it is
known in advance that key personnel may be
absent. It is possible that the computer
mapping process is itself inhibiting to
15
Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal
Volume 3 . Number 1 . 2000 . 7±16
participants. This can especially be the case if
the researcher is new to mapping and slow in
doing it such that it detracts from the
discussion or that technical failures occur. On
one occasion I experienced a technical
problem with a projector that my laptop
computer was connected to and had to
abandon the computer map for a paper
version. It is, therefore, essential for the
researchers to be flexible and knowledgeable
enough to adopt an alternative strategy on the
spot. You may not get a second chance.
Utility of the research approach
However, drawbacks considered, there are a
number of very important positive reasons for
adopting the combined approaches reported.
First, if you want to conduct a qualitative
piece of research work that is attempting to
understand particular phenomena in
particular organisations, then it is necessary to
choose methods that can achieve those aims.
Focus group interviews combined with
cognitive maps to display and then analyse
and interpret the evidence in the context used
here, examining management decision-
making processes, were both lively and living
examples of how and why decisions were
taken. I have also recently combined these
techniques with Flanagan's (1954) critical
incident technique, to explore historical
decisions taken that were crucial to gaining a
particular customer in one case and, in
another case, to the initial survival and
subsequent failure of the organisation. For
those readers who want to examine further
combinations, a very good demonstration of
the usefulness of the technique is given by
Chell (1998) in a small firm context. Further
combinations of research methods may help
strengthen evidence and argument through
triangulation.
There are many possible areas within
marketing research and management where it
is necessary to gain insight and understanding
of particular phenomena and it is in this
context that a qualitative approach to
conducting research could benefit from
applying the research methods discussed.
Analytic rather than statistical justification for
conducting the research is of more
importance in such cases. A problem of some
kind, or a process such as decision making or
strategy formulation, as in the cases reported
here, may provide the focus for investigation
using these combined methods. It is
 An evaluation of two qualitative methods
Tony Hines
suggested that multiple methods provide
construct validity, internal and external
validity. Furthermore, the methods allow
complex issues to be examined using the
language of those involved. Interpretations
can be made with the help of those who have
influenced or socially constructed their
actions. This reduces researcher bias in
attempting to understand the world in which
participants are engaged. Meanings can be
examined through the group interviews,
recorded and analysed using the cognitive
mapping program, while participants are
present.
References
Ackerman, F., Eden, C. and Cropper, S. (1993), ``Getting
Downloaded by Duquesne University At 04:34 31 January 2016 (PT)
started with mapping: tutorial'', Management
Science, University of Strathclyde.
Bagozzi, R. (Ed.) (1994), Principles of Marketing Research,
Blackwell Business Publishers, Oxford.
Berger, P. and Luckman, T. (1967), The Social
Construction of Reality, Penguin, London.
Buchanan, D., Boddy, D. and McCalman, J. (1988),
``Getting in, getting on, getting out and getting
back'', in Bryman, A. (Ed.), Doing Research in
Organisations, Routledge, London.
Chell, E. (1998), ``Critical incident technique'', in
Symon, G. and Cassell, C. (Eds), Qualitative
Methods and Analysis in Organizational Research
± A Practical Guide, Sage Publications, London.
Denzin, N.K. and Lincoln, Y.S. (1998), Collecting and
Interpreting Qualitative Materials, Sage
Publications, London.
Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R. and Lowe, A. (1994),
Management Research: An Introduction, Sage
Publications, London.
Eden, C. (1990), ``Using cognitive mapping for strategic
options development and analysis (SODA)'', in
Rosenhead, J. (Ed.), Rational Analysis for a
Problematic World, Wiley, Chichester.
Eden, C. and Ackerman, F. (1992), ``Strategy development
and implementation ± the role of a group decision
support system'', in Kinney, S. Bostrom, B. and
Watson, R. (Eds), Computer Augmented Teamwork:
A Guided Tour, Van Nostrand, New York, NY.
16
Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal
Volume 3 . Number 1 . 2000 . 7±16
Flanagan, J.C. (1954), ``The critical incident technique'',
Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 1, pp. 327-58.
Fransella, F. and Dalton, P. (1990), Personal Construct
Counselling in Action, Sage Publications, London.
Gergen, K.J. (1988), ``The social constructionist movement
in modern psychology'', American Psychologist,
Vol. 40, pp. 266-75.
Glaser, B. and Strauss, A. (1967), The Discovery of
Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative
Research, Aldine, New York, NY.
Goodman, L. (1978), Analyzing Quantitative Categorical
Data, ABT Books, Cambridge, MA.
Gummesson, E. (1991), Qualitative Methods in
Management Research, Sage Publications, London.
Hines, T. (1998), Management Information for Marketing
and Sales, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.
Houldsworth, E. (1995), Theoretical Paradigms in
Management Research, EDAMBA.
Jahoda, M. (1988), ``Opening address: the range of
convenience of personal construct psychology ± an
outsider's view'', in Fransella, F. and Thomas, L.
(Eds), Experimenting with Personal Construct
Psychology, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London.
Kelly, G.A. (1955), Personal Construct Theory, Norton,
New York, NY.
Kelly, G.A. (1986), A Brief Introduction to Personal
Construct Theory, Centre for Personal Construct
Psychology, London.
Merton, R. (1987), ``The focused interview and focus
groups: continuities and discontinuities'', Public
Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 51, pp. 550-66.
Merton, R. and Kendall, P. (1946), ``The focused
interview'', American Sociological Review, Vol. 51,
pp. 541-57.
Merton, R., Fiske, M. and Kendall, P. (1990), The Focused
Interview, 2nd ed., Free Press, New York, NY.
Miles, M.B. and Huberman, A.M. (1994), Qualitative Data
Analysis (2nd ed.), Sage Publications, London.
Novak, J.D. and Gowan, D.B. (1984), Learning How to
Learn, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Remenyi, D., Williams, B., Money, A. and Swartz, E.
(1998), Doing Research in Business and
Management ± An Introduction to Process and
Method, Sage Publications, London.
Strauss, A.L. and Corbin, J. (1990), Basics of Qualitative
Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and
Techniques, Sage Publications, London.
Yin, R.K. (1994), Case Study Research Design and
Methods, 2nd ed., Sage Publications, London.
 This article has been cited by:

1. Eleonora Pantano. 2016. Engaging consumer through the storefront: Evidences from integrating interactive technologies.
Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 28, 149-154. [CrossRef]
2. Camilla Barbarossa, Alberto Pastore. 2015. Why environmentally conscious consumers do not purchase green products.
Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal 18:2, 188-209. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
3. Sanda Renko, Kristina Bucar. 2014. Sensing nostalgia through traditional food: an insight from Croatia. British Food Journal
116:11, 1672-1691. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
4. Felicity Kelliher, Elaine Aylward, Patrick LynchExploring Rural Enterprise: The Impact of Regional Stakeholder Engagement
on Collaborative Rural Networks 35-57. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] [PDF]
5. Wojciech Piotrowicz, Richard Cuthbertson. 2014. Introduction to the Special Issue Information Technology in Retail:
Toward Omnichannel Retailing. International Journal of Electronic Commerce 18, 5-16. [CrossRef]
6. Hannele Kauppinen-Räisänen, Anne Rindell, Charlotta Åberg. 2014. Conveying conscientiousness: Exploring environmental
images across servicescapes. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 21, 520-528. [CrossRef]
7. Hannele Kauppinen-Räisänen, Johanna Gummerus, Catharina von Koskull, Åke Finne, Anu Helkkula, Christian
Kowalkowski, Anne Rindell. 2014. Am I worth it? Gifting myself with luxury. Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management:
An International Journal 18:2, 112-132. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
8. Marco Tieman, Maznah Che Ghazali. 2014. Halal Control Activities and Assurance Activities in Halal Food Logistics. Procedia
- Social and Behavioral Sciences 121, 44-57. [CrossRef]
9. Jillian C. Sweeney, Johannes Kresling, Dave Webb, Geoffrey N. Soutar, Tim Mazzarol. 2013. Energy saving behaviours:
Downloaded by Duquesne University At 04:34 31 January 2016 (PT)

Development of a practice-based model. Energy Policy 61, 371-381. [CrossRef]

10. Marco Tieman, Maznah Che Ghazali. 2013. Principles in halal purchasing. Journal of Islamic Marketing 4:3, 281-293.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
11. Hannele Kauppinen‐Räisänen, Johanna Gummerus, Katariina Lehtola. 2013. Remembered eating experiences described by
the self, place, food, context and time. British Food Journal 115:5, 666-685. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
12. Marco Tieman, Jack G.A.J. van der Vorst, Maznah Che Ghazali. 2012. Principles in halal supply chain management. Journal
of Islamic Marketing 3:3, 217-243. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
13. Colm O'hEocha, Xiaofeng Wang, Kieran Conboy. 2012. The use of focus groups in complex and pressurised IS
studies and evaluation using Klein & Myers principles for interpretive research. Information Systems Journal 22:10.1111/
isj.2012.22.issue-3, 235-256. [CrossRef]
14. Claire A.G. Wolfs, Marjolein E. de Vugt, Mike Verkaaik, Marc Haufe, Paul-Jeroen Verkade, Frans R.J. Verhey, Fred Stevens.
2012. Rational decision-making about treatment and care in dementia: A contradiction in terms?. Patient Education and
Counseling 87, 43-48. [CrossRef]
15. Mark Xu, Vincent Ong, Yanqing Duan, Brian Mathews. 2011. Intelligent agent systems for executive information scanning,
filtering and interpretation: Perceptions and challenges. Information Processing & Management 47, 186-201. [CrossRef]
16. Nana Owusu-Frimpong, Albert Martins. 2010. Adoption and Implementation of Internal Marketing Systems by Ghanaian
Small- and Medium-Sized Enterprises. Journal of African Business 11, 26-48. [CrossRef]
17. Sarah‐Anne Muñoz. 2009. Social enterprise and public sector voices on procurement. Social Enterprise Journal 5:1, 69-82.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
18. Jillian C. Sweeney, Geoffrey N. Soutar, Tim Mazzarol. 2008. Factors influencing word of mouth effectiveness: receiver
perspectives. European Journal of Marketing 42:3/4, 344-364. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
19. Tim Mazzarol, Jillian C. Sweeney, Geoffrey N. Soutar. 2007. Conceptualizing word‐of‐mouth activity, triggers and conditions:
an exploratory study. European Journal of Marketing 41:11/12, 1475-1494. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
20. César Serrano Domínguez. 2007. Retailing establishments: A competitive analysis of commercial formats from the consumers’
profiles and perceptions. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 14, 297-308. [CrossRef]
21. Nicole E. Coviello. 2005. Integrating qualitative and quantitative techniques in network analysis. Qualitative Market Research:
An International Journal 8:1, 39-60. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
22. G. Ian Burke, Denise G. Jarratt. 2004. The influence of information and advice on competitive strategy definition in small‐ and
medium‐sized enterprises. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal 7:2, 126-138. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
23. Simone Guercini. 2004. Developing the researcher‐manager interface in the case analysis process. Management Decision 42:3/4,
464-472. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
24. Tim Mazzarol, Stephen Choo. 2003. A study of the factors influencing the operating location decisions of small firms.
Property Management 21:2, 190-208. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
 25. H. Kärkkäinen, K. Elfvengren. 2002. Role of careful customer need assessment in product innovation management—empirical
analysis. International Journal of Production Economics 80, 85-103. [CrossRef]
26. J. Enrique Bigné, Joaquín Aldás‐Manzano, Inés Küster, Natalia Vila. 2002. The concept mapping approach in marketing:
an application in the travel agencies sector. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal 5:2, 87-95. [Abstract] [Full
Text] [PDF]
27. Atila Yuksel, Fisun Yuksel. 2001. Measurement and Management Issues in Customer Satisfaction Research: Review, Critique
and Research Agenda: Part Two. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing 10, 81-111. [CrossRef]
28. Ahmed Elragal, Moutaz HaddaraThe Use of Experts Panels in ERP Cost Estimation Research 675-688. [CrossRef]
29. Ahmed Elragal, Moutaz HaddaraThe Use of Experts Panels in ERP Cost Estimation Research 117-130. [CrossRef]
Downloaded by Duquesne University At 04:34 31 January 2016 (PT)