Handbook Pitfalls Writing

Contents
PREFACE 3
1. PARAGRAPHS 4
2. ACHIEVING COHESION IN WRITING 5

2.1 Sentence flow 5
Continuous progression
Linear progression
2.2 Reference 7
2.3 Transition markers 7
3. VERB TENSE IN ACADEMIC WRITING 10

3.1 Overview 10
3.2 What tense to use when? 13
3.3 Four Crucial Problem Areas 14
4. MODAL AUXILIARIES 19
4.1 Will and Shall 19
4.2 May/Might, Maybe, Possibly, Can/Could 19
4.3 Have to 20
4.4 Would and Should 20
4.5 Fact or non-fact? 21
5. OTHER GRAMMATICAL ISSUES 22

5.1 Subject-verb agreement 22
5.2 Misplaced or dangling complements 23
6. WORD ORDER 25
6.1 Inversion 25
6.2 Word order in parenthetical information and enumerations 26
6.3 Fronting 26
6.4 Words, phrases, and clauses that belong together 26
6.5 Word order when combining different layers of discourse 27
6.6 Splitting infinitives 27
6.7 Word order with only, also, especially, particularly 28
6.8 Word order and adjectives 29
6.9 Word order and adverbs 29
The three positions for adverbs
Remarks on word order with particular types of adverbs
6.10 Some incidental Dutch-English differences in word order 32
6.11 Table of (preferred) adverb positions 33
6.12 Word Order: the basic points to remember 35
7. SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION 36

7.1 The comma 36
7.2 The hyphen 37
7.3 The apostrophe 37
Graduate School, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences

English
7.4 Parentheses 38
7.5 Mistakes your spelling checker will miss 38
8. BRITISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH 42

8.1 British-American differences in spelling 42
8.2 British-American differences in usage 43
8.3 British-American differences in verb conjugations 45
9. ACADEMIC TERMINOLOGY 46
10. ABBREVIATIONS 48
10.1 Abbreviations commonly used in academic English 48
10.2 Abbreviations impossible or uncommon in English 48
11. PARAPHRASING 51
12. TONE AND ATTITUDE IN ACADEMIC WRITING 52
EXERCISES 58
Thematic patterning 58
Reference 60
Verb tense 61
Modal Auxiliaries 62
Word order 64
Prepositional expressions 65
Spelling and punctuation 67
General exercise on English-language pitfalls 68
ACADEMIC WRITING - SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 70
KEYS TO EXERCISES 72
GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS 77
APPENDIX: RESOURCES FOR ACADEMIC ENGLISH 78
2 Graduate School, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences
English
PREFACE
This is a very slightly revised version of Ineke Smit’s Reader English-

Language Pitfalls for Dutch Writers (including Word Order). I will continue to
build on Ineke’s work and revise the Reader over the years. It is intended to
help Research Master and PhD students, more especially those at the
Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences at Leiden University, to recognize
and avoid danger areas when they write in English and to become more
critical when revising their own writing. The treatment of the various topics
does not aim to be exhaustive, but rather focuses on specific aspects that
non-native speakers of English tend to find difficult.
The Pitfalls course was designed with Dutch speakers in mind. I am
gradually broadening the scope of the course, but have retained many of the
comparisons with Dutch, since these are helpful for the majority of course
participants.
For a number of topics exercises have been included at the end of this book,
most of these with answer keys.
• Titles of works cited are given in full in the bibliography at the end. In
those cases when use has been made of free website content, the sites in
question have been acknowledged wherever necessary.
• Sentences or expressions marked ** are unacceptable in English.
I am grateful to Ineke Smit for allowing me to continue using and adapting

her Reader. She in turn drew on the readers (no longer available) compiled
by Kate Hudson and Laura Sweeney for the Wetenschappelijk Engels courses
in the Institutes of Psychology and Education and Child Studies,
1999/2000. Thanks are due, finally, to all students who in the course of
various workshops have pointed out errors and inconsistencies -- a phrase I
feel I may safely leave in this Preface for the coming years.
Maria Sherwood-Smith
September 2018
No part of this reader may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any way without prior
written permission from the author.
3
English
1. PARAGRAPHS
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/academic_writing/paragraphs_and_paragraphing/index.html
A new paragraph usually signals the beginning of new content. Typically, the
opening sentence provides an assertion (or statement). A second sentence
then usually does one of the following:
It offers evidence and then possibly some evaluation
It offers development of the same topic or idea, or
It offers an example.
Paragraph length and indents

Look at the difference between a Dutch and an English page:
Note that paragraphs (not the same as a Dutch paragraaf, which would be
section in English,) are longer than Dutch alinea’s, and are in principle
indented – see the APA manual for more guidelines on this.
English
2. ACHIEVING COHESION IN WRITING
At all levels -- sentences, paragraphs, sections – writing should be cohesive:

everything should ‘hang together’, and it should be obvious how one
paragraph or sentence follows from the preceding one. There are basically
three ways to link elements explicitly and coherently:
1. By structure: where do you put what?
2. By reference
3. By transition markers
2.1 Sentence flow

See also: http://iteslj.org/Articles/Alonso-ImprovingFlow.html; Hannay and Mackenzie 2017, pp. 112-118
Ad 1. Think about where you place old or familiar information (theme) and
new (focus) in your sentence, i.e., place information where your readers
expect to find it. In a well-constructed English sentence, the emphasis is
generally at the end -- so, place familiar information before the new. You can
use this rule to good effect when you string together sentences within a
paragraph. There are two basic patterns here; the first, continuous
progression, is a sort of written-out bulleted list, with every new sentence
providing a new statement about the same subject. The second type, linear
progression, is a powerful tool for developing an argument. See the following
diagrams:
Continuous progression
Paragraph
Sentence 1 Sentence 2 Sentence 3
Theme
Theme Focus Focus Theme Focus
5
English
Linear progression
Paragraph
Sentence 1 Sentence 2 Sentence 3
Theme
Theme Focus Focus Theme Focus
Various texts in which you may try and analyze how other writers handle
this aspect may be found in the exercise ‘Thematic Patterning’ at the end of
this reader.
Placing new information at the end of the sentence helps to avoid frontal
overload:
Awkward: Especially in the social sciences, a clear bias can be observed in the
development of models.
This sort of fronting (see also Section 6.3) should be avoided in English.
Better: A clear bias can be observed in the development of models, especially in the
social sciences.
However, when avoiding frontal overload, do not fall into the trap of making
the reader wait too long for the main verb:
In this study, the influence of several aspects of the process on the effectiveness of a
preventive intervention program, aimed at increasing sensitivity and disciplining
strategies for mothers of young children, was investigated.
Better:
In this study, we investigated how several aspects of the process influence the
effectiveness of a preventive intervention program, aimed at increasing sensitivity
and disciplining strategies for mothers of young children.
English
2.2 Reference
Expert writers also create a sense of continuity by using pronouns to point
backwards in their texts. This is called reference, and usually involves words
such as it, this, these, they. It should always be clear what previous element
such a word is referring to:
Unclear: Lasers have also been used to study the reaction by which nitric oxide and
ozone make nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and molecular oxygen. It plays an important role
in the chemistry of the ozone layer that surrounds the earth .
Better: Lasers have also been used to study the reaction by which nitric oxide and
ozone make nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and molecular oxygen. This process plays an
important role in the chemistry of the ozone layer that surrounds the earth.
There’s an exercise on reference at the end of this reader.
2. 3 Transition markers
Partly based on material from http://usawocc.army.mil/IMI/index.htm
How does one sentence or paragraph follow from the previous one? Cohesion
is also achieved by transition markers. To make your writing effective, you
must choose the transition marker that reflects the relationship you want to
establish. This relationship can be any of the following: addition; cause and
effect; comparison; concession; conclusion; contrast; emphasis; example;
generalizing; restatement; shifting focus; stating the obvious; time. Of
course, these categories may overlap.
Listed below are words or phrases you can use to help you move from
one idea to another, grouped by the relationship they establish between
ideas. You can use these transition markers within sentences, between
sentences, and between paragraphs. The result will be that your reader will
be able to follow your ideas as they flow from one to another.
Addition next
again too
also what is more
(and) then
apart from this
as well as that
besides
equally important
finally
first (and other ordinal numbers like
second, third, etc.)
further
furthermore
in addition
in fact
in the same way
last
likewise
moreover
7
English
Cause and Effect/ Consequence I admit
Accordingly naturally
as a consequence of course
as a result (of) even though
Because (of) for all that
consequently granted that
due to however
For this reason however much
hence in contrast to
In order to in fact
in short in spite of
then nevertheless
therefore notwithstanding
thus on the contrary
In that case on the other hand
it follows still
owing to whereas
So that while
Under those circumstances yet
Comparison Conclusion
both…and… Finally
in a like manner In other words
likewise In short
similarly In summary
in comparison Therefore
in the same way To sum up
compared to To conclude
compared with Thus
Contrast/ Concession Emphasis

Actually Chiefly
Admittedly Equally
after all Especially
after all Even more important
albeit In particular
although Indeed
at the same time Mainly
alternatively Particularly
although true Truly
and yet
as a matter of fact
as opposed to
at the same time
but
by contrast
contrary to
conversely
despite
doubtless
even though
English
Example When it comes to
As an example With reference to
As follows With regard to
For example
For instance Stating the obvious
In this case After all
Including As may be expected
Like (informal) Clearly
Specifically It goes without saying
Such as Naturally
That is No doubt
That is to say Obviously
Of course
Generalizing Surely
As a rule
Broadly speaking Time /Sequence
For the most part after a short time
Generally speaking afterwards
In general as long as
In many cases as soon as
In most cases at last
Mostly at length
On the whole at that time
To some extent at the same time
Usually before
earlier
Restatement finally
Alternatively firstly, secondly, etc.
In effect immediately
In other words in the first place
In short in the meantime
namely lately
That is to say later
That is meanwhile
To be more precise next
To put it another way of late
presently
Shifting focus (also see Addition) shortly
As far as … is concerned since
As for soon
As regards temporarily
Furthermore then
In addition thereafter
In terms of thereupon
It follows that to begin with
Moreover to start with
On the matter of until
On the question of when
while
Graduate School, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences 9

English
3. VERB TENSE IN ACADEMIC WRITING
For the most part the APA/APSA guidelines on verb tense accord with
standard conventions of contemporary written English. For problematic
issues of English verb tense for native speakers of Dutch, see Section 3.3
below.
3.1. Overview
Uses of the Present Tense (onvoltooid tegenwoordige tijd)
Simple Progressive (-ing form)

1. To state a general truth, or what 1. To denote activities or events
the writer believes to be a general actually in progress in the outside
truth: world at the time of publication:
Water freezes at 0 degrees centigrade Researchers are currently working on this

Aggression is always a consequence of problem
frustration
2. To state a definition:
A is defined as the sum of B and C
3. To describe implications of
research findings and conclusions:
These results suggest that obesity may be

linked to lack of sleep
4. To indicate the location of

information within an article:
Table 1 shows the group means

The full set of questions is listed in the
Appendix
English
Uses of the Present Perfect Tense (voltooid tegenwoordige tijd)

1. To describe actions which began 1. To describe actions which began
at some time in the past and at some time in the past and
continue in the present, in a rather continue in the present, stressing
abstract sense: the ongoing activity itself:
Scientists have struggled to explain this Scientists have been struggling to explain
phenomenon since its discovery in 1966 this phenomenon since its discovery in
1966
2. To describe completed actions

representing something new or
otherwise relevant to the present
study:
Researchers at Leiden University have

developed a special technique for
measuring happiness
3. To describe completed actions or

findings common to a number of
studies or researchers:
Scientists have established that lack of

sleep may cause obesity
BUT
When the common action is
explicitly situated in some period in
the past, use the simple past tense:
In the 1960s, researchers established

that….

English
Uses of the Simple Past Tense (onvoltooid verleden tijd)

1. To describe discrete past research 1. To indicate that something
events, such as procedures, happened while something else was
statistical tests, findings. Such in progress:
events might be related to prior
studies or to the study being While the subjects were completing the
reported: form, the experimenter pretended to
calculate their scores
We followed the protocol developed by Nunn
(1991)
Some subjects found the material shocking
The main effect for group identity was

significant
A multivariate analysis of variance was

conducted
We found a strong relationship between

sleep and obesity
2. To describe arguments,
speculations, theories, models and
conclusions advanced in prior
studies as part of a historical
overview:
Haley (1988) proposed a cognitive model of

coping behaviour
Ramirez (1991) offered a new interpretation

of these results
BUT: use the present perfect to

highlight the relevance for the
present study
Ramirez (2011) has offered a new

interpretation of these results
English
3.2.What tense to use when?
To state general truths: Simple present

Water freezes at 0 degrees centigrade
To describe your own Simple past

actions and findings: A multivariate analysis of variance was
conducted
We found a high correlation between body
weight and truancy
To refer to other authors: a. If you’re still engaged in a discussion with

them, as it were (even across a gap of twenty
years): present or present perfect
Brown (1999) states that

Brown (1999) has stated that
b. If you mention them as part of a

‘historical’ overview of the state of affairs
regarding your topic: simple past
Brown (1999) stated that

English
3.3 Four Crucial Problem Areas
A thorough overview of the English verb tense system would be quite time-
consuming and is in most cases not necessary for learners writing at an
academic level. This section focuses on a few key problems that arise in
academic texts written in English by Dutch authors.
Problem Area 1: Non-progressive vs. progressive aspect

A) What are the simple (non-progressive) and progressive present tenses?
Simple present
Active: Psychologists study the human mind.

Passive: The human mind is studied by psychologists.
Progressive present
Active: Psychologists are studying the human mind.

Passive: The human mind is being studied by psychologists.
B) What goes wrong?

Native speakers of Dutch and German tend to overuse the progressive in
English. They often think, mistakenly, that the progressive should be used to
denote repeated actions or actions that continue over a period of time, and
that the simple present should be reserved for discrete acts.
Note the correct distinction between the simple present and the progressive:
1. The simple present is used to express (a) habits, (b) dispositions, (c) usual
or typical behaviour, (d) general relationships, (e) enduring facts, and (f)
enduring activities or situations that are not limited to a particular period.
(a) X smokes a pipe.

(b) Z is careless.
(c) Y works hard.
(d) Lower wages lead to lower tax revenues.
(e) The sun rises in the east.
(f) They live in Leiden.
2. The progressive is used to indicate that a particular activity or situation is

in progress. The situation must have duration, as otherwise it cannot be ‘in
progress’ (cf. **I am finding my key). The situation must also be dynamic;
the progressive cannot refer to a state (cf. **She is having blue eyes).
(a) X is smoking a pipe. (This sentence does not tell you whether X habitually
smokes a pipe; it only tells you that he is doing so now.)
(b) Z is being careless. (This sentence doesn't mean, as 1b does, that Z is generally
careless, but that Z is now behaving carelessly.)
(c) Y is working hard. (This sentence doesn't tell you about typical behaviour, but
about actual behaviour in a particular time period.)
(d) Lower wages are leading to lower tax revenues. (This sentence expresses not a
general relationship, but a specific relationship that holds now.)
(e) The sun is rising this morning amidst a beautiful display of colour. (Again, a
specific occurrence rather than a general relationship is referred to here.)
(f) They are living in Leiden. (This sentence suggests that they are living in Leiden
for some temporary period; sentence 1f does not imply a temporary situation.)
English
Problem Area 2: Simple present vs. present perfect; simple past vs. past
perfect
A) What are the simple present, present perfect, simple past, and past perfect
tenses?
Simple present
Active: Psychologists study the human mind.
Passive: The human mind is studied by psychologists.
Present perfect
Active: Psychologists have studied the human mind.
Passive: The human mind has been studied by psychologists.
Simple past
Active: Psychologists studied the human mind.
Passive: The human mind was studied by psychologists.
Past perfect
Active: Psychologists had studied the human mind.
Passive: The human mind had been studied by psychologists.
B) What goes wrong?

I) Simple present vs. present perfect -- Native speakers of Dutch and German
tend to use the simple present when the present perfect is called for in
English. To describe an action that occurred over a period of time up to and
including the present, English uses the present perfect. It is a compound
tense, combining past and present and forming a bridge between the two.
Thus, to indicate that you have studied some research question for a two-
year period up to and including the present, you might write the following
Dutch sentence:
(1) We onderzoeken deze vraag al twee jaar.
A direct translation of sentence 1 would yield (incorrectly):
(2) **We study this question already for two years.**

(3) **We are studying this question already for two years.**
In English, you must instead use the present perfect (either non-progressive
or progressive) in a translation of sentence 1:
(4) We have studied this question for two years.

(5) We have been studying this question for two years.
2) Simple past vs. past perfect --The problem in this case is analogous to the
problem described immediately above. Suppose you want to describe an
action that occurred over a period of time up to and including some point in
the past, at which time something else happened. Here, you must use the
past perfect in English, not the simple past (as you might in Dutch). Thus, to
indicate that you studied some research question for a two-year period up to
and including some point in the past, at which time you discovered
something new, you might write the following Dutch sentence:
English
(5) We onderzochten de vraag al twee jaar, toen we opeens de samenhang ontdekten.
Direct translation of Sentence 5 would yield (incorrectly):
(6) **We studied the question already for two years when we discovered this
relationship.**
(7) **We were studying the question already for two years when we discovered this
relationship**
Instead, use the past perfect (either non-progressive or progressive):
(8) We had studied the question for two years when we discovered this relationship.
(9) We had been studying the question for two years when we discovered this
relationship.
In the above examples, the difference between the non-progressive sentences

(#3 and #8) on the one hand, and the progressive sentences (#4 and #9) on
the other, is not substantial. The non-progressive emphasizes the completion
of the action, whereas the progressive highlights the activity itself.
Problem Area 3: Present perfect vs. simple past

Speakers of Dutch and German overuse the English present perfect. This is
primarily because the present perfect is more widely applicable in those
languages than in English. The present perfect can be used to convey just
about any completed action in Dutch and German – but in English this is
not the case! A general rule of thumb is that the present perfect in English
always bears some relation to the present time.
Present perfect --The present perfect is normally used in English to denote

an action that occurred either throughout or on one or more discrete
occasions during a period of time up to and including the present moment.
Often a specific period of time is mentioned explicitly (in Sentence 10: "since
1975"; in Sentence 11: "since the beginning of her life").
(10) Since 1975 researchers have devoted much attention to this question.
(11) Anastasia has been to Russia once in her life. (This implies that she is still
alive).
When no period of time is mentioned explicitly, the present perfect can still
(implicitly) indicate some period of time up to and including the present.
Researchers have devoted much attention to this question. (This implies that they
continue to do so now.)
Anastasia has been to Russia once. (This implies that she is still alive).
In academic writing, the present perfect is often used in descriptions of

discrete events when there is emphasis on the implications of the event for
the present moment – rather than on the action involved in the event itself.
Rogers and Smith (1988) have developed a scale for measuring Y.

Higgins (1990) has found that Z is an important factor in Q.
English
Simple past --The simple past is used to describe events that took place
during a period in the past that is now over. When a sentence refers
explicitly to a past period that is now over, use the simple past – never the
present perfect!
Researchers devoted much attention to this question in the 1980s.

Never: **Researchers have devoted much attention to this question in the 1980s.**
Van Dijk published a study on emotions in 1979.
Never: **Van Dijk has published a study on emotions in 1979.**
When they were in South America, they visited Rio.
Never: **When they were in. .., they have visited. ...**
In the absence of an explicit reference to a period of time, the simple past

tense will tend to be used to refer to discrete events, with emphasis on
description of the action itself rather than on the action's implications for the
present time.
Thompson studied the influence of group membership on self-esteem.
If --rather than simply explaining what Thompson did-- you want to imply
that his or her findings have important implications for the present time (for
instance, for the present state of knowledge on a particular topic), you could
instead use the present perfect.
Thompson has studied the influence of group membership on self-esteem.
Note, finally, that the present perfect is appropriate for referring to what you
have done so far in a given article, chapter, book, etc.
In this article/chapter/book we have examined the social determinants of x.
Unlike in the above example, when you want to describe what you did in a
previous chapter, section, or article, you might instead use the simple past
tense. For example, the following sentence might appear in the third chapter
of a book:
In chapter 2 we examined the social determinants of X.
Common markers of the present perfect and simple past tenses

As we’ve seen, the key distinction between the present perfect and the simple
past is that the present perfect links the past and the present, whereas the
simple past tense indicates a break between the two. Several phrases
commonly used in academic English share these characteristics and can
often serve as clue about which tense is needed.
Phrases commonly used with present perfect

To date, As yet,
Until now, Since 1975/a week/a second ago
In recent years, Over the last 5 months,
Recently
Phrases commonly used with simple past tense

Last week/year etc.
English
In 2014
A year/week/minute/nanosecond ago [but see since above!]
Problem Area 4: No future tense in temporal & conditional subordinate

clauses
The fourth and final "problem area" is a minor one in comparison with the
three discussed above. In fact, in this fourth aspect of verb tense, Dutch and
English often behave in the same way. Let us begin with some definitions. A
subordinate clause is a clause which is introduced by a particular type of
conjunction (voegwoord). A temporal subordinate clause is a clause
introduced by a conjunction that has to do with time.
When more is known;

As soon as these data have been gathered; etc.
A conditional subordinate clause is a clause introduced by a conjunction

that denotes conditionality.
If researchers pay more attention to X;

Unless this practice is discontinued; etc.
The point to be made in this context is demonstrated in the above examples:

The main verb in a temporal or conditional subordinate clause which
denotes a future action is not expressed in a future tense. Instead, a present
tense (present or present perfect) is used.
…and finally, a false friend: the translation of the Dutch passive present
perfect
Dit toilet is schoongemaakt om 15:00 uur
Never: **This toilet is cleaned at 15.00 hrs
But: This toilet was cleaned at 15.00 hrs
Dit concept is ontwikkeld door Thompson

Never: **This concept is developed by Thompson
But: This concept was/has been/is being developed by Thompson.
...
English
4. MODAL AUXILIARIES
Modal auxiliaries are a special class of verbs. The modal auxiliaries of
English are the following: can [past: could], may [past: might], will [past:
would], shall [past: should], must, ought, need, dare.
These verbs play a key role in scholarly writing. Whereas the descriptive
parts of a scholarly text (e.g., accounts of empirica1 procedures and results)
feature few modal auxiliaries, the more abstract components of a scholarly
text (e.g., theoretica1 rationale, model or theory to be tested, implications of
the findings, speculations supported by the findings) usually make heavy
use of these verbs. This means that success in conveying abstract and
nuanced messages may depend on your mastery of the modal auxiliaries.
This section briefly discusses some of the more confusing aspects of use of
modal auxiliaries. For a more complete treatment of the topic, see Sanders,
Tingloo, & Verhulst (2005, pp. 139-168).
4.1 Will and Shall

Will can be used with all persons, whereas shall can only be used with first-
person subjects.
I/you/he/she/it/we/they will arrive at 11:00.

I/we shall arrive at 11:00.
Will and shall are most commonly used to form the future tense, as shown
above. In the formation of future tenses, use of shall is much more common
in British English; in American English shall is rarely used to form a future
tense.
Note that shall is also used (in both British and American English) in polite
suggestions in the first person.
Shall we go now?
Shall I begin my presentation?
4.2 May/Might, Maybe, Possibly, Can/Could

Dutch writers often rely on the words maybe and possibly when it would be
better to use the modal auxiliaries may or its past tense might. Note that use
of maybe and possibly in written English tends to yield an awkward
sentence.
**This result is possibly [or: may be] exp1ained by the uncertain credibility of
the authority figure.**
Better This resu1t could be [may be; might be] attributable to the uncertain. ...
It is possible [It may be; It could be] that this result was a consequence of. ...
In speculation about the implications of your results or the reason why

something occurred as it did, may, might, or could are preferable to can. Note
also that may conveys a stronger possibility than might, which in turn
conveys a stronger possibility than might possibly.
**These results suggest that X can be attributable to Y.**

Better These results suggest that X is/may/might/could be attributable to Y.

English
Also note that the following constructions are often used to introduce
speculation or theoretical proposals.
It may/might/could be that. ...
It is possible that. ...
It is likely that. ...
Use can to describe theoretical possibilities that are in fact or in some sense
"true”.
Stress responses can be divided into three categories.
4.3 Have to
Try not to overuse have to in written English. Note however that is perfectly
acceptable in spoken English.
**The subjects had to complete a questionnaire.**

Better The subjects completed a questionnaire.
The subjects were asked to complete a questionnaire.
4.4 Would and Should

Would and should are used frequently in polite requests (for instance in
letters).
I would/should like to thank you for your assistance.

I would/should be very grateful if you could send me a reprint of this article.
Note however that should in sentences like those above is rarely used in
American English.
English
4.5 Fact or Non-Fact?
When translating Dutch constructions with had(den) + modal auxiliary (e.g.,
had kunnen, had mogen, had moeten) in main clauses (hoofdzinnen), it is
important to distinguish whether they refer to actual facts or not. If not, they
are modal in meaning.
Non-Fact (Modal) Fact (Non-Modal)

had kunnen could have had been able to
would have been able to
had mogen would have been had been allowed to
allowed to
had moeten should have had had to
Would cannot be used in subclauses (bijzinnen). Instead, the corresponding

non-modal forms are used, and acquire modal meaning. In English, non-
modal forms never have modal meaning in main clauses.
Compare the following examples.
Hij had de baan kunnen krijgen, als hij gewild had. (modal)
He would have been able to get the job, if he had wanted it.
Hij had de baan gelukkig kunnen krijgen. (fact)
Fortunately, he had been able to get the job.
Ze hadden mogen blijven, als ze de huur betaald hadden. (modal)
They would have been allowed to stay, if they had paid the rent.
Ze hadden gelukkig de schilderijen mogen zien. (fact)
Fortunately, they had been allowed to see the paintings.
Als ik thuis had moeten blijven, dan was ik hier nu niet. (modal)
If I had had to stay at home, I would not (have) be(en) here now.
Als hij had mogen optreden, dan had hij het gedaan. (modal)
If he had been allowed to perform, he would have done so.
There is an exercise on modal auxiliaries in the Exercise section at the

end of this reader.

English
5. OTHER GRAMMATICAL ISSUES
5.1 Subject-verb agreement

The remarks below supplement the APA manual’s treatment of this topic.
1. Note that the following sentences take a singular verb:
Each patient, together with his or her spouse, was interviewed.

The bad weather, as well as the lack of daylight, was responsible for the poor quality
of the videotape.
The house, including furniture and household appliances, was sold for $ 450,000.
A singular verb is required in the above examples, because phrases enclosed

in commas do not affect the basic grammatical structure of a sentence.
Thus, the (singular) subjects of the above sentences are simply Each patient,
The bad weather, and The house.
2. Also note the following similarities and differences between Dutch and
English:
a. Het aantal psychologen in Nederland is aan het stijgen.

Een aantal psychologen is bezorgd over deze ontwikkeling.
The number of psychologists in the Netherlands is growing.

A number of psychologists have expressed concern about this development.
‘The number of’ refers to the numeral itself, not the multitude of things
represented by it; therefore it takes a singular verb in English. ‘A number of’,
on the other hand, focuses on the multitude of different people/things
involved, and takes a plural verb.
b. Niets van de informatie is beschikbaar

Geen van de onderzoekers is aanwezig
None of the information is available

BUT: None of the researchers are present
If none refers (explicitly or implicitly) to a singular noun (e.g., information),

use a singular verb; if none refers to a plural noun (researchers), use a plural
verb. (This is actually a flexible area of English usage; see also Swan (2005),
sections 526-532.)
c. Slechts 12% van de informatie is juist

Slechts 12% van de adressen is juist.
Only 12% of the information is correct.

BUT: Only 12% of the addresses are correct.
The above sentences are governed by the same general principle as under (b)
above.
d. De meerderheid van de psychologen is bekend met het werk van Piaget.

The majority of psychologists are familiar with Piaget’s work.
English
5.2 Misplaced or dangling complements/modifiers
Consider the following sentences:
1. After separating the subjects into groups, group A was tested.

2. The subjects were tested using this procedure.
3. To ensure confidentiality, the subjects were interviewed separately.
4. Intrigued by these findings, a new study was designed.
5. Congruent with other studies, Black and Brown (1980) found this group performed
better.
The ‘modifiers’ are the phrases in italics. There are two types: adverbial and
adjectival.
I. Adverbial modifiers (examples 1-3) provide information about the main

action described in a sentence. The rule is that the implicit subject of such a
modifier must be the same as the subject of the main clause that is
modified. Adverbial modifiers that are particularly vulnerable to being left
dangling are the ones that:
a. contain to & infinitive (to test, to find) or a present participle (testing,

finding)
b. do not mention a specific subject for the verb they contain: separating,
using, to ensure, in sentences 1-3 above.
The problems arise because of the absent but implicit subject in the
modifiers. In a sentence such as
To ensure confidentiality, the subjects were interviewed separately
the subject of the main clause (‘the subjects’) is not the implied subject of the
modifier.
Solutions:
To ensure confidentiality, we interviewed the subjects separately.
The subjects were interviewed separately, so that confidentiality would be ensured
(here, the modifier has been changed to a clause with its own subject)
II. Adjectival modifiers (examples 4 and 5 above) provide additional

information on a noun contained in a clause. This noun need not be subject
of the clause. The adjectival modifiers that cause most problems are those
that begin with or consist only of
a. an adjective: congruent with…
b. a past participle: intrigued by these findings
Adjectival modifiers can be either misplaced or dangling:

Misplaced modifiers are not placed next to the noun they qualify, and thus
may be understood as qualifying some other noun:
We designed a new study, intrigued by these findings.

English
Dangling modifiers are those that modify a noun that is not contained
anywhere in the sentence:
Intrigued by these findings, a new study was designed
Solutions:
Intrigued by these findings, we designed a new study
Or, if you want to avoid the first person:
A new study was designed to address the questions raised by these findings
English
6. WORD ORDER
This section is devoted to word order problems arising in scholarly texts
written in English by Dutch authors. Most of these problems can be traced
back to Dutch-English word order differences.
6.1.Inversion
Inversion means putting the verb before the subject of a clause. While
inversion is quite frequent in Dutch, it is reserved primarily for questions in
English. Note the following points about the use of inversion in the English
language.
a. No inversion in indirect questions

Inversion is not used in indirect questions.
correct: I wondered how clear the explanation was.

incorrect: **I wondered how clear was the explanation.**
b. Inversion following negative and restrictive adverbial expressions

Although inversion is generally reserved for questions in English, there is
one context in which clauses that do not pose questions nevertheless show
inversion. Inversion is necessary in clauses that begin with a negative or
restrictive adverb or adverbial expression. When writing in English, one must
be able to recognize these types of adverbs and adverbial phrases and
clauses, and use inversion when they occur at the beginning of a clause. In
each of the sentences below the negative or restrictive adverb or adverbial
phrase is underlined. The inverted subject and verb are italicized.
In no circumstances can such behaviour be permitted.

NOT: **In no circumstances such behaviour can be permitted.**]
Never before had such an effect been documented.
We were not enthusiastic about re-entering all the data. Nor [or Neither] were we
pleased to find out that 10% of it had been discarded.
Not until we had entered all of the data did we realize our mistake.
Not only did Rogers fail to assign his subjects randomly, but he also neglected to
include a control condition in his design.
Nowhere in the literature has such an effect been reported.
On no account should these results be considered conclusive.
Only after transformation was this variable normally distributed.
Only rarely did subjects fail to perform the task correctly.
Only then did we realize the mistake we had made.
Scarcely/ Hardly/ No sooner had we entered all the data when we realized our
mistake.
Seldom [or Rarely] has such ingenuity been demonstrated in this field.
If you are not certain whether a given adverbial expression calls for
inversion, the simplest solution is not to put the expression at the beginning
of the sentence. If the expression isn't at the beginning of the sentence, there
will be no inversion, regardless of whether or not it is negative or restrictive.
The last of the example sentences just given could thus be rewritten as
follows (without inversion):
Such ingenuity has seldom been demonstrated in this field.

English
6.2. Word order in parenthetical information and enumerations
Parenthetical information and enumerations introduced with a colon
(dubbele punt) should directly follow the sentence elements with which they
are associated. That is, 2b and 2d below are preferable to 2a and 2c.
(2a*) **The pupils found it difficult to solve these problems (not to mention their
teachers).**
(2b) The pupils (not to mention their teachers) found it difficult to solve these
problems.
(2c*) **Three hypotheses were investigated in this study: Hl, H2, and H3.**
(2d) In this study we investigated three hypotheses: Hl, H2, and H3.
If it is awkward to place the words that reflect what is to be enumerated at

the end of the clause, these words can be placed elsewhere in the sentence
and tagged with the word following. For example:
(2e) The following three hypotheses were investigated in this study: Hl, H2, and H3.
Sentences like 2f (below) appear to be standard in Dutch. However, such

word order is confusing to English speakers. It is better to use the word
order shown in 2g or 2h.
(2f*) **Each subject was presented with one "red" (typically Republican) and one
"blue" proposal (typically Democratic).**
(2g) Each subject was presented with one "red" (typically Republican) and one "blue"
(typically Democratic) proposal.
(2h) Each subject was presented with two proposals: one "red" (typically Republican)
and one "blue" (typically Democratic).
6.3. Fronting
A direct object or an indirect object can be placed at the beginning of a
clause. This is referred to as fronting. (There are also other forms of fronting;
the term literally means ‘putting in front’, and generally refers to having
sentence parts in front that do not usually go there, usually for special
effect.) This structure can be awkward, especially if it means the reader has
to wait a long time before the sentence ‘gets to the point’. However, fronting
can be a useful way to ensure continuity with a previous sentence. For
example:
A number of subjects expressed suspicion about the underlying purpose of the

experiment. To these subjects we gave the explanation….
Below are some examples of fronting that do not quite work in English.
Poor **To the horror index an inverse transformation was applied.**

Better An inverse transformation was applied to the horror index.
Poor **Between the two approaches there are a number of similarities.**
Better There are a number of similarities between the two approaches.
6.4. Words, Phrases, and Clauses that Belong Together

Try not to let the verb of a main clause separate phrases and clauses from
the nouns they modify. The last two examples in the previous section
illustrate one aspect of this problem. In each case, a prepositional phrase (to
English
the horror index, between the two approaches) and the word it modifies
(applied, similarities) are separated by the verb of the clause. Other examples
of this type of problem are illustrated below.
Poor **Data are presented on hospital admissions due to attempted suicide.**

Better Data on hospital! admissions due to attempted suicide are presented.
We present data on hospital admissions due to attempted suicide.
This article presents data on hospital admissions due to attempted suicide.
Poor **Data are presented that support Hall's theory.**
Better Data that support Hall's theory are presented.
We present data that support Hall' s theory .
This article presents data that support Hall's theory.
A related point is that phrases that together with particular verbs constitute
idiomatic expressions should be kept together. These expressions can often
be recognized by the fact that they contain a preposition that cannot be
understood literally. Thus the sentences below contain idiomatic expressions
because in is not meant literally in the sense of "in” a certain place or time
period.
The students participated in learning exercises.

There was a decrease in the number of bus passengers.
Such idiomatic expressions are best left intact. For example:
Poor **The students participated in Room 211 in learning exercises.**

Better The students participated in learning exercises in Room 211.
Poor **There was a decrease in 1991 in the number of bus passengers.**
Better There was a decrease in the number of bus passengers in 1991.
Single adverbs (e.g., eagerly) inserted within idiomatic expressions are not a
problem.
The students participated eagerly in the learning exercises.
6.5 Word order when combining different layers of discourse

Be careful about word order in sentences that combine different "realms" or
"levels" of discourse. For example, when reporting what another scholar has
written, one can easily make serious mistakes.
Poor (5a*) **When attempting to solve this addition problem, Riley states that
the child usually becomes frustrated.** (The problem is that this
sentence means that it was Riley who attempted to solve the
problem.)
Better (5b) Riley states that the child usually becomes frustrated when
attempting to solve this problem.
Better (5c) When attempting to solve this problem, Riley states, the child
usually becomes frustrated
Note that if a reference to the source of a statement (Riley states in the above
example) occurs in the middle of your account of what was actually stated,
the reference should be set off with commas (as in 5c).

English
6.6. Splitting Infinitives
English usage guides used to strongly advise writers against splitting
infinitives, i.e. putting an adverb (such as strongly) between to and a verb
(such as advise) in the infinitive form (to [strongly] advise, to [boldly] go, etc.).
This rule is now generally viewed as unnecessary and outdated, but it is
perhaps important to be aware of it.
(6a) It is important to monitor the outcome closely. [not to closely monitor]

(6b) Subjects were encouraged to answer these questions honestly. [not to honestly
answer]
In 6c (below) an attempt to avoid splitting an infinitive has led to ambiguity;

it is not clear which verb is modified by frequently (forget or signifies?); in
such a situation it is even necessary to split the infinitive for the sake of
clarity, as has been done in 6d.
(6c) To forget people’s names frequently signifies a lack of courtesy.

(6d) To frequently forget people's names signifies a lack of courtesy.
Another context in which one might split infinitives is illustrated below.
(6e) It is important to monitor subjects' blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration
closely.
(6f) It is important to closely monitor subjects' blood pressure, heart rate, and
respiration.
In the case of 6e, it could be argued that the adverb closely is too far from
the verb it modifies, monitor, so that the infinitive should be split (as in 6f) as
a way of getting the two words together.
6.7.Word order with only, also, especially, particularly

Only should precede the word to which it applies.
(a) He lent me only ten dollars. (Not 100 dollars)

(b) He only lent me ten dollars. (He didn't give it to me!)
(c) He lends money only to me (thus not to anyone else).
(d) Only he lends me money (no one else lends me money).
Note that the above does not apply to also. To replace only in the above
sentences with also, the following changes have to be made:
(a) He lent me ten dollars, too. OR: He also lent me ten dollars.
(b) He also lent me ten dollars.
(c) He lends money to me, too, OR: He also lends me money.
(d) He, too, lends me money. OR: He also lends me money.
Thus, also can only be placed together with the verb, as in the above
sentences; also cannot be placed in the other positions occupied by only in
the previous four example sentences. In the four above sentences, the focus
of the word also can be interpreted in a number of different ways.
Do not begin a sentence with the word also, especially, or particularly
followed immediately (i.e., with no intervening comma) by the subject of the
sentence.
English
Poor **Also the 10-year olds performed poorly.**
Better The 10-year olds also performed poorly.
Poor **Especially the 10-year olds performed poorly.**
Better The 10-year olds were especially likely to perform poorly.
Better The 10-year olds performed most poorly.
Better The performance of the 10-year olds was especially poor.
Note these other ways of using especially and particularly:

The deterioration of the attention span was considerable, especially/particularly
among boys.
Boys, especially/particularly those under five, showed great interest in the stimulus
materials.
6.8. Word order and adjectives

An adjective that precedes a noun can itself be preceded by modifiers in the
form of other adjectives, simple (single-word) adverbs, and/or articles. Thus
the following sentence is correct:
(8a) The experiment was carried out according to a carefully made plan.
Modifying phrases cannot precede an adjective, however. Thus the Dutch

word order in 8b is not acceptable in English. A correct translation of 8b is
given in 8c:
(8b) De door de politie opgeworpen barricaden werden afgebroken.

(8c) The barricades put up by the police were knocked down.
6.9 Word order and adverbs

There are three possible positions for single-word adverbs:
A) initial position
B) middle position
C) end position
Some adverbs may occupy any of these three positions. Other adverbs can
only occur in one or two of the three possible positions.
Adverbial phrases can normally occupy only the initial and end positions.
Below is a description of the three positions for adverbs, followed by a
discussion of regularities in the placement of some types of adverbs.
The Three Positions for Adverbs

1) Initial Position --"Initia1 position" for an adverb means ‘before the sentence
subject.’ Placing an adverb or adverbial phrase in the initial position serves
to put emphasis on that adverb. The following types of adverbs are
frequently found in the initial position:
a) Adverbs of definite time:
Yesterday we finished entering the data.

In June the days are very long.
b) Some adverbs of indefinite frequency:

Sometimes it is advisable not to say what you think.

English
Most other types of adverbs usually occupy either the middle or the end
positions.
2) Middle Position --The precise meaning of 'middle position’ for an adverb

depends on the characteristics of the verb which is modified by the adverb.
a) When a verb consists of only one word that is a form of the verb to be,
middle position means ‘after the verb’:
He is usually late.
Not can be placed either before or after the adverb in a sentence constructed
as the one
above:
He is not usually late.
He is usually not late.
Note, however, that the two sentences above have slightly different
meanings.
b) When a verb consists of only one word that is not a form of the verb to be,
middle position means ‘before the verb’ :
He always says what he means.
c) When a verb consists of more than one word, the most common middle
position is ‘after the first auxiliary verb’:
The profits have always been shared
Not in a sentence like the one above is usually placed before the adverb.
The profits have not always been shared.
In the last two examples the adverb modifies the entire predicate.
Sometimes, however, middle position for an adverb (especially an adverb of
manner) should precede the final element of a multi-word predicate:
The profits have been equally divided.
d) Finally, you should never put an adverb between a verb and its direct
object, as illustrated below:
Poor **The physician monitored closely the patient's blood pressure.**

Better The physician closely monitored the patient's blood pressure
Better The physician monitored the patient's blood pressure closely
The types of adverbs that typically occupy the middle position

-adverbs of manner (e.g., willingly, secretly, reluctantly)
-adverbs of indefinite time (e.g., currently, recently)
-adverbs of indefinite frequency (e.g., usually, sometimes)
English
3) End Position --"End position" for an adverb means following the clause's
subject, verb, direct object, indirect object, and so forth.
The types of adverbs that typically occupy the end position

-adverbs of manner (e.g., willingly, secretly, reluctantly)
-adverbs of evaluation (e.g., poorly, well)
-adverbs of place (e.g., there)
-adverbs of definite time (e.g., yesterday)
-adverbs of definite frequency (e.g., twice)
-adverbial phrases (e.g., in 1991)
The order of multiple adverbs in the end position

It is possible for a number of different adverbs to occupy the end position
simultaneously. In this context, adverbs of manner are usually placed first,
followed by adverbs of place, followed by adverbs of time:
The trains ran on schedule throughout the Netherlands this morning.

The train arrived in Amsterdam on time this morning.
This order is contrary to the tendency in Dutch to put time adverbs before
place adverbs.
Remarks on Word Order with Particular Types of Adverbs
(1.) Adverbs of manner

Adverbs of manner indicate how a certain action was performed; they
usually end in -ly. Adverbs of manner can be placed in either the middle or
the end position. In a clause with a long direct object, it is advisable to put
an adverb of manner in the middle position. For example:
They volunteered willingly.
They willingly volunteered to help the unemployed immigrants find work.
In clauses with more than one verb, different meanings can result from
placing an adverb of manner in the middle as compared with the end
position.
They secretly decided to run away from home.

They decided to run away from home secretly.
The meaning of an adverb of manner that involves personal qualities of

persons (e.g., foolishly, generously) differs depending on whether it occupies
the middle or the end position. Such adverbs in the middle position suggest
dispositional attributions (e.g., that the person was foolish or generous to
have acted in such a way:
He foolishly answered all of the questions.

He generously gave every employee a raise.
The same adverbs in the end position only modify the verb and do not
necessarily suggest dispositional attributions:
He answered all of the questions foolishly.

He paid every employee generously.
English
(2) Adverbs of evaluation
Adverbs that evaluate or indicate how well or how badly something was done
typically belong in the end position of a clause in which the verb is active. In
passive structures, however, evaluative adverbs can precede past participles:
The lawyer argued the case well.

The case was well argued.
6.10 Some Incidental Dutch-English Differences in Word Order
Het was eerder een idee dan een theorie.

It was an idea rather than a theory.
De gemiddelde scores van de vrouwen en de mannen waren respectievelijk 12 en 10.
The average scores for the women and the men were 12 and 10, respectively.
For an exercise on word order, see the end of this Reader.
English
6.11 TABLE OF (PREFERRED) ADVERB POSITIONS
Quick Guide – not exhaustive!
answers Examples initial? middle? end? remarks

the
question
Single-word
adverbs
time when? yesterday, in + - + soon can take

June, today, middle position
soon, currently,
recently
definite how twice, daily, +/- - +
frequency often? every year
indefinite how usually, +/- only these six

frequency often? sometimes, adverbs
normally, often,
frequently,
occasionally
usually, +
sometimes,
normally, often,
frequently,
occasionally,
never, always,
continually
usually, + only these six
sometimes, adverbs; in end
normally, often, position only if
frequently, focus of the
occasionally message
completeness completely, - + -
practically,
almost
manner in what fast, willingly, +/- +/- + adverbs in –ly
way? secretly, can take middle
reluctantly, position if not
quickly the focus of the
message
evaluation/ how poorly, brilliantly, - +/- + in passive
comment well? well constructions
they can precede
the past
participle:
The speech was
well constructed
place where? here, there, +/- - +
upstairs, out of
the window
certainty how probably, - + -
sure? certainly,
definitely,
clearly, obviously
maybe/perhaps + - +/-
combination - - + in the order:
of several manner – place -
adverbs time

English
adverbial + - + never in middle
phrases position
only before the word to which it applies

also together with the verb
never at the beginning of a sentence if immediately followed by the subject
**Also Tom was there
especially/ see only;
particularly never at the beginning of a sentence if immediately followed by the subject
**Particularly the three-year olds did well
English
6.12 Word order – the basic points to remember
• When in doubt, stick to the order: Subject – Verb – Object(s)

• Keep together what belongs together
• Beware of ambiguity
Dutchisms to be avoided:
* Fronting
Op deze index werd een transformatie toegepast
A transformation was applied to this index
Aan deze deelnemers werd de volgende tekst gezonden:
The following text was sent to these participants:
* Inversion when sentence starts with complement of place or
time:
Vanuit Zurich vertrekt de trein om 17.00
From Zurich, the train leaves at 17.00
* respectievelijk
De gemiddelde scores voor jongens en meisjes waren
respectievelijk 12 en 10
The average scores for boys and girls were 12 and 10,
respectively
* eerder … dan …:
eerder een idee dan een theorie – an idea rather than a theory
* Putting time before place with multiple adverbs;
kennelijk hebben ze vorige week in Parijs het plan overtuigend
gepresenteerd
* tangconstructies
de eerder verzamelde gegevens – the data collected earlier
Adverbs
• memorize the pattern sentence:
Apparently, they really presented the plan convincingly in Paris
last week
• Don’t put an adverb between the verb and the direct object
• Order of multiple adverbs: manner – place – time
• Those special words – where do they go?

only, especially/ particularly – before the word to which it applies
also – before the verb

English
7. SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION
Partly based on: http://www.coutinho.nl/getfr.htm?/ondersteun/62833268/
(See also the exercises at the end of this Reader)
7.1 The comma [ , ]
The comma that should not be: frequent pitfalls

1. In English, a single comma must not separate elements that form a
semantic unit. Never separate the subject from the verb, nor the verb from
the object. This applies even if the subject is quite long:
Whether Scottish education should evolve along peculiarly Scottish lines or merely copy
England is probably irrelevant.
The rules for English differ from Dutch in this respect:
I have been told the exam will be difficult

Mij werd verteld, dat het examen moeilijk zal zijn
Hij kreeg bericht, dat hij de cursus moest volgen

He received the message that he would have to take the course
2. Do not use commas to separate compound (i.e., pairs of) sentence

subjects, verbs, direct or indirect objects, or phrases (unless necessary to
prevent confusion).
John and Peter walked to school

Peter plays hockey and writes short stories
The students read books and magazines
They drove over the river and through the woods
In the case of compound noun clauses, there is more leeway:
He said that he would be late, and that we should start the meeting without him.
3. Restrictive vs. non-restrictive relative clauses (betrekkelijke bijzinnen)

These clauses are introduced by a relative pronoun (which, that, who, whom,
whose). If the antecedent is a noun, these clauses can be either restrictive or
non-restrictive.
Non-restrictive:
Socialists, who call for the abolition of private property, should be arrested.
Restrictive:
Socialists who call for the abolition of private property should be arrested.
In the first sentence, the non-restrictive (or supplementary) relative clause

merely provides supplementary information and does not specify a subgroup
of socialists. In this case the relative pronoun (here who) should be preceded
by a comma. In the second sentence, the restrictive (or integrated) relative
clause serves to identify the group to which the statement in the main clause
applies. In these cases the relative clause is integrated into the main clause,
English
so the relative pronoun (here who) is not preceded by a comma. So – in the
second sentence, fewer socialists are put in prison than in the first.
Instead of which, the relative pronoun beginning a restrictive clause is often

that (though this preference is less distinct in British English).
The article, which I wrote together with my supervisor, will be published next month
(it is already clear which article is meant)
The article that I wrote together with my supervisor will be published next month
(I’ve written more articles)
When a relative clause comes in the middle of a sentence, you have two
options: you may use either two commas (if the clause is supplementary), or
no commas (if it is integrated). However, you may never use just one comma.
7.2 The hyphen [ - ]
The rules about hyphens (‘koppeltekens’) are complicated, and usage is

not very clear. People are using hyphens less and less, especially in
compound nouns. Many common short compound nouns are now
written ‘solid’, with no division between the words (weekend, email,
takeover); other less common or longer compounds are now more likely
to be written as separate words (train driver, living room). The situation
is rather confused, and it is not unusual to find the same phrase spelt
in three different ways (bookshop, book-shop, book shop). If you are not
sure whether to use a hyphen between words or not, the best thing is to
look in a dictionary (APA specifies Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate
Dictionary), or write the words separately, without a hyphen.
Some rules can be given, though – see APA manual 3.11, APSA 7.82 ff.
7.3. The apostrophe [ ‘]

To avoid confusion with the apostrophe, APA style requires that in
principle you use double quotation marks for quotations (see APA
manual 3.06). In English, the apostrophe is used to put nouns into the
possessive case. With singular nouns and plural nouns not ending in –s,
the possessive is formed by adding ‘s; with plural nouns that end in s,
the possessive is formed by adding only an apostrophe.
Jolyon’s suitcase
Charles’s pen
The children’s dinner
The boys’ room
Although forming the possessive may not seem a terribly advanced topic,
two types of mistakes are frequently made by Dutch writers of English:
a. The possessive is formed as one might in Dutch, by adding s rather

than ‘s.

English
**Van Dijks article received its fair share of criticism.
Van Dijk’s article received its fair share of criticism.
b. An apostrophe is used when forming a plural (as one might in Dutch)
**Each subject was shown four photo’s.

Each subject was shown four photos.
An apostrophe is never used in English to form the plural of non-

abbreviated words. Sometimes, writers form the plural of abbreviations
and numbers by adding ‘s; however, this is not APA style.
Not recommended: 1960’s, ECG’s, cm’s

Recommended/APA style: 1960s, ECGs, cm
7.4 Parentheses (brackets)

In English, parentheses only explain or comment, unlike the Dutch use in
the sense of and/or. This means that you should always be able to leave out
the bracketed bits. Otherwise, rewrite using and or or:
** anxiety in the child affects (predicts) certain parenting behaviors
anxiety in the child affects or predicts certain parenting behaviors
Embedded brackets are used only in jokes or dictionaries.

Dutch: (brom)fietsen is perfectly all right;
English: **(motor) cycles should be cycles and motor cycles
**(re)productive should be productive and reproductive
7.5 Mistakes your spelling checker will miss
advice vs. advise

Advice (advies in Dutch) is a noun (also remember that this noun is
uncountable in English – i.e., you may speak of a piece of advice but not of
**an advice), whereas advise (adviseren) is a verb. A number of other noun-
verb pairs follow this pattern, for example device/devise,
prophecy/prophesy.
affect vs. effect

Both words can be used as either a noun or a verb:
affect (noun) = the subjective aspect of an emotion
effect (noun) = result
affect (verb) = to produce an effect upon [the sight affected Tom very
much]
effect (verb) = to bring about [the treatment effected a change in
symptoms]
choose/chose, lose/lost, loose

These words are often misspelled. Choose and chose are, respectively,
the infinitive and past tense of the Dutch verb kiezen. Similarly, lose
and lost are the infinitive and past tense of verliezen. Loose is an
adjective, meaning los in Dutch.
English
cite vs. site
cite = citeren
site = plaats
complement vs. compliment

The meanings of these two words are the same as their meanings in
Dutch. Take care not to reverse them!
council vs. counsel

council (noun) = a group of people who advise or govern
counsel (noun) = advice; and advisor or consultant
counsel (verb) = to advise or consult
extend vs. extent

extend (verb) = uitbreiden in Dutch
extent (noun) = omvang, mate in Dutch

English
farther vs. further
Use farther for actual spatial distances, and further otherwise (quantity,
time).
fortuitous vs. fortunate

fortuitous means ‘occurring by chance, accidental’. It does not mean
(necessarily) mean fortunate, i.e., ‘lucky’.
homogeneous vs. homogenous

Homogeneous means ‘of the same or a similar nature or kind’ or ‘of uniform
structure or composition throughout’. Homogenous means ‘of, relating to, or
exhibiting physical correspondence due to descent from the same ancestral
type’, but is also sometimes used (some think erroneously) to mean the same
as homogeneous.
its vs. it’s

its = the neutral third-person singular possessive pronoun; the cat ate its
food
it’s = it is (avoid these contractions, it’s, can’t, etc. in formal writing)
lie vs. lay

In Dutch, these words are translated as liggen or liegen and leggen,
respectively. The problem in English is the past tenses of these two irregular
verbs – they are often confused. Be sure to use the correct forms:
Simple past Past participle

lie lay lain
(liggen)
lie lied lied
liegen
lay laid laid
leggen
principal vs. principle

Principal can function either as a noun (meaning ‘a person who has
controlling authority’), or as an adjective (‘most important, consequential,
influential’). Principle functions only as a noun (meaning ‘a fundamental law,
doctrine, or assumption’).
Spacing
Some compound words are often mistakenly written as more than one word.
The correct forms for a number of these are given below. In some cases, the
compound can also be written as separate words, but then it has a different
meaning:
alongside
another
insofar as (voor zover)
instead
meantime: in the meantime = ondertussen; BUT: the mean time was 10s
English
notwithstanding (niettegenstaande, ondanks)
onto: jump onto the table vs. move on to the next question
so-called
sometime: ‘stop by sometime’ vs. ‘some time ago’
stationary vs. stationery

stationary = vast, stilstaand
stationery = postpapier, schrijfbehoeften
their, there, they’re

Most advanced students of English know the differences between these three
words very well. Nevertheless, once mistyped they often remain uncorrected,
so be careful.
too vs. to
The distinction between these two words is not difficult. The reason why they
get mistyped from time to time may have to do with the fact that both may
be translated by te in Dutch: ‘zij hoeven niet te betalen = they do not need to
pay’; ‘er is te veel armoede in de wereld = there is too much poverty in the
world’.

English
8. BRITISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH
Despite the well-known aphorism (attributed to G.B. Shaw) that “England

and America are two countries divided by a common language”, most of the
differences between American and British English are actually quite minor
and mainly occur in the domain of the spoken language. There are also
visible differences in scholarly texts, but these are largely superficial.
Regardless of whether your written English looks like American English or
British English (or some combination of the two), your text ought to be
equally well understood on both sides of the Atlantic. Nevertheless, it is
advisable to learn the differences between American and British English and
make a conscious effort to use one or the other (rather than a combination of
the two). To begin with, this will give your writing a more polished look.
Moreover, some journals may require that you use one or the other: for
example, journals that follow the guidelines set forth in the Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA) may prefer or require
that texts submitted for publication use American English only. (The APA
manual states that authors should refer to an American dictionary – in fact,
the most recent version of Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary – as the
authoritative source on spelling, abbreviation, and hyphenation.) Below,
some of the more important differences between British and American
English are outlined.
8.1 British-American differences in spelling

This table offers a summary of differences between American and British
spellings. When two spellings for the same word are used within a given
country, both are listed, beginning with the preferred spelling. Spellings
that diverge from a given pattern are marked with an asterisk (*).
American British
-er/-re center centre
theater theatre
-or/-our behaviour behaviour
color colour
favor, favorable, favorite favour, favourable, favourite
honor, honorary honour, honorary*
humor, humorless, humour, humourless,
humorous humorous*
labor, laborious labour, laborious*
rumor rumour
-og/-ogue analog analogue
catalog catalogue
demagogue* or demagog demagogue
dialogue* or dialog dialogue
epilogue* or epilog epilogue
monologue* or monolog monologue
prologue* or prolog prologue
-ce/-se practice (noun) practice (noun)
practice (verb) practise (verb)
pretense or pretence pretence
English
-z-/-s- analyze analyse
realize realize* or realise
criticize criticize* or criticise
modernization modernization* or
modernisation
-l-/-ll- counsel, counseled, counsel, counselled,
counseling counselling
label, labeled, labeling label, labelled, labelling
model, modeled, modeling model, modelled, modelling
worship, worshiped, worship, worshipped,
worshiping worshipping
miscellane
ous artifact artefact
check (bank) cheque
defense, offense defence, offence
enrollment enrolment
fulfill, fulfillment fulfil, fulfilment
installment instalment
jewelry jewellery
percent per cent
plow plough
pajamas pyjamas
program programme
but: computer program*
tire tyre
Note: A good dictionary is a better spelling guide than a computer spell-

checking program. Also, be aware that for many words the MSWord
spellchecker accepts more than one spelling; thus, it is important to pay
attention to consistency as well as correct spelling.
8.2 British-American differences in usage

• Fewer commas are used in British English (i.e., the British tend to
leave out optional commas)
• In certain verbal constructions the subjunctive is used in American
English, whereas constructions with should are used in British
English:
The experimenter suggested that the lab be locked (AmE)

The experimenter suggested that the lab should be locked (BrE)
• In American English singular words that refer to groups of people –

such as family, team, government – are commonly used with a singular
verb form; in British English this depends on whether the group is
seen as a collection of individuals (plural verb) or an impersonal unit
(singular verb).
• Sometimes, different words or word combinations are used in
American and British English:

English
Dutch American British
basisschool elementary or primary primary school

school
begane grond first or ground floor ground floor
beleggingsfonds mutual fund unit trust
benzine gasoline petrol
betaalrekening checking account current account
biljoen (1 met twaalf trillion billion
nullen)
blik can tin
boos mad, angry angry
feestdag holiday holiday
gek crazy mad, crazy
gemeen mean, nasty, vicious nasty, vicious
gierig stingy mean, stingy
houding tegenover attitude towards attitude to
kinderwagen baby carriage pram
kofferbak trunk boot
lift elevator lift
luier diaper nappy
miljard (1 met negen billion milliard
nullen)
miljoen (1 met zes million million
nullen)
opgenomen admitted to the admitted to hospital
hospital
parkeerterrein parking lot car park
post mail (delivered by the post (delivered by Royal
US Postal service) Mail)
spaarbanken savings and loan building societies

associations
vakantie vacation holiday
vierbaansweg divided highway dual carriageway
voorruit windshield windscreen
wetenschappelijke staf faculty (members) staff
wiskunde math (mathematics) maths (mathematics)
… and more:
American British
zucchini courgette
eggplant aubergine
gotten got
fag fairy; cigarette
pants underpants; trousers
table a motion: shelve it table a motion: put it on the agenda
English
sick ill; sick means misselijk
candy sweet
drugstore chemist’s
mailbox letterbox
zip code post code
sidewalk pavement
bathtub bath
French fries chips
chips crisps
fill out a form fill in a form
take-out food take-away food
studio apartment bedsit
potted plant pot plant
8.3 British-American differences in verb conjugations
The verbs fit, quit and wet are regular in British English (simple past and
past participle are: fitted, quitted, wetted) but irregular in American English
(simple past and past participle are: fit, quit, wet).
Analysis revealed that the data fit the model reasonably well (AmE)
Analysis revealed that the data fitted the model reasonably well (BrE)
In British English the verbs burn, dream, lean, learn, smell, spell, spill and
spoil can be either regular (i.e., with simple past and past participle formed
by adding –ed) or irregular: burnt, dreamt, leant, learnt, smelt, spelt, spilt,
spoilt. In American English only the regular forms are acceptable.

English
9. ACADEMIC TERMINOLOGY
Some useful Dutch terms and their English translations

Note: it is best not to ‘translate’ Dutch academic titles from before the
introduction of the Bachelor/Master system. Write them out in full:
Doctorandus, Ingenieur, Meester etc., and preferably italicize them as foreign
words. Example: Doctorandus H. van Gelderen. This also solves the
confusion between Mr as an English courtesy title and Mr as a Dutch
academic title.
When writing in English, do not put a courtesy title before an academic title:
**Mrs. Drs. C.H. Janse

Drs C.H. Janse or, if you want to indicate gender
Drs Carien H. Janse/ Drs Chris H. Janse
In English, it’s either Prof. or Dr, never both, and watch the full stop after
Prof.: this is used in cases when the last letter of an abbreviation is not the
last letter of the whole word.
Diploma, een diploma halen obtain a certificate

Universitaire grad university degree
Afstuderen in take/receive a degree in
Hoofdvak BrE: main subject
AmE: major
Bijvak BrE: subsidiary subject
AmE: minor
Scriptie Bachelor’s/Master’s thesis
Proefschrift BrE: (PhD) thesis
AmE: dissertation
Promoveren to get one’s doctorate
Eva is doctor in de psychologie
Eva has a PhD/a doctorate in
Psychology
Promotor PhD supervisor or just supervisor;

AmE advisor
Stagiair(e) trainee, intern
Stage traineeship, practical training, work
placement, internship
Scriptiebegeleider (thesis) supervisor
Cijfer mark, grade
Werkgroep class, tutorial group
(Hoor)college lecture
English
Buitenschoolse activiteiten extracurricular activities
Onbetaald/onbezoldigd werk non-paid work
Vrijwilligerswerk voluntary work

English
10. ABBREVIATIONS
Not all abbreviations used in Dutch, even those that derive from Latin or
seem to derive from English, are used in English. Part of the following
overview is based on Joy Burrough-Boenisch (2004), pp. 55-62.
10.1 Abbreviations commonly used in (academic) English
Abbreviation Meaning
cf. Strictly speaking, this abbreviation should be used to
mean compare, as when you want to point out a
contrasting finding or perspective in a reference citation:
(cf. Chang, 1983). In fact, however, this abbreviation as
it is often used in scholarly references simply means see.
e.g. for example (always followed by a comma)
i.e. that is (always followed by a comma)
# number used only in informal or handwritten texts
no. number
sic intentionally so written used to indicate that the
preceding word or passage exactly reproduces the
original, if the original contains (something the reader
might interpret as) a mistake
viz. namely
vs. versus
v. versus in legal texts
w/ with used only in informal or handwritten texts
p.m. afternoon, morning not: pro memoria!
10.2 Abbreviations that are impossible or uncommon in English
Abbreviation Intended Correct English equivalent (not always

meaning an abbreviation!)
a.o. among others among others when the ‘others’ are people
among other things when the ‘others’ are
things
sometimes for instance is possible
c.q. casu quo or; and/or; as the case may be; where
appropriate; or where appropriate. It’s
simplest to use or.
e.a. en anderen/ et al. in scholarly texts
et alii in general texts: and others
f.e. for example for example; e.g.
f.i. for instance for instance; e.g.
l.s. lectori Dear Sir/Madam
salutem To whom it may concern
N.B. Nota Bene N.B. and Nota Bene can be used in English,
but these expressions are much less
common in English than in Dutch. They may
not always be understood, especially by
American readers.
English
nr. number no. (plural: nos)
resp. respectively respectively
o.t.o.h. on the other on the other hand
hand
i.c. in casu in the case of
s.o.s. see other side p.t.o.
w.r.t. with re
reference to
p.m. pro memoria provisional; provisionally; for the record
only
pag.; pags page; pages p.; pp.
prof professional pro
The trend in British English is to abandon the full stops in abbreviations.

Follow the APA guidelines, or the rules of the journal you are submitting
your article to.
Among others / Among other things

from: Sanders, M., Tingloo, T. & Verhulst, H. (2005). Advanced Writing in English. A Guide
for Dutch Authors. Antwerpen/Apeldoorn: Garant. New edition 1998
For a correct rendering of Dutch o.a., pay attention to the following:

Although the abbreviation o.a. is widely used by Dutch writers, there is no
English equivalent. Regardless of whether it refers to persons (among others),
or to things (among other things ), the English expression is always written
out in full. It often takes a different place in the sentence:
Ik heb het boek o.a. nodig voor mijn proefschrift.

Among other things, I need the book for my dissertation.
Veel geleerden, o.a. Newton, wezen deze theorie af.

Many scientists, Newton among others, rejected this theory.
In Dutch, o.a. is used more frequently and freely than in English. It is best to
use among others / among other things sparingly and to keep some
alternatives in mind, such as:
Men vindt er o.a. ijzererts.

One of its resources is iron ore.
Het betekent o.a. ' gevoelig' .

One of its meanings is 'sensitive.'
Als sprekers zullen o.a. optreden de burgemeester van Amsterdam en de

voorzitter van de dierenbescherming.
Speakers will include the mayor of Amsterdam and the President of the
RSPCA.
Een team met o.a. De Wolf en Lineker.

A team including De Wolf and Lineker.

English
Tegen de boycot stemden o.a. de gouverneur van Alabama en de gouverneur
van Texas.
Among those who voted against the boycott were the governor of Alabama
and the governor of Texas.
English
Paraphrasing
http://www.edict.com.hk/vlc/academicwriter
Paraphrasing means using your own words to describe somebody else’s

argument. There may be several reasons for wanting to paraphrase:
1. The passage is too long to use as a quotation and you don’t want to be
accused of plagiarizing.
2. The register of the writing is not suitable (for example informal rather than
formal).
3. The language is not suitable for your target audience (difficult to
understand).
EXAMPLE
The following is an example of writing adapted from Newsweek Magazine. It
is not suitable for an academic essay because the register is (far) too
informal (e.g., “a lot of Valley wanna-bes”, “the proper ‘tude”) and the
language is difficult to understand (e.g. “lifelong fealty to an employer”)
How do you go about building a tech city? One thing you’ve gotta have is
the proper ‘tude. Silicon Valley’s most valuable asset is its mind-set, a
powerful merging of two behavioral strains: the macho, riverboat-gambler
swagger of the original chipmakers who thought nothing of betting the
company on a risky new idea, and the gently subversive high-tech idealism
of early computer hackers. The resulting intellectual alloy counts you as a
sellout if you don’t try to make yourself a billionaire.
This attitude is where a lot of Valley wanna-bes, particularly those outside
the United States, fall short. But it’s hard to overcome centuries of tradition
that honor the very qualities that Silicon Valley loathes: aversion to risk,
lifelong fealty to an employer, willingness to work within a strict hierarchy.
It could be paraphrased for an academic essay as follows:
What factors are important in creating a high tech city? According to Levy
the attitude of potential employees is vitally important. It could be argued
that Silicon Valley’s most valuable resource is the mindset of its workforce:
a combination of the original risk taking mentality of the wild west and the
anti-establishment high tech idealism of the early computer hackers.
It is the lack of these attitudes, especially in societies outside the US, which
may hold similar ventures back. The very qualities upon which Silicon
valley is based, for example risk taking, job mobility and lack of strict work
hierarchy, may be precisely the reverse of cherished values in more
traditional societies (Levy, 1998)

English
TONE AND ATTITUDE IN ACADEMIC WRITING
http://www.edict.com.hk/vlc/academicwriter
Tone
Good academic writing is impersonal in tone.
EXAMPLE 1 Using the first person
Information technologies in tertiary science education

Information technologies have the potential to make huge improvements in
education as they reshape society and create new learning opportunities.
Whether this potential will be realized for all students depends on the ability
of education to adapt at the local level. In this paper, I will briefly
examine the impact of networking on science education. I will then
investigate how these new resources are influencing the educational
system and its ability to reach all students. I conclude by assessing the
potential for adopting IT in university education over the next 5 years.
EXAMPLE 2 A more impersonal tone: ‘This paper’

Notice the way that the verb modifies – ‘identify’, ‘look’, ‘evaluate’,
‘identify’. This kind of modified repetition is a common way of creating
continuity in a paragraph.
The introduction of technology-based teaching in UK University

education since 1990
This paper sets out to identify some of the major problems faced by
British universities as they attempt to introduce a wide scale technology
based teaching and learning environment. It looks first at some of the
issues facing the Higher Education environment in general, with increasing
numbers matched with relatively fewer resources. It then goes on to
evaluate the position of Computer Assisted Learning as part of an overall
supportive learning strategy. In conclusion it identifies possible areas of
future research.
EXAMPLE 3 A more impersonal tone: ‘We’ and ‘it’ This is common in

academic work.
Accounting Ethics
Open marketing has had a big effect on the profession of accounting, not all
of it positive. We can view the effect from three perspectives: the client’s, the
profession’s, and society’s. Additionally, two key areas that are affected by
marketing must be addressed, these concern competition, and ethics.
Marketing in public accounting is here to stay. Therefore making an
argument against its existence would be pointless. However, in this essay
it will be argued that, in order to achieve maximum benefit to the firm, the
client, and society, stricter guidelines must be implemented at the firm
level.
A low personal profile is good news. Instead of constantly saying ‘I’ you can
use:
English
‘one’, ‘we’ or the impersonal ‘it’. More personal approaches are sometimes
possible, but do not overdo it; it can be distracting and irritating.
Hedging: making tentative statements

A tentative tone is also recommended. Sounding over-confident will not
necessarily mean your reader has more confidence in you.
Writing in a tentative tone means making cautious and careful statements.

When you put forward your opinion or point of view, you have a choice. You
can choose to be more assertive (confident) or more tentative (cautious). In
the following table assertive comments are near the top, and tentative
comments near the bottom.
Recommendation: Make tentative statements! However, different disciplines
may have different traditions in this respect.
A tentative tone is not a mark of failure. Your reader will probably respect
your judgement in making a statement which fits the evidence you provide.
Tone Comment
The reason why so many
Very Suggests gambling is the
people divorce is because of
assertive: reason for divorce, full stop.
gambling.
The main reason why so
Quite There may be other reasons for
many people divorce is
assertive: divorce.
because of gambling.
One of the main reasons
Quite Gambling may be only one of
why so many people divorce is
tentative: many reasons for divorce.
because of gambling.
One of the main reasons why There are many reasons for
Very
so many people divorce might divorce and gambling is
tentative:
be because of gambling. possibly one of them.
According to Green (1992),
Very Suggests that the conclusion is
one of the main reasons why
tentative + Green’s responsibility!
so many people divorce might
support: Citations are always safe
be because of gambling.
Modal verbs such as could, may and might are common in academic writing
because they help writers express uncertainty or tentativeness. Also
common are the verbs appear to and seem to, as well as adverbs of
probability: perhaps, possibly, probably, likely, unlikely.
Making tentative statements: Useful words to qualify your statements
practically It may be that... in effect

so to speak It might be that... more or less
to all intents and One of the main reasons
we could say that
purposes why...
to some extent almost This suggests that...
up to a point in a way It is unclear whether...
English
Dealing with evidence
It has been widely

It is widely accepted that It has been shown that
argued that
It has been convincingly Leading authorities argue
Studies have shown that
argued that that
X argues that
English
Describing the context
The available statistics

In parts of Asia
demonstrate that
On the basis of this
Published sources in the survey, a majority of
field suggest that Engineering students
think that
More authentic phrases
At the same time it It is tempting to pose Nor is it entirely fanciful

could be argued that… another question. to suggest that…
For one thing it could be It may well be asked Of course it could be
argued that… how… argued that…
Indeed, it might be It might be argued Still, there is no denying
argued that… that… that…
Categorical statements
This example is typical of some second-language user writing. Not
recommended!
Early liberalism was a product of England and Holland and had certain
well-defined characteristics. It is undeniable that it stood for religious
toleration. In my opinion it regarded the wars of religion as silly. It certainly
valued commerce and industry; without question it had immense respect for
the rights of property, especially when accumulated by the individual.
Giving your opinion

If you are going to include your opinion, the Conclusions section is probably
the place to do it. Note however that opinions should be firmly based on
evidence that you have provided in the paper. Also bear in mind that good
academic writing style indicates a slightly distanced point of view where the
writer is not constantly emphasizing his or her point of view.
Example 1 Giving your opinion from a slightly distanced point of view.

Style note: Note the clever way in which the writer manages successfully to
keep his own opinions in the background. He first describes (his opinion of)
what other people (‘fundamentalists’) say. He then disguises his view in an
objective-sounding statement: ‘It is important to recognize their rhetorical
techniques for what they are’. This sounds very much more respectable
than: ‘In my opinion these are just a bunch of rhetorical techniques...”(!)
There is a lot to learn from this example.
When Fundamentalist writers talk about “family” and “family values” they
are referring only to their own definitions of these terms. These narrow
definitions are derived from a literal interpretation of Biblical statements
regarding family and leave no room for alternate family structures.
Therefore they regard other forms of family as not being families at all,
English
giving them more fuel for their claim that “the family” in America is falling
apart. It is important to recognize their rhetorical techniques for what they
are.
English
Example 2 Giving your opinion without using ‘In my opinion...’
Style note: Note the sentence ‘However, women will never be free until the
day...’ This is just an opinion. It sounds more convincing without mentioning
the fact that it is just opinion (The text might equally have read: However, in
my opinion women will never be free until the day..).
The female child has as many goals as the male child, but statistically she
is unable to realize these goals because of the obstacles that society sets in
front of her. Society and media attempt to create an illusion that women
have every right that men enjoy. However, women will never be free until the
day female scientists, intellectuals, professionals, military leaders, and
politicians are just as accepted and encouraged to participate in all of
society’s arenas as males.
Example 3 Giving your opinion without using ‘In my opinion...’
Campbell (1994) makes reference to Thomas Kuhn as he argues that the

existing paradigm (the theories, methods, procedures) of psychotherapy may
no longer be viable. When this happens in other professions, a crisis
prevails and the profession must undertake a paradigm shift.
It may be time for that paradigm shift and for an exploration of new
techniques. At the very least, therapists should not let sexual trauma
overshadow all other important events in a patient’s life (Campbell 1994).
Perhaps there are other explanations for the patient’s current symptoms
and problems. Good therapists remain open to alternative hypotheses.

English
EXERCISES
Exercise: Thematic Patterning

Try to analyze the type of sentence flow, and how this is working or not
working, by underlining the theme of each sentence and seeing how these
themes are linked up.
Traditional worlds were religious places. Indeed some primitive societies were
so thoroughly permeated by religion, superstition and magic that it is hard
to separate religion from other parts of those worlds. Things we would regard
as mundane and this-worldly, such as hunting or fishing, were enmeshed
with religious ritual. Unless the rituals were properly performed, the hunting
or fishing would not be productive. Such societies simply did not divide the
supernatural from the natural the way we do. 1
Longitudinal dunes are long low ridges of sand that lie approximately at
right angles to the trend of the sand waves, or parallel to the direction of the
wind. Some of the ridges are almost straight; others are slightly wavy. They
range up to about 10 metres in height and 30 metres in width. Many are
more than one and one-half kilometres long. Both sides of these dunes have
practically the same slope and are usually covered with grass and shrubs.
While the crest is usually bare of vegetation, on some dunes, even the crest
is covered.
Galton’s most famous contribution to the psychology of religion is his study

of the objective efficacy of petitionary prayer. Rather than involving himself
in the difficulties and limitations of an experimental investigation, Galton
(1872) chose simply to tabulate the evidence he could find around him. Did
public prayers on behalf of the reigning sovereign, for health and longevity,
have an evident effect? Apparently not, reports Galton, who cites statistics
showing that male members of royal houses, from 1759 to 1843, were the
shortest-lived among various affluent classes. The alternative hypothesis
that prayers are efficacious in saving royalty from even shorter life-spans
seemed to Galton rather improbable. 2
Every one of Ponting’s actions in the match seemed to have been prompted
by a desire for vengeance. But this really rather dire way of playing sport just
might have backfired on him. By batting on and on and on, he gave England
their only possible opportunity for saving the game. It would have required
some epic batting - which England at least hinted at on the fourth day –
along with some serious help from above. Help in the form of rain, and this
is a city when, if rain comes, it comes not in single drops but in oceans. And
those Brisbane clouds gave a teasing, flickering sense of hope, a faint
suggestion that Ponting was to be punished for his pride. 3
1
Bruce, Steve (1996). Religion in the Modern World. From cathedrals to cults. New York: OUP.
2
Wulff, David M. (1997). Psychology of religion. Classic and contemporary. 2nd edition. New York: Wiley.
3
Simon Barnes in The Times online, 27 November 2006
English
So that I am not accused of opportunism in citing survey data where it suits
my argument and arguing against the reliability of surveys on other
occasions, let me state my general principle. I do not suppose that survey
data are randomly misleading. Rather I assume that surveys consistently
over-report beliefs and actions that are widely regarded as decent and
honourable (hence more people claim to have voted than actually did so) and
consistently over-report what people used to think and used to do. Hence
they tend to be biased in the direction of the past and the consensually
decent. 4
4
Bruce (1996).
English
Exercise: Reference
The following passages need improvement on some aspect or aspects of
reference. Identify the problems, and correct them.
1. According to some people, doing a degree in arts and humanities

is the same as committing suicide: they are thought to have no
chance of finding any suitable employment.
2. The impact of some of the articles and reports by journalists in

newspapers or on television is much greater than when it is said
by the average citizen.
3. To call for changes in society cannot be of any immediate help to

the individual patient. What they need is the assurance that they
can live without having to be afraid of their emotions and without
their obsessive addiction to food.
4. People who have a part of their bodies pierced should beware of

drugs, stress, lack of sleep and unwholesome food, because they
can have a bad influence on the healing process.
5. When a company brings in part-timers, it is not always a

voluntary choice. They often have to.
6. In discussion on petty crime, the individual citizen has not yet

been taken into account. However, there are reasons to put the
blame on them, too.
7. The minister offered to resign, but it was refused.
8. We compared our results with Marsden and Potter (1988).
9. Mach rejects both solipsism and idealism, the first more vigorously
than the second.
10. Although the overall score might be calculated to two decimal places,
it remains that it is only an approximate measure.
English
Exercise: verb tense
[from http://www.coutinho.nl/getfr.htm?/ondersteun/62833268/
The following text could appear in the conclusion of a text reporting on research. For
each of the 10 capitalized verbs, choose whether you would use the present perfect or
the simple past tense.
The results of our investigation HAVE SHOWN / SHOWED that there is a

significant correlation between school attendance and school
performance. Our conclusions are thus at variance with Brown’s (1993),
who HAS CLAIMED / CLAIMED to demonstrate that other factors, but not
school attendance, HAVE BEEN / WERE relevant. By holding those other
factors constant, we HAVE ASSEMBLED / ASSEMBLED strong evidence to
suggest what many people always HAVE BELIEVED / BELIEVED , namely that
truancy negatively influences attainment. Whereas Brown HAS
BASED / BASED his results on the findings at one school, we HAVE
EXAMINED / EXAMINED five different school environments. Arguing that

Brown’s data HAVE REFLECTED / REFLECTED a particular educational system
in which schoolchildren HAVE BEEN / WERE given great freedom of choice,
we HAVE ESTABLISHED / ESTABLISHED an across-the-board correlation
between attendance and performance.

English
Exercises: Modal Auxiliaries
Use must not or need not to fill the spaces in the following sentences.
Sometimes, other auxiliaries are also possible.
1. You_________________________ring the bell; I have a key.

2. Notice in the cinema: Exit doors_________________________be locked during
performances.
3. You_________________________drink this: it is poison.
4. We_________________________drive fast; we have plenty of time.
5. You_________________________drive fast; there is a speed limit here.
6. Candidates_________________________bring books into the examination
room.
7. You_________________________write to him for he will be here tomorrow
8. We_________________________make any noise or we’ll wake the baby.
9. You_________________________bring an umbrella. It isn’t going to rain.
10.You_________________________do all the exercise. Ten sentences will be
enough.
11.We_________________________reheat the pie. We can eat it cold.

12.Mother to child: You_________________________tell lies.
13.You_________________________strike a match; the room is full of gas.
14.You_________________________turn the light; I can see quite well.
15.You_________________________talk to other candidates during the exam.
Fill the spaces in the following sentences by using

MUST/CAN’T/COULDN’T or
NEEDN’T + the perfect infinitive of the verb in brackets.
1. Did you hear me come in last night? No, I_________________________(be)
asleep.
2. I wonder who broke the wineglass; it_________________________(be) the
cat, because she was out all day.
3. You_________________________(help) him. (You helped him but he didn’t
need help)
4. I had my umbrella when I came out but I haven’t got it now. You
_________________ (leave) it on the bus.
5. He_________________________(escape) by this window because it is barred.
6. I_________________________(give) 10p. 5p would have been enough.
7. I saw a rattlesnake near the river yesterday.
You_________________________(see) one. There aren’t any rattlesnakes in
this country.
8. He is back already. He_________________________(start) very early.
9. He returned home with a tiger cub. His wife_________________________(be)
very pleased about that.
10. I bought two bottles of milk. You_________________________(buy) milk; we
have heaps in the house.
11. I phoned at nine this morning but got no answer. I’m sorry. I
___________________ (be) in the garden.
12. I left my bicycle here and now it’s gone. Someone
_____________________(borrow) it.
English
13. She went to sleep in the park and when she woke up her watch had
vanished. Someone_________________________(steal) it while she slept.
14. I’ve opened another bottle. You_________________________(do) that. We’ve
only just started this one.
15. The machine said, “you weigh 65 kilos”, and I said “Thank you”. You
____________ (say) anything.

English
Exercise: word order
Place the word or words in parentheses in a correct position in the sentence.

Choose more than one position if this is possible.
A. Adverbs
1. (even) He was not aware of the news.
2. (almost) He swam two hundred yards.
3. (quickly) Reptiles are too big to adapt themselves to new conditions.
4. (often) To lose one’s temper signifies a lack of self-control.
5. (always) They have been interested in physics.
6. (in all stages of growth) The tomato plant is very susceptible to serious
injury from a number of diseases.
7. (metaphorically) According to this model human memory should be
represented as an associative network.
8. (selectively) Affect is assumed to activate mood-congruent concepts in
memory.
9. (always, directly) Positive mood does not lead to more efficient
information processing.
10. (automatically) Affective reactions are regulated by means of
internalized social norms.
11. (consciously) Effects of mood may be controlled.
12. (exactly) The model is insufficiently specific about how these factors
influence memory.
B. General
Improve the word order of the following sentences, where necessary
1. Ten subjects participated at the workplace in the sessions.
2. In very early times it is probable that a baited line was used without a
hook.
3. In the liquid state we think these molecules have a good deal of
freedom.
4. During the early part of the 20th century it is said that 40,000 artists
were at work in Paris.
5. The planned for next week meeting has been postponed.
6. Between both approaches are striking correspondences.
7. Data are presented on admissions due to attempted suicide to general
hospitals.
8. Especially reality perception and affective involvement accounted for
most of the variance in fear of crime.
9. On the data a factor analysis was performed.
10. Soon after, various European enterprises and governments became
also interested in these programs.
11. The American approach may not only be socially unacceptable but also
inefficient.
12. Interventions at this level have also important political implications.
English
Exercise: Prepositional expressions
Fill in the correct prepositions in the sentences below. In some cases no

preposition is necessary, and in some cases there is more than one possible
answer.
An excellent Dutch-English overview of prepositions is provided in Curfs &
Forrest (1985).
1. Every researcher should abide ____ APA guidelines on the ethical

treatment of human subjects (i.e., every researcher should follow these
guidelines).
2. The article was prepared____ accordance ____ APA guidelines.
3. We do not know how to account ____ these unexpected findings.
4. Jones provides a chilling account ___ the experiences of one mentally
ill individual in a prison environment (i.e., Jones describes these
experiences).
5. ___ no account should these findings be considered conclusive.
6. This potentially important factor should be taken ___ account.
7. Testing did not begin until the subject’s eyes had become accustomed
___ (had adapted ___ ) the lack of light in the room.
8. Their research addresses ___ three key questions.
9. The subjects were 160 patients admitted ___ the hospital ___
leukaemia.
10. They are afraid ___ spiders.
11. The foreign minister agreed ___ the proposal.
12. The representatives of the two countries did not agree ___ each other
___ this matter.
13. Scholars in this area cannot agree ___ the correct explanation for this
phenomenon.
14. The extremely permissive parents in our sample allowed ___ their
children nearly unlimited freedom.
15. The positive correlation between A and B is quite suggestive, even if we
allow ___ the possibility that some third, as yet uninvestigated variable
may in fact be responsible ___ the relationship.
16. These findings allow ___ only one conclusion.
17. The total deficit amounted ___ $6.2 billion.
18. His colleagues recommended that he apply ___ the position.
19. Riley’ s theory of behaviour applies only ___ members of Western
societies.
20. ___ her arrival (i.e., as soon as she arrived) she was brought up to
date on the most recent events.
21. They asked ___ further information.
22. The subjects were randomly assigned ___ four different conditions.
23. They wanted to draw attention ___ one particular aspect of the issue.
24. They focused their attention ___ one particular aspect of the issue.
25. Two decades ago no one was aware ___ the dangers posed by this
substance.
26. An interesting book ___ Dillon is listed on the syllabus.
27. Figures depicting these relationships appear ___ the bottom of page
271 and ___ the top of page 272.

English
28. Only a few subjects were capable ___ solving the problem without
assistance.
29. He cares ___ his ill brother.
30. He takes care ___ his brother’ s two children every weekend.
31. The program was designed to cater __ the needs of the target group.
32. 1 have enclosed a check __ $90.
33. Individuals of this type tend to choose ___ very challenging tasks.
34. It was clear ___ the tone of his voice that he was disappointed ___ the
results.
35. Researchers in this field compare the human brain __ a computer.
36. In the next section the results of the present study are compared ___
those of Rogers et al. (1988).
37. Each group was composed ___ two women and two men.
38. The researcher expressed his concern ___ the poor performance of
these pupils.
39. Romero is considered ___ a great man.
40. Romero is considered ___ compassionate and intelligent.
41. In this biography Romero is considered ___ both a religious man and a
politician.
42. A number of factors must be taken ___ consideration/account.
43. A water molecule consists ___ two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen
atom.
44. According to this theorist, true freedom consists ___ actual life
opportunities, not just the absence of coercive laws.
45. Money is considered an important criterion ___ success in that society.
46. SAT scores were the principal criterion ___ selecting recipients of the
47. scholarship.
48. We present our main criticism ___ his theory in the following section.
49. They prepared a thorough critique ___ her theory .
English
Exercises on spelling and punctuation
This first exercise is to allow you to test your feel for what is right and
what is wrong. In the following list of 16 words, only 6 have been spelled
correctly, according to British English conventions. Which are they? Do
not consult a work of reference, and try and make your decision quickly
and on first impressions. For each of the 10 words which you consider
wrongly spelled, account for the mistake.
et al existence assistent pathofysiological

basically biased gray theater
tumor corelation intelligable publicly
controllable infering seizure judgment
Exercise 2
Which of the following compounds do you think should be rewritten as
two words?
airconditioning paperback publishinghouse

breakdown doorhandle tabletennis
nettlerash familydoctor tracksuit
reservebank fallout minefield
menswear outtray imputationsystem
Exercise 3
Would you put hyphens in the following expressions, and if so where?
habit forming activities a clear winning opportunity

morning star green eyed
impulse buying decimal point
pressure cook pre industrial
union controlled funds a good sized tent
foreign language teacher stepping stone theory

English
GENERAL EXERCISE ON ENGLISH-LANGUAGE PITFALLS
Put the English words inside brackets in an appropriate form, or replace ??
with an appropriate preposition or conjunction. Use additional words where
necessary.
1. I look forward to [receive] a reprint of your article.

2. The number of violent incidents reported to authorities [be] quite low
last year .
3. Only 60% of the respondents [be] invited to return for a second
interview.
4. Mark [study] French [for six years] and [graduate] in 2011.
5. We considered [develop] a new IQ test
6. An explanation for their aberrant finding [lies, perhaps] in the faulty
measure that was used.
7. Kristin [drive, usually] a Fiat. Today, however, she [drive] her mother’s
Opel.
8. Scientists [work, presently] to solve this mystery .
9. John [go] to Spain for his brother’s wedding 5 years ago.
10. My co-author insisted [replicate] the findings before attempting
[publish] them.
11. Many studies [show] this to be true.
12. The aim of our study was [investigate] techniques for improving
academic performance.
13. He [be] promoted to the position of full professor in 1999.
14. When you were in San Francisco, [visit you] the Exploratorium?
15. She is the methodologist [ ??] I told you about.
16. None of those present [be] willing to tackle this topic.
17. None of the information [be] correct.
18. Children are dependent [??] their parents.
19. We were unable to prevent [the participants in the experiment saw
each other] .
20. Scientists [work] to solve this mystery since 1979.
21. It is imperative that every researcher conform [??] these ethical
guidelines.
22. She [work] at this hospital for six years now.
23. Their scores increased --- 32%.
24. A number of theories [be] proposed to account for this phenomenon.
25. Neither the parents nor the child [be] aware of the observer’s presence.
26. Either the child or the parents [be] given responsibility for keeping a
record of the family’s media use.
27. They were relieved [hear] that their article had been accepted for
publication.
28. Rogers overlooked [??] a third variable [be] responsible for the relation
between A and B.
29. If you [be] more careful, you [detect] this translation error in the
questionnaire.
30. A nonparametric test [choose] because the data were dichotomous and
unevenly distributed.
31. Mark [study] French [for six years] and will graduate soon.
32. You [see] Stonehenge when you were in England?
33. This caused [X increase].
English
34. The committee recommended that the research plan [be] modified.
35. We did not want to risk [lose] this valuable resource.
36. Building the church would be a rather risky task: the Marekerk was to
be the first Dutch church with a doomed roof.

English
ACADEMIC WRITING – SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
Inclusion implies a positive judgment on contents.
General works
Bailey, Stephen (2006). Academic writing: a handbook for international
students ( 2nd [revised and updated] ed). London: Routledge. Very
extensive and detailed, good for revision.
Becker, Howard S. (1986). Writing for social scientists: how to start and finish
your thesis, book, or article. With a chapter by Pamela
Richards. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Good bibliography.
Bolt, Aleth & Bruins, Walter (2012/2017). Effective Scientific Writing. An

Advanced Learner’s Guide to Better English. Amsterdam: VU University
Press. Excellent, practical guide for non-native speakers writing scientific
articles in English. Includes advice on tenses, articles, agreement etc.
Hannay, Mike & Mackenzie, J. Lachlan (2017). Effective writing in English: A

sourcebook (2nd [revised] ed.). Bussum: Coutinho. Excellent advice on
writing, though quite complex and theoretical. Accompanied by useful
exercises, see: www.coutinho.nl/effectivewritingenglish.
Huddlestone, Rodney & Pullum, Geoffrey K. et. al. (2002). The Cambridge
Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge: CUP. Extremely extensive
(1841 pages!) and detailed, but a ground-breaking, corpus-based
approach to English grammar.
Huddlestone, Rodney & Pullum, Geoffrey K. et. al. (2005). A Student’s

Introduction to English Grammar. Cambridge: CUP. A (rather indigestible)
digest of their earlier work. More affordable, but more difficult to follow.
Locke, Lawrence F., Spirduso, Waneen Wyrick & Silverman, Stephen J.

(2000). Proposals that work: a guide for planning dissertations and grant
proposals ( 4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Mackenzie, J. Lachlan (2014). Principles & Pitfalls of English Grammar (3rd

[revised] ed.). Bussum: Coutinho. Very clear analysis of English
grammar. Geared towards Dutch speakers, but also useful for others.
Accompanied by useful exercises, see
www.coutinho.nl/principlesandpitfalls.
Nicol, Adelheid A.M., & Pexman, Penny M. (2003). Displaying your findings :
a practical guide for creating figures, posters, and
presentations . Washington, D.C.: American Psychological
Association. Also about slides and overheads.
Pinker, Steven (2014). The Sense of Style: The Thinking Person's Guide to
Writing in the 21st Century. New York, NY: Penguin. An entertaining and
useful analysis by the Harvard professor, cognitive psychologist, linguist,
and writer Steven Pinker.
English
Smyth, T.R. (2004). The principles of writing in Psychology. Basingstoke/New
York: Palgrave/MacMillan.
Thody, Angela (2006). Writing and presenting research. Sage Study skills.
London: Sage. Also pays attention to postmodern ways of presenting.
Wallwork, Adrian (2016). English for Writing Research Papers (2nd [revised]
ed.). New York, Dordrecht, Heidelberg, London: Springer. A carelessly
produced book, but sound advice about writing for the reader.
Wellington, Jerry (2003). Getting published : a guide for lecturers and

researchers. London: Routledge Falmer. Good tables/checklists. Includes
a list of ‘15 ways of being original’.
Style Guides
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th [revised]
ed.). Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association
Swan, Michael (1995). Practical English usage (2nd [revised] ed.). Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Ritter, Robert (2003). Oxford Style Manual. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Not specifically geared to the social sciences; students from the Psychology
and Education and Child Studies departments should use the APA manual
Dictionaries
The Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/
Merriam-Webster
http://www.merriam-webster.com/
Fun (but useful)

Norris, Mary (2015) Between You & Me: Confessions of a Comma Queen. New
York, London: W.W. Norton
Burrough-Boenisch, Joy (2013). Righting English that’s gone Dutch (3rd

[revised] ed.). Voorburg: Kemper
Truss, Lynne (2003). Eats, shoots and leaves. The zero tolerance approach to
punctuation. London, Profile Books.
Websites (see also the Appendix on Resources)

APA: http://www.apastyle.org/styletips.html
Chicago: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/home.html
APSA:
https://www.apsanet.org/Portals/54/APSA%20Files/publications/APSAStyl
eManual2006.pdf

English
KEYS TO EXERCISES
Verb tense
The results of our investigation have shown [ PRESENT PERFECT] that there
is a significant correlation between school attendance and school
performance. Our conclusions are thus at variance with Brown’s (1993),
who claimed [ SIMPLE PAST] to demonstrate that other factors, but not
school attendance, were [SIMPLE PAST] relevant. By holding those other
factors constant, we have assembled [ PRESENT PERFECT] strong evidence
to suggest what many people have always believed [PRESENT PERFECT],
namely that truancy negatively influences attainment. Whereas Brown
based [ SIMPLE PAST] his results on the findings at one school, we have
examined [PRESENT PERFECT] five different school environments. Arguing
that Brown’s data reflected [ SIMPLE PAST] a particular educational system
in which schoolchildren were [SIMPLE PAST] given great freedom of choice,
we have established [PRESENT PERFECT] an across-the-board correlation
between attendance and performance.
The text serves to confront the results of the writer’s investigation with
Brown’s. In this solution to the task, the writer’s results are constantly in
the present perfect and Brown’s in the simple past; this consistent use of
tenses is essential to keeping the two viewpoints separate. By choosing
the present perfect for his own results and the simple past for Brown’s,
the writer implies greater current reverence for his own work, dispelling
Brown’s results to a past time in which they have no further relevance.
The use of the present perfect in ‘what many people have always
believed’ creates a cohesive link between the writer’s work and general
intuition, thereby suggesting that it is indeed more plausible than the
opposite position. Note, finally, that the use of the two tenses here is
purely a matter of cohesion; as you can verify for yourself, eight of these
ten verbs could appear in the present tense without affecting the meaning
of the text.
English
Modal Auxiliaries
1. You need not ring the bell; I have a key.

2. Notice in the cinema: Exit doors must be locked during performances.
3. You mustn’t drink this: it is poison.
4. We need not drive fast; we have plenty of time.
5. You must not drive fast; there is a speed limit here.
6. Candidates must not/are not allowed to bring books into the
examination room.
7. You need not write to him for he will be here tomorrow
8. We mustn’t make any noise or we’ll wake the baby.
9. You needn’t bring an umbrella. It isn’t going to rain.
10. You need not do all the exercise. Ten sentences will be enough.
11. We need not reheat the pie. We can eat it cold.
12. Mother to child: You must not tell lies.
13. You must not strike a match; the room is full of gas.
14. You need not turn on the light; I can see quite well.
15. You must not/are not allowed to talk to other candidates during the
exam.
1. Did you hear me come in last night? No, I must have been asleep.
2. I wonder who broke the wineglass; it cannot have been the cat for she
was out all day.
3. You need not have helped him.
4. I had my umbrella when I came out but I haven’t got it now. You must
have left it on the bus.
5. He can’t have escaped by this window because it is barred.
6. I need not have given 10p. 5p would have been enough.
7. I saw a rattlesnake near the river yesterday. You couldn’t have seen it.
There aren’t any rattlesnakes in this country.
8. He is back already. He must have started very early.
9. He returned home with a tiger cub. His wife can’t have been very
pleased about that.
10. I bought two bottles of milk. You need not have bought milk; we have
heaps in the house.
11. I phoned at nine this morning but got no answer. I’m sorry. I must
have been in the garden.
12. I left my bicycle here and now it’s gone. Someone must have borrowed
it.
13. She went to sleep in the park and when she woke up her watch had
vanished. Someone must have stolen it while she slept.
14. I’ve opened another bottle. You needn’t have done that, We’ve only just
started this one.
15. The machine said, “you weigh 65 kilos”, and I said "Thank you". You
needn’t have said anything.

English
Prepositional expressions
1. Every researcher should abide by APA guidelines on the ethical
treatment of human subjects (i.e., every researcher should follow these
guidelines).
2. The article was prepared in accordance with APA guidelines.
3. We do not know how to account for these unexpected findings.
4. Jones provides a chilling account of the experiences of one mentally ill
individual in a prison environment (i.e., Jones describes these
experiences).
5. On no account should these findings be considered conclusive.
6. This potentially important factor should be taken into account.
7. Testing did not begin until the subject's eyes had become accustomed
to (had adapted to) the lack of light in the room.
8. Their research addresses three key questions.
9. The subjects were 160 patients admitted to the hospital with leukemia.
10. They are afraid of spiders.
11. The foreign minister agreed to the proposal.
12. The representatives of the two countries did not agree with each other
on this matter.
13. Scholars in this area cannot agree on the correct explanation for this
phenomenon.
14. The extremely permissive parents in our sample allowed their children
nearly unlimited freedom.
15. The positive correlation between A and B is quite suggestive, even if we
allow for the possibility that some third, as yet uninvestigated variable
may in fact be responsible for the relationship.
16. These findings allow of only one conclusion.
17. The total deficit amounted to $6.2 billion.
18. His colleagues recommended that he apply for the position.
19. Riley' s theory of behaviour applies only to members of Western
societies.
20. Upon her arrival (i.e., as soon as she arrived) she was brought up to
date on the most recent events.
21. They asked for further information.
22. The subjects were randomly assigned to four different conditions.
23. They wanted to draw attention to one particular aspect of the issue.
24. They focused their attention on one particular aspect of the issue.
25. Two decades ago no one was aware of the dangers posed by this
substance.
26. An interesting book by Dillon is listed on the syllabus.
27. Figures depicting these relationships appear at the bottom of page 271
and at the top of page 272.
28. Only a few subjects were capable of solving the problem without
assistance.
29. He cares about his ill brother.
30. He takes care of his brother' s two children every weekend.
31. The program was designed to cater for the needs of the target group.
32. I have enclosed a check for $90.
33. Individuals of this type tend to choose very challenging tasks.
34. It was clear from the tone of his voice that he was disappointed in the
results.
English
35. Researchers in this field compare the human brain to a computer.
36. In the next section the results of the present study are compared with
those of Rogers et al. (1988).
37. Each group was composed of two women and two men.
38. The researcher expressed his concern about the poor performance of
these pupils.
39. Romero is considered a great man.
40. Romero is considered [to be] compassionate and intelligent.
41. In this biography Romero is considered as both a religious man and a
politician.
42. A number of factors must be taken into consideration/account.
43. A water molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
44. According to this theorist, true freedom consists in actual life
opportunities, not just the absence of coercive laws.
45. Money is considered an important criterion of success in that society.
46. SAT scores were the principal criterion for selecting recipients of the
47. scholarship.
48. We present our main criticism of his theory in the following section.
49. They prepared a thorough critique of her theory.
Spelling and punctuation

The words in exercises 1 and 2 you can just look up.
habit-forming activities a clear winning opportunity

morning star green-eyed
impulse buying* decimal point
pressure cook* pre-industrial
union-controlled funds a good-sized tent
foreign-language teacher stepping-stone theory
* - doubtful, may depend on context.
General exercise on English language pitfalls
1. I look forward to receiving a reprint of your article.

2. The number of violent incidents reported to authorities was quite low
last year.
3. Only 60% of the respondents were invited to return for a second
interview.
(have been is also possible, if the interviews haven’t been conducted
yet)
4. Mark studied French for six years and graduated in 2011.
5. We considered developing a new IQ test
6. An explanation for their aberrant finding may lie in the faulty measure
that was used.
7. Kristin usually drives a Fiat. Today, however, she is driving her
mother's Jaguar.
8. Scientists are presently working to solve this mystery.
English
9. John went to Spain for his brother's wedding five years ago.
10. My co-author insisted on replicating the findings before attempting to
publish them.
11. Many studies have shown/show this to be true.
12. The aim of our study was to investigate techniques for improving
academic performance.
13. He was promoted to the position of full professor in 1999.
14. When you were in San Francisco, did you visit the Exploratorium?
15. She is the methodologist (whom) I told you about.
16. None of those present were/are willing to tackle this topic.
17. None of the information was/is correct.
18. Children are dependent on their parents.
19. We were unable to prevent the participants from seeing one another
(‘each other’ if only two are involved).
20. Scientists have been working/have worked to solve this mystery since
1979.
21. It is imperative that every researcher conform to these ethical
guidelines.
22. She has worked at this hospital for six years now.
23. Their scores increased by 32%.
24. A number of theories have been proposed to account for this
phenomenon.
25. Neither the parents nor the child was aware of the observer's presence.
26. Either the child or the parents were given responsibility for keeping a
record of the family's media use.
27. They were relieved to hear that their article had been accepted for
publication.
28. Rogers overlooked the possibility that a third variable could have
been responsible for the relation between A and B.
29. If you had been more careful, you would have detected this
translation error in the questionnaire.
30. A nonparametric test was selected because the data were dichotomous
and unevenly distributed.
31. Mark has been studying/has studied French for six years now and
will graduate soon.
32. Did you see Stonehenge when you were in England?
33. This caused X to increase.
34. The committee recommended that the research plan (should) be
modified.
35. We did not want to risk losing this valuable resource.
36. Building the church would be a rather risky task: the Marekerk was to
be the first Dutch church with a domed roof.
English
GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS
Adjective A category of words characteristically denoting

properties of persons or objects. Generally function
as modifiers of nouns (bijvoeglijk naamwoord)
Adverb A category of words typically derived from
adjectives by adding –ly. They generally function
as modifiers of verbs and categories other than
nouns (bijwoord)
Article Lidwoord
Auxiliary A subclass of verbs that typically mark tense,

aspect, mood, or voice (hulpwerkwoord)
Clause Part of a sentence, contains a noun phrase and a
verb phrase (zin(sdeel)
main clause hoofdzin
sub(ordinate) bijzin
clause
relative clause betrekkelijke bijzin
Conjunction A word used to connect clauses or sentences, or to

coordinate words in the same clause (voegwoord)
ex: and, because, when, but, although
Direct object lijdend voorwerp
Indirect object meewerkend voorwerp

Linking verb koppelwerkwoord
Noun zelfstandig naamwoord
Predicate gezegde
Preposition voorzetsel
Ex: in, on, after, to
Pronoun voornaamwoord
personal pronouns: I, me, you, he, him, she, her,
it, we, us, they, them
relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which,
that
Sentence zin
compound sentence: two main clauses joined by
a conjunction:
I went to school, and my brother went home
complex sentence: a main clause and one or

more subclauses, joined by a conjunction:
I went to school while my brother went home
Subject onderwerp
Verb werkwoord

English
Appendix: Resources for Academic English
1. YouTube film (12 mins): 5 Tips to improve your writing http://www.engvid.com/5-tips-to-

impro... Want to become a better writer? In this video, I will share five easy and quick tips
that will improve writing in formal and academic settings. If you're in college or university or
plan to study overseas, this video is for you! Several short videos on this subject can be found
at http://www.engvid.com/
2. The Purdue Online Writing Lab (Purdue University, U.S.) has lots of resources on academic
English. https://owl.english.purdue.edu/ See, for example, their section on English as a
Second Language (ESL), which has worksheets on specific areas of grammar, or go straight to
the exercises: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/exercises/ You can select exercises on the
aspects you are having difficulties with and get the answers online.
3. Learner’s Dictionaries. These not only explain what a word means, but also how it is used.
Good ones that you can access online are:
Cambridge: http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/learner-english
Collins: http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english
4. Dictionaries of collocations. These show combinations of words that are used together,
including what preposition goes with a particular verb, for instance. Good online ones are:
Oxford: http://oxforddictionary.so8848.com
Ozdic: https://www.ozdic.com/collocation-dictionary
5. Thesaurus (online). This gives lists of synonyms. Good online ones:

http://www.thesaurus.com/
https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english-thesaurus/ (also includes examples of
how the words are used).
6. Advice on use of ‘I’ and ‘we’: http://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/2014/05/me-me-me.html;

http://www.editage.com/insights/is-it-acceptable-to-use-first-person-pronouns-in-scientific-
writing
English

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Contents

2. ACHIEVING COHESION IN WRITING 5

3. VERB TENSE IN ACADEMIC WRITING 10

5. OTHER GRAMMATICAL ISSUES 22

7. SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION 36

Graduate School, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences

8. BRITISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH 42

12. TONE AND ATTITUDE IN ACADEMIC WRITING 52

ACADEMIC WRITING - SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 70

GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS 77

APPENDIX: RESOURCES FOR ACADEMIC ENGLISH 78

2 Graduate School, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences

This is a very slightly revised version of Ineke Smit’s Reader English-

I am grateful to Ineke Smit for allowing me to continue using and adapting

Paragraph length and indents

4 Graduate School, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences

At all levels -- sentences, paragraphs, sections – writing should be cohesive:

2.1 Sentence flow

Sentence 1 Sentence 2 Sentence 3

Sentence 1 Sentence 2 Sentence 3

6 Graduate School, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences

There’s an exercise on reference at the end of this reader.

Contrast/ Concession Emphasis

Graduate School, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences 9

Uses of the Present Tense (onvoltooid tegenwoordige tijd)

Simple Progressive (-ing form)

Water freezes at 0 degrees centigrade Researchers are currently working on this

A is defined as the sum of B and C

These results suggest that obesity may be

4. To indicate the location of

Table 1 shows the group means

10 Graduate School, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences

Simple Progressive (-ing form)

2. To describe completed actions

Researchers at Leiden University have

3. To describe completed actions or

Scientists have established that lack of

In the 1960s, researchers established

Graduate School, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences 11

Simple Progressive (-ing form)

Some subjects found the material shocking

The main effect for group identity was

A multivariate analysis of variance was

We found a strong relationship between

Haley (1988) proposed a cognitive model of

Ramirez (1991) offered a new interpretation

BUT: use the present perfect to

Ramirez (2011) has offered a new

12 Graduate School, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences

To state general truths: Simple present

To describe your own Simple past

To refer to other authors: a. If you’re still engaged in a discussion with

Brown (1999) states that

b. If you mention them as part of a

Brown (1999) stated that

Graduate School, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences 13

Problem Area 1: Non-progressive vs. progressive aspect

Active: Psychologists study the human mind.

Active: Psychologists are studying the human mind.

B) What goes wrong?

(a) X smokes a pipe.

2. The progressive is used to indicate that a particular activity or situation is

14 Graduate School, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences

(2) We study this question already for two years.

These results suggest that X can be attributable to Y.

The subjects had to complete a questionnaire.