Energy Conversion and Management 51 (2010) 2901–2912

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

A review on electrochemical double-layer capacitors

Pawan Sharma *, T.S. Bhatti
Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi 110 016, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Various energy storage technologies have been developed in the market for various applications. Batter-
Received 12 October 2009 ies flywheels, fuel cells are a few which are much common, those are being used in several countries and
Accepted 7 June 2010 also research is also carrying on these technologies to make much better them. The electrochemical dou-
Available online 2 July 2010
ble-layer capacitor (EDLC) is an emerging technology, which really plays a key part in fulfilling the
demands of electronic devices and systems, for present and future. This paper presents the historical
Keywords: background, classification, construction, modeling, testing, and voltage balancing of the EDLC technology.
Electrochemical double-layer capacitors
The applications of EDLC in electrical vehicles, power quality, and others are also discussed and their
Electric vehicles
Ultra-capacitors
advantages over other storages technologies are also discussed.
Super capacitors Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Electro-chemical capacitors (ECs) are known by different names
such as ultra-capacitors, EDLC, or super capacitors. These names
are invented by different manufactures of the ECs. The trade name
of the first commercial device made by Nippon Electric Company
(NEC) was super capacitors, but Pinnacle Research Institute (PRI)
called the ECs as ultra-capacitor. Whatever the trade name of ECs
are known, they all refer to a capacitor, which stores electrical en-
ergy in the interface between an electrolyte and a solid electrode.
Because of the low capacitance values of the electrostatic capaci-
tors, they have limited to low power applications or at most for
short term memory back-up supplies. EDLCs, therefore present a
new breed of technology, which occupies the niche amongst the
other energy storage technologies that was previously vacant. They
are able to store large amount of energy than that of conventional
capacitors, and are able to deliver more power than that of batter-
ies. The Ragon plot [2] as shown in Fig. 1 shows the comparison of
different storage technologies. There are a number of desirable
qualities that make them a lucrative option as energy storage de-
vices for example they have reversible storing and releasing charge
capabilities that make them to withstand a large number of
charge/discharge cycles and are also able to charge/discharge
quickly than that of batteries. The paper is structured as follows:
The second section describes the history of the EDLCs technol-
ogy including its different current manufactures with their ratings.
The classification and construction of the EDLCs is discussed in the
third and fourth section. The fifth and the sixth section tell about
the modeling and testing of the EDLCs. The voltage balancing and
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: bitt1979@gmail.com (P. Sharma).
the applications of the technology are being discussed in the sev-
enth and eight sections.
2. Historical background
A German physicist, Hermann von Helmholtz, first described [1]
the concept of the double-layer capacitance in 1853. General
Electric Company in 1957, first patented [3] EC based on the dou-
ble-layer capacitance structure. This capacitor consisted of porous
carbon electrodes using the double-layer capacitance mechanism
for charging. The Standard Oil Company, Cleveland, Ohio (SOHIO)
patented a device that stored energy in the double layer interface
[2]. Nippon Electric Company (or NEC) of Japan licensed the tech-
nology from SOHIO and introduced the first EC products to the
marketplace as memory back-up devices in computers in 1957
[5]. At this time SOHIO acknowledged that ‘‘the ‘double-layer’ at
the interface behaves like a capacitor of relatively high specific
capacity.” SOHIO went onto patent a disc-shaped capacitor in
1970 utilizing a carbon paste soaked in an electrolyte. NEC by
1971 takes the license of the technology from the SOHIO [20].
The first commercially successful double-layer capacitors under
the name ‘‘super capacitor was launched by NEC. A number of
companies were producing the electro-chemical capacitors by
the 1980s. The gold capacitor was developed by the Matsushita
Electric Industrial Co., (otherwise known as Panasonic in the Wes-
tern world). PRI developed the first high double-layer capacitor.
The ‘‘PRI Ultra capacitor,” developed from 1982, incorporated me-
tal-oxide electrodes and was designed for military applications
such as laser weaponry and missile guidance systems [6].
A current list of manufacturers of utility scale ECs is shown in
Table 1.

0196-8904/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2010.06.031
2902 P. Sharma, T.S. Bhatti / Energy Conversion and Management 51 (2010) 2901–2912

Fig. 1. Ragone plot of various energy storage devices [2].

Table 1
Current manufacturers of ECs for utility-scale applications.

Company Device name Country Voltage range Capacitance

name (V) (F)
AVX Bestcap USA 3.5–12 0.022–0.56
Cap XX Super Australia 2.25–4.5 0.09–2.8
Capacitor
Copper Power stor USA 2.5–5.0 0.47–50
ELNA Dyna cap USA 2.5–6.8 0.033–100
ESMA Capacitor Russia 12–52 100–8000
modules Fig. 2. Simplified parallel capacitor.
EPCOS Ultra-capacitor USA 2.3–2.5 5–5000
Evans Capattery USA 5.5,11 0.01–1.5
Kold Ban Kapower USA 12 1000
itance and the maximum operating voltage of the capacitor. The
Maxwell Boostcap USA 2.5 1.6–2600
NEC Super capacitor Japan 3.5–12 0.01–6.5 capacitance, measured in Farads (F), is defined as the ratio of total
Nesscap EDLC South 2.7 10–5000 charge in coulombs (Q) in each electrode to the potential difference
Korea (V) between the plates:
Panasonic Gold capacitor Japan 2.3–5.5 0.1–2000

3.2. Electrolytic capacitors

An electrolytic capacitor is similar in construction to an electro-

3. Classification of electro-chemical capacitors
The capacitors can be generally classified as follows:
Electrostatic capacitors.
Electrolytic capacitors.
Electro-chemical capacitors.
3.1. Electrostatic capacitors
Electrostatic capacitors are typically made of two metal elec-
trodes (parallel plates) separated by a dielectric as shown in
Fig. 2. The dielectric is nothing, but is a non conducting material
that is inserted between the parallel plates of the metal electrode
material. The operating voltage of the capacitor depends upon
the strength of the
C ¼ Q =V
dielectric material that is measured in volts per meter. The dielec-
tric strength is the maximum electric field, which can exist in a
dielectric without electrical breakdown. For example, air has a
dielectric strength of 3  106 V/m, whereas, paper has a dielectric
strength of 16  106 V/m. The dielectric increases the overall capac-
static capacitor but has a conductive electrolyte salt in direct con-
tact with the metal electrodes. Aluminum electrolytic capacitors,
for example, are made up of two aluminum conducting foils
(coated with an insulating oxide layer) and a paper spacer soaked
in electrolyte [9].The oxide layer serves as the dielectric and is very
thin, which results in higher capacitance per unit volume than
electrostatic capacitors. Electrolytic capacitors have plus and
minus polarity due to the oxide layer, which is held in place by
the electric field established during charge. If the polarity is re-
verse-biased, the oxide layer dissolves in the electrolyte and can
become shorted and, in extreme cases, the electrolyte can heat
up and explode.
3.3. Electro-chemical capacitors
ECs also use electrolyte solutions but have even greater capac-
ð1Þ itance per unit volume due to their porous electrode structure
compared to electrostatic and electrolytic capacitors. At the macro-
scopic level, the EC takes the equation C = e0 A/d to the extreme by
having a very high electrode surface-area (A) due to the porous
electrodes and very small separation d between the electronic
and ionic charge at the electrode surface. Indeed, the surface-area
of the porous electrodes has been recorded to be as large as
 P. Sharma, T.S. Bhatti / Energy Conversion and Management 51 (2010) 2901–2912
Fig. 3. EDLC charge storage mechanism [12].
1000–2000 m2/cm3 [4,10,11]. The high-energy density of ECs is
due to their greater capacitance per unit volume compared to con-
ventional capacitors. ECs themselves are grouped into two major
categories-symmetric and asymmetric. Symmetric ECs (or SECs)
use the same electrode material (usually carbon) for both the posi-
tive and negative electrodes. Asymmetric ECs (or AECs) use two
different materials for the positive and negative electrodes. SECs
get their electrostatic charge from the accumulation and separa-
tion of ions at the interface between the electrolyte and electrodes.
SECs can use aqueous or organic electrolyte solutions. The electro-
lyte solution comprises aqueous substances (such as potassium
hydroxide or sulfuric acid) or organic substances (such as acetoni-
trile or propylene carbonate). An SEC using aqueous electrolyte is
also known as a Type I SEC and an SEC using organic electrolyte
is known as a Type II SEC. Similarly, an AEC using an aqueous elec-
trolyte is known as a Type III AEC and one using organic electrolyte
is known as a Type IV AEC. At the time of writing, there were no
commercially available Type IV AEC devices [12]. Fig. 3 shows
the EDLC charge storage mechanism.
4. EDLC construction
A wide variety of EDLC materials and processes for cell con-
struction currently exist. This section covers the properties of var-
ious available materials and describes the aspects of each
alternative that have a significant impact on device performance.
A wide literature [11–39] is available on the construction of EDLC.
4.1. Electrode materials
The electrical properties of a super capacitor are determined by
the selection of electrode material. Double-layer charge storage is a
surface process, and the surface characteristics of the electrode
greatly influence the capacitance of the cell. Various materials
are being used i.e. carbon, metal-oxides, conducting polymer, hy-
brid and conducting polymers. Carbon has been utilized as a high
surface-area electrode material ever since development of the elec-
trochemical capacitor began. Today, it is still an attractive option
because of its low cost, availability, and long history of use. Carbon
electrodes can take a number of manufactured forms such as
foams, fibers, and nanotubes. Treatment of activated carbon mate-
rials influences the porous structure of the electrode surface, and it
is the accessibility of the pores to the electrolyte that is important.
The mobility of the ions within the pores is different to the mobil-
2903
ity of ions in the bulk of the electrolytic solution, and is greatly
influenced by pore size. If the pores are too small to allow easy ac-
cess to electrolyte ions they will not contribute to double-layer
capacitance. The pore size must therefore be chosen to suit the
electrolyte and thereby ensure that the pore size distribution is
optimal based upon the size of the ions [14]. Nanotubes offer a
new possibility for carbon electrodes, but are still being re-
searched. Preliminary results suggest that higher capacitance is
achieved by tangled networks with an open central canal [14]. Me-
tal-oxides present an attractive alternative as an electrode material
because of high specific capacitance and low resistance, possibly
making it easier to construct high-energy, high-power EDLCs.
Extensive research into ruthenium-oxides has been conducted for
military applications, where cost is presumably less of an issue
than it is for commercial ventures. The prototype cells with an en-
ergy density of 8.5 W h/kg and a power density of 6 kW/kg has
been developed by the US Army Research Lab [16]. Although man-
ganese oxide (a metal-oxide material) electrodes currently appear
to possess lower specific capacitances than ruthenium-oxides, the
lower cost and milder electrolyte may be enough of an advantage
to make them a viable alternative [16].
The redox process is used in conducting polymers to store and
release charge. When oxidation occurs, (also referred to as ‘dop-
ing’), ions are transferred to the polymer backbone. When reduc-
tion occurs (‘dedoping’) the ions are released back into the
solution. Charging in conducting polymer films therefore takes
place throughout the bulk volume of the film, and not just on the
surface as is the case with carbon. This offers the opportunity of
achieving high levels of specific capacitance [17]. Work at the Los
Alamos National Laboratory [17] has reported prototype polymer
film capacitors with an energy density of 39 W h/kg and a power
density of 35 kW/kg. Hybrid electrode configurations show consid-
erable potential, consisting of two different electrodes made of dif-
ferent materials. Composite electrodes consist of one type of
material incorporated into another within the same electrode.
4.2. Electrolytes
The choice of electrolyte in an EDLC is very important for the
choice of electrode material. The attainable cell voltage of a super
capacitor depends upon the breakdown voltage of the electrolyte,
and hence the possible energy density (which is dependent on volt-
age) is limited by the electrolyte. Power density depends upon the
cell’s ESR that is strongly dependent on electrolyte conductivity.
There are currently two types of electrolyte in use in EDLCs: organic
2904 P. Sharma, T.S. Bhatti / Energy Conversion and Management 51 (2010) 2901–2912
and aqueous. The most commonly electrolytes used in the commer-
cial devices are the organic electrolytes. Cells using an organic elec-
trolyte can usually achieve voltages in the range of 2–2.5 V. The
resistivity of organic electrolytes is relatively high, however, limiting
cell power. Aqueous electrolytes have a lower breakdown voltage,
typically 1 V, but have better conductivity than organic electrolytes.
The capacitance of an EDLC is greatly influenced by the choice of
electrolyte. The ability to store charge is dependent on the accessibil-
ity of the ions to the porous surface-area, so ion size and pore size
must be optimal. The best pore size distribution in the electrode de-
pends upon the size of the ions in the electrolyte, so both electrode
and electrolyte must be chosen together.
4.3. Separator
The separator prevents the occurrence of electrical contact be-
tween the two electrodes, but it is ion-permeable, allowing ionic
charge transfer to take place. Polymer or paper separators can be
used with organic electrolytes and ceramic or glass fiber separators
are often used with aqueous electrolytes. For best EDLC perfor-
mance the separator should have a high electrical resistance, a high
ionic conductance, and a low thickness [18].
5. Modeling of ultra-capacitor
The process of storing charges in the double-layer capacitor is
very different to those that occur in conventional capacitors. It
should therefore be no surprise to find that traditional models used
to describe capacitor behavior are inadequate in the case of elec-
tro-chemical capacitors. A number of models [39–52] have been
suggested for the operation of double-layer capacitors. A few of
them are being discussed as follows:
5.1. The classical equivalent circuit.
5.2. The three branch model.
5.3. Porous electrodes as transmission lines.
5.1. The classical equivalent circuit
A simple model [39] as shown in Fig. 4 was suggested for a dou-
ble-layer capacitor that includes a capacitance (C) with an equiva-
lent series resistance (ESR) and an equivalent parallel resistance
(EPR). By determining the current leakage, and influences long-
term energy storage from the equivalent circuit model, a first order
approximation of EDLC behavior can be developed. In [39] Spyker
tells about the determination of EPR. He says that involved is with
slowly charging the capacitor to its rated voltage, and then allow-
ing a significant amount of time to pass before measuring the
capacitor’s terminal voltage. Since the decay is exponential, the
EPR can be calculated from equation as follows:
EPR ¼ t=ððlnðV 2 =V 1 ÞCÞ
where t is the time, V1 the initial voltage, V2 the final voltage,
and C assumed to be equal to the rated capacitance. The time con-
stant of C and EPR is usually quite large, so the EPR can be ignored
Fig. 4. The classical equivalent circuit of an EDLC [61].
in the case of a short discharge up to the order of a few minutes. To
determine the ESR the EPR is ignored and the equivalent circuit is
assumed to consist only of the ESR and the capacitance. The ESR
can then be determined from the change in voltage, DV, and cur-
rent, DI, which occurs during charging.
ESR ¼ DV=DI ð3Þ
The preferred method used by Spyker to measure the capaci-
tance, C, of the equivalent circuit involves determining the change
in energy that occurs during charging or discharging, which is gi-
ven by:
DE ¼ ðð1=2ÞCÞðV 21  V 22 Þ ð4Þ
Since the change in energy can be determined from the integral
of instantaneous power, C can be calculated from:
 Z t2 
C¼ 2 v idt ðV 21  V 22 Þ ð5Þ
t1
5.2. The three branch model
Zubieta and Bonert [40] observed that the classical circuit is
insufficient when compared against experimentally observed
behavior. Therefore, a model consisting of three RC branches was
suggested to achieve a better fit to the collected data. Each branch
of the equivalent circuit possessed a significantly different time
constant. The branch containing Ri denoted the immediate branch,
dominates behavior in the order of a few seconds. The delayed
branch, containing Rd, most influences behavior in the range of
minutes. The third, long-term branch governs the long-term re-
sponse of the circuit after more than 10 min. The immediate
branch contains a voltage dependent capacitor Ci1 that reflects
the voltage dependency of the double-layer’s capacitance. The
resistance Rlea is included to model current leakage [40]. Fig. 5
shows the three branch equivalent model. Zubieta provides a
method of determining the parameters of the three branch equiv-
alent circuit. To do this, the capacitor is subjected to a fast, con-
trolled charge and the subsequent charge/discharge characteristic
is examined. Before this can be carried out, however, all of the
capacitive elements must be completely discharged so that the
capacitor’s initial state is known. The capacitor should therefore
be short-circuited for several weeks prior to parameter measure-
ment. A controlled current source should be used to achieve
repeatable results. The charging current Ich is set at 5% of the de-
vice’s short-circuit current, calculated from the rated voltage and
resistance specified by the manufacturer [41].To determine the
parameters of the immediate branch the capacitor is charged,
reaching Ich at time Ri is then given by measuring the voltage V1;
Ri ¼ V 1 =Ich ð6Þ
At a later time t2, the change in voltage, DV is measured to give C io
ð2Þ
C io ¼ Ich ððt 2  t1 Þ=DVÞ ð7Þ
Fig. 5. Three branch model [41].
 P. Sharma, T.S. Bhatti / Energy Conversion and Management 51 (2010) 2901–2912
Fig. 6. Porous electrode representation as a five element transmission line [42].
When the voltage reaches its rated level at time t3, the current
source is switched off, and the current will reach zero at time t4,
and the voltage will be V4. The voltage dependent capacitance C i1
is then given by:
C i1 ¼ ð2=V 4 ÞððIch ðt 4  t 1 Þ=V 4 ÞÞ  C io ð8Þ
Similarly the calculation of other parameters of the three branch
model was also discussed [41].
5.3. Porous electrodes as transmission lines
De Levie [41] suggested the capacitance in porous electrodes re-
sulted in each pore being modeled as a transmission line as shown
in Fig. 6. The transmission line models a distributed double-layer
capacitance and a distributed electrolyte resistance that extends
into the depth of the pore. To achieve an estimation of the dou-
ble-layer capacitive effects, De Levie assumed straight, cylindrical
pores of uniform diameter and a perfectly conducting electrode.
The parameter on the x-axis, depends on the depth within the pore,
z, the double-layer capacitance, C, and the electrolyte resistance, R,
so that
s ¼ ð1=4Þðz2 RCÞ ð9Þ
When a DC potential is applied to the opening of a pore the pen-
etration depth therefore increases with time. For AC voltages the
penetration depth increases as the frequency decreases.
6. Testing of ultra-capacitors
The test conditions for the capacitors to be evaluated are ex-
pressed in terms of the following parameters:
Power density.
Charge/discharge cycles.
Capacitor voltage window.
These parameters are more closely related to those used in bat-
tery testing than in evaluations of capacitors or electrochemical
electrodes or cells using AC impedance. It can be expected that
over the next few years, the relationship between DC testing and
AC impedance testing of electro-chemical capacitors being devel-
oped for electrical vehicle applications will become more com-
pletely understood.
6.1. General considerations for testing
6.1.1. DC testing
The test equipment used for the DC testing of capacitors is clo-
sely related to that available for testing battery cells and modules.
These testers are programmable and permit cycling the capacitors
at constant-current, constant-power, and on a prescribed transient
2905
cycle, such as the PSFUDS. The battery testers are specified in terms
of maximum voltage and current, for example, 20 V and 12 A.
State-of-the-art battery testers, such as those available from Mac-
cor, permit capacitor testing at voltage, current, and power as low
as a fraction of a volt, ampere, and watt, respectively, and discharge
times as low as 1 s. State-of-the- art battery testers are computer-
controlled and have as integral components data acquisition sys-
tems that permit data sampling at 10–100 ms rates and real-time
computations of charge (A-s) and energy (W-s) during the capaci-
tor tests for sub-steps of complicated transient cycles (e.g., the
PSFUDS) [60].
6.1.2. Selection of test parameters
In general, in preparing to test a capacitor, it is necessary to de-
velop a test plan, which involves the selection of test parameters
for the evaluation of the device. For DC testing, this includes selec-
tion of the current (A) and power (W) at which the device will be
charged and discharged, and the initial and final voltages for the
tests. The currents and powers to be used in the testing depends
on the manufacturers’ (developers’) rating capacitance and volt-
age) of the device and its mass. The nominal charge/discharge cur-
rent 1^ can be determined from the rated capacitance and voltage
of the device from the relationship [60];
In ¼ ðC p ÞðwtÞ=ðV w =2Þ ð10Þ
Cp is the nominal power density (W/kg) for the testing using 200 W/
kg for present devices, but this can be adjusted upward as devices im-
prove. Wt is the device weight in kg, Vw is the device working voltage.
The corresponding nominal discharge time tn is [60];
T n ¼ ðCÞðV w Þ=ðIn Þ ð11Þ
where tn is a nominal charge/discharge time and VW is the work-
ing voltage of the device. Tests will be performed at currents higher
and lower than In (e.g., 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 8.0 In). Selection of the
power (W) levels for the tests would depend on the mass (M) of the
device to be evaluated. For capacitor devices having an expected
energy density less than 5 W h/kg, the tests could be performed
at specific power values of 50, 100, 200, 500, 800, 1200 W/kg [60].
6.1.3. Test sequence
The procedures are written to characterize capacitors under
development for the electric vehicle applications. The various
capacitor technologies are in different states of development and
consequently not all tests and procedures are applicable for each
test device. Procedures are listed below in five groups. The test se-
quence should proceed from Groups I and II to any of the final
three groups depending on the state of development the device
Table 2
Various tests detailing on ultra-capacitor [61].
Group1
DC tests
Constant-current charge/discharge
Equivalent series resistance
Leakage current
Self discharge test
Group2
AC impedance characterization
Group3
DC tests
Constant-power discharge
Transient power cycles
Group4
Life cycle tests
Life stability
Temperature effect tests
Group5
Shock and vibration tests
2906 P. Sharma, T.S. Bhatti / Energy Conversion and Management 51 (2010) 2901–2912
and the information needed to evaluate it. Table 2 shows the se-
quence of different tests which are required to conduct on the ul-
tra-capacitors.
All capacitors should be evaluated using the Group I tests and
Group II if AC impedance equipment is available. Group III proce-
dures should be performed on all capacitors that perform satisfacto-
rily in the Groups I and II tests. These establish baseline electrical and
physical characteristics. Significant discrepancies between test data
and information received from the device supplier may be reason to
terminate testing at this point. For example, a low-rate capacitance
value that is much different from the device’s rating may indicate
defective behavior. Further tests on such a capacitor would then
not be warranted. Group IV procedures constitute life-cycle testing
of devices/modules. These tests should be performed on all capaci-
tors that perform satisfactorily in the tests of Groups I–III [60].
7. Voltage balancing of ultra-capacitors
The main difficulty with the super capacitors is their low opera-
tion voltage. The maximum voltage that can be applied to a super
capacitor is low, near 2.5 V but most powerful applications require
considerably higher voltages. To reach the required application volt-
age the super capacitors are connected in series to form a system.
However the series super capacitor stacks lead to unequal volt-
age distributions because the capacitance of super capacitors is not
exactly same [53,54,57–59]. Its capacitance is also varying with
different DC bias voltage. Voltage distribution in a series stack of
super capacitors is initially a function of capacitance. After the
stack has been held at voltage for a period of time, voltage distribu-
tion then becomes a function of internal parallel resistance (leak-
age current).For example; consider a stack of 20 capacitors
initially charged to 50 V. If the cells have identical capacitance,
the voltage should divide evenly, so that each capacitor charges
up to 2.5 V. If the cells have any variation in capacitance, individual
cell voltages will vary based on capacitance. The cells with greater
capacitance will be charged to lower voltages, and the cells with
smaller capacitance will be charged to higher voltages. This is be-
cause each cell conducts the same current, and voltage is a function
of current and capacitance.
Those undesired unequal capacitance could attribute to several
factor as following [7,8]:
 the manufacturing tolerance (5–10%),
 the temperature gradient in the system, and
 the cell aging.
In this case some super capacitor will have an over-value for
their voltage, with an associated decreasing of their lifetime. For
the other super capacitors the maximum voltage will be under
the voltage limit, the energy storage in super capacitors will not
be at its maximum level. A capacitor with a smaller capacitance
needs a shorter charging time and, thus, reaches its maximum volt-
age faster than a larger capacitor. To avoid damaging the smaller
capacitor, voltage equalization circuits have to be employed.
7.1. Types of balancing
A. Passive balancing.
B. Active balancing.
7.1.1. Passive balancing
Passive balancing can also be classified as follows:
I Resistance balancing.
II Zener diode balancing.
7.1.1.1. Resistance balancing. In order to prevent the adverse effects
of unequalized charging of super capacitors, individual super
capacitor needs to be maintained at an equalized charge level. This
can be achieved by regulating the voltage of individual cells. A sim-
ple approach to equalize the super capacitor stacks is to use bypass
resistor in parallel as shown in Fig. 7. The amount of current drawn
by the resistors is proportional to the cell voltage which results in
more current being diverted to the resistor as the cell voltage de-
creases. This will tend to reduce the voltage differences between
the different cells within the stack since higher voltage cells will
be further discharged by the resistors in parallel. One drawback
of this approach is that the recovered energy is being converted
into additional losses in the resistors. In addition, the amount of
current drawn by the resistors is not regulated. As a result, the cell
voltages are not fully regulated. The principles of equalization can
be explained like this. When the voltage starts grow slowly from
zero to maximum voltage, the charging current is flowing through
C1. As soon as the capacitor C1 reaches its maximum voltage, the
current is flowing to resistance R1. Next when the capacitor C2 is
charged, its current starts flowing to resistance R2. This process
will be continued to end of the capacitor. Therefore the process
of charging is quite slow which is roughly 400 s to charge the super
capacitors and also obviously power is dissipated on each resistor
highly. If all the parallel resistances are the same, the cells with
higher voltages should discharge through the parallel resistance
at a higher rate than the cells with lower voltages. This will help
to distribute the total stack voltage evenly across the entire series
of capacitors. The voltage equalization is closely achieved by con-
necting resistor in parallel across the capacitors but great power
dissipation is expected in the resistor.
7.1.1.2. Zener diode balancing. In order to regulate the current
drawn by the shunt elements, active circuitry can be used. Use
of zener diode is one such approach. A zener diode is a specially
processed single PN junction that provides relatively constant
voltage across two terminals despite changes in zener current.
Because of this unique characteristic, it is used as a voltage reg-
ulator when placed in parallel across a load to be regulated.
When the zener is positively biased, it behaviors as a regular
diode. When it is reverse-biased, if the cathode–anode voltage
VKA is less than the breakdown voltage VB, it will block the con-
duction. Otherwise, the voltage VKA will be clamped to VB. As
soon as a capacitor C1 reaches its maximum voltage, the diode
Z1 starts conducting the charging current. And also when the
C2 is fully charged, the diode Z2 is conducted. In this scheme,
the amount of lost energy is minimized since the shunt circuitry
is only active when the cell voltage exceeds the preset level.
However this approach also leads to increased losses and, fur-
thermore, suffers from the temperature dependency of the Zener
diodes.
Simulated energy losses for voltage balancing with resistors and
zener diodes are compared in Figs. 8 and 9. In both cases four 1000
F EDLCs and one 800 F EDLC were connected in series and charged
Fig. 7. Passive resistance balancing [55].
 P. Sharma, T.S. Bhatti / Energy Conversion and Management 51 (2010) 2901–2912 2907

Fig. 8. Simulated energy loss while discharging an EDLC bank balanced with resistors [56].

Fig. 9. Simulated energy loss while discharging a bank balanced with zener diodes [56].

to 12.5 V. Energy stored at the end of the charging process
amounted to 15 kJ. In the case of the voltage balancing resistors
(each 0.1 O), 120 kJ was required to fully charge the EDLCs, result-
ing in an efficiency of 12.5%. When zener diodes were used only
16.3 kJ was required, resulting in an efficiency of 92% [55]. Charg-
ing efficiency is therefore improved by using zener diodes for volt-
age balancing instead of resistors.
7.1.2. Active balancing
In passive balancing scheme, the recovery energy is dissipated
into the resistive current shunts. As a result, the dissipated equal-
ization schemes are best suited for low power applications or low
current charge/discharge rates. This will tend to minimize the lost
energy. In applications such as electric vehicles (EVs), the current
charge/discharge rates are pretty high (10–100%) and the charge/
discharge times are quite short. As a result, the charge equalization
currents could be of the same order of magnitude. Therefore in or-
der to minimize lost energy and optimize cell’s performances, non-
dissipative equalization techniques (active balancing scheme) need
to be used. The general philosophy behind an active voltage shar-
ing device is shown in Fig. 10. The main charging current I is aug-
mented by the equalizing currents Ieq. The size and direction of the
2908 P. Sharma, T.S. Bhatti / Energy Conversion and Management 51 (2010) 2901–2912

Here, the capacitor can act as a supply for a short period. Batteries
are the alternative of the capacitors in these applications. Batteries
do not generally have a long product lifetime, and therefore need
to be replaced regularly. Today’s consumer appliances are also
cheap to the extent that a battery could cost up to 20% of the price
of the appliance [62]. EDLCs are therefore a good choice as back-up
power supply due to their long lifetime. Fig. 12 shows the scheme
for memory back-up of clock memory via super capacitor.

8.2. Electric vehicles

Battery power electric vehicles have the limitations of low

Fig. 10. Philosophy of voltage balancing with equalizing current sources [56].
Fig. 11. Buck-boost topology for active voltage balancing [56].
equalizing currents is controlled according to the local voltages
present across the corresponding super capacitor. The equalizing
current sources can be realised by the buck–boost topology shown
in Fig. 11. If the voltage Uc1 is detected as being significantly great-
er than voltage Uc2, transistor T1 will be switched at a certain fre-
quency to generate a positive equalizing current 2Ieq. If Uc2 is
greater than Uc1 then T2 will be 80 switched to generate a negative
equalizing current. This process continues until the voltages are
balanced. Figure shows the philosophy of voltage balancing with
equalizing current sources [55].
power density, limited charge/discharge cycles, high temperature
dependence, and long charging time. Ultra-capacitors, by virtue
of their technology, are not having such limitations, although they
are faced with other limitations such as low energy density and
high costs. The combination of the storage devices can be a good
alternative. Peak load requirements that result from accelerating
or climbing up hills can be met by the high-power device such as
a super capacitor bank. The utilization of super capacitors also
makes regenerative braking possible. Figure shows the ultra-
capacitor with a fuel cell in an electric drive train. Fig. 13 shows
the arrangement of electric drive train using a fuel cell and super
capacitors. The power flow of the fuel cell is a smooth function,
with the fast acceleration requirements being powered by the
super capacitors. The recharging of the super capacitors during
braking periods is also shown, and in order to quantify the fuel sav-
ings made from regenerative braking fuel consumption was mea-
sured with the regenerative braking turned on and off. It was
found that the fuel consumption was 6.1 L/100 km without regen-
erative braking, and 5.3 L/100 km with regenerative braking,
amounting to a saving of 15% [117]. 42 V electrical systems [117]
are being proposed due to the increasing power demand in luxury
vehicles, and alternatives to various devices such as the starter mo-
tor will become viable. Within a 42 V vehicle one such option will
be the integrated starter alternator (ISA), an electrical machine that
can replace both the starter motor and the alternator. The imple-
mentation of an ISA can provide greater generating ability and cre-

8. Applications of ultra-capacitors

Ultra-capacitors are now having both energy and power density

high, and so new applications for EDLCs are being developed at an
increasing rate. There is a lot of literature [61–127] available on the
application of EDLCs. Some possible applications of ultra-capaci-
tors are being discussed here.

(1) Memory back-up.

Fig. 12. Scheme for memory back-up of clock memory via super capacitor [63].
(2) Electric vehicles.
(3) Power quality.
(4) Battery Improvement.
(5) Portable power supplies.
(6) Electrochemical actuators.
(7) Adjustable-speed drives.
(8) Renewable energy applications.

8.1. Memory back-up

In short term applications, ultra-capacitors are being used from

so many years. Many appliances now incorporate digital compo-
nents with memory, and even a very brief interruption in the
power supply would otherwise cause a loss of stored information. Fig. 13. Electric drive train using a fuel cell and super capacitors [118].
 P. Sharma, T.S. Bhatti / Energy Conversion and Management 51 (2010) 2901–2912 2909

ates the possibility of start-stop operation of the ICE. An experi-

mental prototype toy vehicle running on batteries was retrofitted
with the facility of power supply through two ultra-capacitors with
passive balancing with/without a battery [118]. It was observed
that the ultra-capacitor shares higher current when connected
with a battery, which is expected to improve battery life.

8.3. Power quality

To improve the reliability and quality of power distribution,

EDLCs can be a good alternative as an energy storage device. Static
Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) is the system that aims to
inject or absorb power from a distribution line in order to compen-
sate for voltage fluctuations. As a result, such system requires a DC
energy storage device of some sort from which energy can be
drawn and in which energy can be stored. The energy density of
the DC storage device determines the length of voltage disturbance
that can be effectively compensated. The vast majority of voltage
perturbations on the distribution bus are short-lived, most not
lasting more than 10 cycles [65]. The limited storage capability
of the super capacitor is therefore not a problem and EDLC has
the advantage of possessing a fast discharge time. For short dura-
tion, fast response applications, batteries are not preferred or suit- Fig. 15. Pulsed current load experienced in a mobile phone [121].
able and if battery is drained for these applications, the life of the
battery gets down. Fig. 14 shows the improved power quality on 8.5. Portable power supplies
distribution side by DVR.
For portable electronic equipment with moderate energy de-
mands, super capacitors are well suited to act as rechargeable
8.4. Battery monitoring stand-alone power sources. Most devices presently using battery
power supplies have long recharge times and need to be charged
Batteries are being used widely in the portable power appli- overnight. This needs the charging and discharging quickly and
ances such as laptops, and mobile phones. Many such devices draw the super capacitors can be charged and discharged quickly. Uni-
high-power, pulsed currents as shown in Fig. 15 and current pro- versity of Rio Grande [121] built a complete power supply package
files consisting of short, high current bursts result in a reduction incorporating DC-converter circuitry on a 50 F, 2.5 V ELNA
of battery performance. Dynacap.
Batteries with super capacitors are a much effective alternative
for these applications. A super capacitor can relieve the battery of 8.6. Electrochemical actuators
the most severe load demands by meeting the peak power require-
ments, and allowing the battery to supply the average load [120]. Most actuation systems demand pulsed currents with high
The reduction in pulsed current drawn from the battery results peak power requirements but fairly moderate average power
in an extended battery lifetime. requirements [122]. A battery combined with a super capacitor

Distribution Feeders
Fault

Distribution
Substation
Line Voltage Compensating Restored
with Sag Voltage Voltage
+

Dynamic Transformer
Sensitive Load
Voltage Restorer
(DVR)
Converter

D. C. Storage

Fig. 14. Improved power quality on distribution side by DVR [120].

2910 P. Sharma, T.S. Bhatti / Energy Conversion and Management 51 (2010) 2901–2912
can be a good alternative to meet both average and peak load
requirements. Trying to meet both requirements with a battery
alone results in an oversized configuration, which is undesirable
in space applications in which weight must be kept to a mini-
mum. By designing a hybrid power source consisting of a battery
and an EDLC bank weight savings of 60% can be made over using
a battery alone [123].
8.7. Adjustable-speed drives
In industrial applications, Adjustable-speed drives (ASDs) are
commonly used because of their efficiency, but they often suffer
from power fluctuations and interruptions. Disruptions in indus-
trial settings are usually highly undesirable, and downtime of a
machine that is part of a continuously running process can equate
to significant monetary losses. The only alternative is to design the
adjustable-speed drives that can ‘ride-through’ power supply dis-
turbances. An energy storage device is needed to act as a back-
up power source in order for an ASD to ride-through a disturbance
at full-power. A number of options are available, with batteries and
flywheel systems being able to provide ride through. Batteries and
flywheels suffer from their size and maintenance requirements,
but batteries are currently a cheap option. Fuel cells can store a
large amount of energy but cannot respond quickly. Super capaci-
tors can respond quickly to voltage fluctuations, have a long life-
time, require no maintenance, and can be easily be monitored
due to the fact that their state of charge is dependent on the volt-
age [66].
8.8. Renewable energy applications
In solar PV applications, batteries have to be replaced every 3–
7 years because of continuous cycling that has a detrimental effect
on batteries [125]. But super capacitors are able to charged and dis-
charged quickly and also for large cycles than that of batteries, and
thus only need to be replaced every 20 years, which is the lifetime
of the PV panels [125]. Life-cycle costs are therefore reduced
through the elimination of frequent maintenance requirements.
Energy efficiency is always of primary concern in renewable power
generation, and super capacitors demonstrate a higher charging
efficiency than batteries. A lead-acid battery, for example, can lose
up to 30% of the energy during charging. EDLCs, on the other hand,
may only lose 10% [125]. The ability to operate efficiently of a
wider range of temperatures is also an advantage of using super
capacitors. Some remote stations may be located in cold climates
and if batteries are used for energy storage the temperature will
have to be maintained at close to room temperature by auxiliary
systems, representing additional cost and energy consumption.
But the major disadvantage of EDLC is that they have the limited
energy density. This result in the capital costs of achieving energy
storage equal to that of batteries is being excessive and EDLCs are
hence rarely chosen as an option. A study by Telstra Research Lab-
oratories [126] emphasizes the reduced life-cycle costs of network
termination units powered by PV panels and super capacitors, and
concludes that while 73 present prices exclude their use the capital
costs can be expected to decrease significantly in the coming years.
9. Conclusions
A brief overview of EDLC technology is discussed including its
history, classification, modeling, construction and applications.
Previous development efforts have been considered to place the
current state of the technology. The conclusion of the paper is de-
scribed as follows:
I It is observed that in the early stages of development, the
EDLC energy storage is a good solution. It is also apparent
that current cost evaluations usually rule out EDCL as a via-
ble option to batteries, a known and mature technology,
which has been widely available for many decades.
II EDLC is a good alternative to any applications that requires
energy storage because of the advantages of charging effi-
ciency, fast response, long life time, and wide operating tem-
perature range. It is also concluded that EDLC technology is
only useful within a finite range of energy and power needs.
Outside of these boundaries the other alternatives seem to
be good alternatives.
III The EDLCs are somewhat different from the electrostatic
capacitors. Problems may arise if it is assumed that EDLCs
behave like conventional capacitors. For that discussed
equivalent circuit models are good alternatives.
IV The paper also discussed the voltage balancing techniques. It
is observed that active balancing technique is preferred and
advantageous, but it includes the complexity and cost also.
References
[1] Conway BE. Electrochemistry Encyclopedia. <http://electrochem.cwru.edu/
ed/encycl/art-c03-elchem-cap.htm>.
[2] Rightmire RA. Electrical energy storage apparatus. US Patent 3288641, 29
November 1966.
[3] Becker HI. Low voltage electrolytic capacitor. US Patent 2800616, 23 July
1957.
[4] Kotz R, Carlen M. Principles and applications of electrochemical capacitors.
Electrochim Acta 1999;45:2483–98.
[5] NEC-Tokin web site. <http://www.nectokin>.
[6] Bullard GL, Sierra-Alcazar HB, Lee HL, Morris JL. Operating principles of the
ultra capacitor. IEEE Trans Magn 1988;25:102–6.
[7] ELNA. <http://www.elnaerica.com/company.htm>.
[8] Ness Capacitor Co., Ltd. <http://www.nesscap.com/prod/ba3.htm>.
[9] Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia/electrolytic capacitors. <http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/electrolytic_capacitor>.
[10] Bakhoum E. New mega-farad ultra capacitors. IEEE Trans Ultrason,
Ferroelectrics Freq Control 2009;56:14–21.
[11] Bard J, Faulkner LR. Electrochemical methods, fundamentals and applications.
2nd ed.. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; 2001. p. 12–3.
[12] Conway. Supercapacitor behavior resulting from pseudocapacitance
associated with redox processes. In: Proceedings of the symposium
electrochemical capacitors; 1996. p. 17–8.
[13] Nishino A. Capacitors: operating principles, current market and technical
trends. J Power Sources 1996;60:137–47.
[14] Frackowiak E, Beguin F. Carbon materials for the electrochemical storage of
energy in capacitors. Carbon 2001;39:937–50.
[15] Rudge A, Raistrick I, Gottesfeld S, Ferraris JP. A study of the electrochemical
properties of conducting polymers for application in electrochemical
capacitors. Electrochim Acta 1994;39:273–87.
[16] Burke A. Ultra capacitors: why, how, and where is the technology. J Power
Sources 2000;91:37–50.
[17] Mastragostino M, Arbizzani C, Soavi F. Conducting polymers as electrode
materials in supercapacitors. Solid State Ionics 2002;148:493–8.
[18] Schneuwly A, Gallay R. Properties and applications of supercapacitors: from
state-of-the-art to future trends. In: Presented at PCIM; 2000.
[19] Zorpette G. Super charged [ultra capacitors]. IEEE Spectrum 2005;42:32–7.
[20] Endo M, Takeda T, Kim YJ, Koshiba K, Ishii K. High power electric double layer
capacitor (EDLC’s); from operating principle to pore size control in advanced
activated carbons. Carbon Sci 2001;1:117–28.
[21] Yoshida A, Imoto K, Nishino A, Yoneda H. An electric double layer capacitor
with high capacitance and low resistance. In: 41st Electronic components and
technology conference, Atlanta, GA, USA; 1991.
[22] Celzard A, Collas F, Mareche JF, Furdin G, Rey I. Porous electrodes-based
double-layer supercapacitors: pore structure versus series resistance. J Power
Sources 2002;108:153–62.
[23] Gamby J, Taberna PL, Simon P, Fauvarque JF, Chesneau M. Studies and
characterizations of various activated carbons used for carbon/carbon
supercapacitors. J Power Sources 2001;101:109–16.
[24] An KH, Kim WS, Park YS. Electrochemical properties of high-power
supercapacitors using single-walled carbon nanotube electrodes. Adv Funct
Mater 2001;11:387–92.
[25] Frackowiak E, Metenier K, Bertagna V, Beguin F. Supercapacitor electrodes
from multiwalled carbon nanotubes. Appl Phys Lett 2000;77:2421–3.
[26] Jiang Q, Qu MZ, Zhou GM, Zhang BL, Yu ZL. A study of activated carbon
nanotubes as electrochemical super capacitors electrode materials. Mater
Lett 2002;57:988–91.
 P. Sharma, T.S. Bhatti / Energy Conversion and Management 51 (2010) 2901–2912
[27] Laforgue A, Simon P, Sarrazin C, Fauvarque J. Polythiophenebased
supercapacitors. J Power Sources 1999;80:142–8.
[28] Jiang J, Kucernak A. Electrochemical supercapacitor material based on
manganese oxide: preparation and characterization. Electrochim Acta
2002;47:2381–6.
[29] Arbizzani C, Mastragostino M, Soavi F. New trends in electrochemical
supercapacitors. J Power Sources 2001;100:164–70.
[30] Chen W, Wen T, Teng H. Polyaniline-deposited porous carbon electrode for
supercapacitor. Electrochim Acta 2003;48:641–9.
[31] Frackowiak E, Jurewicz K, Szostak K, Delpeux S, Beguin F. Nanotubular
materials as electrodes for supercapacitors. Fuel Process Technol 2002;77–
78:213–9.
[32] Hendriks MGHM, Heijman MJGW, Van Zyl WE, Ten Elshof JE, Verweij H. Solid
state supercapacitor materials: layered structures of yttria-stabilized zirconia
sandwiched between platinum/yttria-stabilized zirconia composites. J Appl
Phys 2001;90:5305–7.
[33] Matsumoto, M. Electrocapillarity and double layer structure. Electrical
phenomena at interfaces: fundamentals, measurements, and applications,
urusawa, 2nd ed. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1998. p. 87–99.
[34] Conway BE, Birss V, Wojtowicz J. The role and utilization of
pseudocapacitance for energy storage by supercapacitors. J Power Sources
1997;66:1–14.
[35] Rudge A, Davey J, Raistrick I, Gottesfeld S. Conducting polymers as active
materials in electrochemical capacitors. J Power Sources 1994;47:89–107.
[36] Mastragostino M, Arbizzani C, Soavi F. Polymer-based supercapacitors. J
Power Sources 2001:812–5.
[37] Xiao Q, Zhou X. The study of multiwalled carbon nanotube deposited with
conducting polymer for supercapacitor. Electrochim Acta 2003;48:575–80.
[38] Conway BE, Pell WG. Power limitations of supercapacitor operation
associated with resistance and capacitance distribution in porous electrode
devices. J Power Sources 2002;105:169–81.
[39] Spyker RL, Nelms RM. Classical equivalent circuit parameters for a double-
layer capacitor. IEEE Trans Aerospace Electr Syst 2000;36:829–36.
[40] Zubieta L, Bonert R. Characterization of double-layer capacitors for power
electronics applications. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 2000;36:199–205.
[41] De Levie R. On porous electrodes in electrolyte solutions. Electrochem Acta
1963;8:751–80.
[42] Bertrand N, Briat O, Vinassa J-M, Sabatier J, El Brouji H. Porous electrode
theory for ultra capacitor modeling and experimental validation. In: IEEE
vehicle power and propulsion conference; 2008. p. 1–6.
[43] Yang Wang, Carletta JE, Hartley TT, Veillette RJ. An ultra capacitor model
derived using time-dependent current profiles. In: 51st midwest symposium
on circuits and systems; 2008. p. 726–9.
[44] Rotenberg D, Vahidi A, Kolmanovsky I. Ultra capacitor assisted powertrains:
modeling, control, sizing, and the impact on fuel economy. In: American
control conference; 2008. p. 981–7.
[45] Uzunoglu M, Alam MS. Modeling and analysis of an FC/UC hybrid vehicular
power system using a novel-wavelet-based load sharing algorithm. IEEE
Trans Energy Convers 2008;23:263–72.
[46] Shuai Lu, Corzine KA, Ferdowsi M. A new battery/ultra capacitor energy
storage system design and its motor drive integration for hybrid electric
vehicles. IEEE Trans Veh Technol 2007;56:1516–23.
[47] Mahon PJ, Paul GL, Keshishian SM, Vassallo AM. Measurement and modeling
of the high-power performance of carbon based supercapacitors. J Power
Sources 2000;91:68–76.
[48] Martin R, Quintana JJ, Ramos A, de la Nuez I. Modeling electrochemical
double layer capacitor, from classical to fractional impedance. In: the 14th
IEEE mediterranean electrotechnical conference, MELECON; May 2008. p.
61–66.
[49] Lisheng Shi, Crow ML. Comparison of ultra capacitor electric circuit models.
In: IEEE power and energy society general meeting – conversion and delivery
of electrical energy; 2008. p. 1–6.
[50] Tongzhen Wei, Xinchun Qi, Zhiping Qi. An improved ultra capacitor
equivalent circuit model for the design of energy storage power systems.
In: ICEMS, international conference on electrical machines and systems;
2007. p. 69–73.
[51] Shengyi Liu, Dougal RA. Design and analysis of a current-mode controlled
battery/ultra capacitor hybrid. In: 39th IAS annual meeting IEEE industry
applications conference; 2004. p. 1140–45.
[52] Bathaee, S.M.T., Soltani, M. Dynamic modeling of a hybrid energy source
combined of PEM fuel cell and ultra capacitor. In: International
conference on power system technology and IEEE power India
conference; 2008. p. 1–5.
[53] Ortuzar ME, Carmi RE, Dixon JW, Moran L. Voltage-source active power filter
based on multilevel converter and ultra capacitor DC link. IEEE Trans Ind
Electr 2006;53:477–85.
[54] Schneuwly A, Bartchschi M, Hermann V, Sartorelli G, Gallay R, Kotz R.
BOOSTCAP double-layer capacitors for peak power automotive applications.
In: Proceedings of the 2nd international advanced automotive battery
conference (AABC), Las Vegas, Nevada, USA; 2002.
[55] Barrade P, Pittet S, Rufer A. Energy storage system using a series connection of
supercapacitors, with an active device for equalizing the voltages. In:
International power electronics conference, Tokyo, Japan; 2000.
[56] Jordan BA, Spyker RL. Integrated capacitor and converter package. In: 15th
Annual IEEE applied power electronics conference and exposition APEC 2000,
New Orleans (LA, USA); 2000.
2911
[57] Aiguo Xu, Xiaobao Liu, Shaojun Xie. Research on dynamic voltage
equalization circuit for series connected ultra capacitors. In: IEEE
international conference on industrial technology; 2009. p. 1–6.
[58] Xu A, Xie S, Liu X. Dynamic voltage equalization for series-connected ultra
capacitors in EV/HEV applications. IEEE Trans Veh Technol 2009;58:3981–7.
[59] Aiguo Xu, Xiaobao Liu, Shaojun Xie, Research on voltage equalization of serial
ultra capacitors. In: 4th IEEE conference on industrial electronics and
applications, ICIEA; 2009. p. 2155–57.
[60] Miller JR, Burke AF. Electric vehicle capacitor test procedures manual, Idaho
National Engineering Laboratory Report DOE/ID-10491, October 1994.
[61] Bauman J, Kazerani M. A comparative study of fuel-cell–battery, fuel-cell–
ultra capacitor, and fuel-cell–battery–ultra capacitor vehicles. IEEE Trans Veh
Technol 2008;57:760–9.
[62] Lai J, Levy S, Rose MF. High energy density double-layer capacitors for energy
storage applications. IEEE Aerospace Electr Syst Mag 1992;7:14–9.
[63] Kotz R, Bartschi M, Schnyder B, Dietrich P, Buchi FN, Tsukada A, et al.
Supercapacitors for peak-power demand in fuel-cell-driven cars. In:
Proceedings of the electrochemical society; 2001.
[64] Spillane D, O’sullivan D, Egan MG, Hayes JG. Supervisory control of a HV
integrated starter-alternator with ultra capacitor support within the 42 V
automotive electrical system. In: 18th Annual IEEE applied power electronics
conference and exposition APEC ’03; 2003.
[65] Hingorani NG. Introducing custom power. IEEE Spectrum 1995;32:41–8.
[66] Von Jouanne A, Enjeti PN, Banerjee B. Assessment of ride through alternatives
for adjustable-speed drives. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 1999;35:908–16.
[67] Duran-Gomez JL, Enjeti PN, Von Jouanne A. An approach to achieve ride-
through of an adjustable-speed drive with flyback converter modules
powered by super capacitors. IEEE Trans Ind Electr 2002;38:514–22.
[68] Barker PP. Ultra capacitors for use in power quality and distributed resource
applications. In: IEEE power engineering society summer meeting 2002,
Knoxville (TN, USA); 2002.
[69] Corley M, Locker J, Dutton S, Spee R. Ultra capacitor-based ride-through
system for adjustable speed drives. In: 30th annual IEEE power electronics
specialists conference PESC 99, Charleston (SC, USA); 1999.
[70] Nergaard TA, Ferrell JF, Leslie LG, Lai J-S. Design considerations for a 48 V fuel
cell to split single phase inverter system with ultra capacitor energy storage.
In: IEEE 23rd annual power electronics specialists conference, Cairns (QLD,
Australia); 2002.
[71] Shuichang Li, Xiaoyun Feng, Jia, J.B., Ke Li. A three-switch structure for PEMFC
and ultra capacitor hybrid in backup power. In: IEEE 6th international on
power electronics and motion control; 2009. p. 2309–12.
[72] Dehaghi MA, Rajaei R, Ansari A. A new buck-and-boost ultra capacitor
interface circuit for the HEVs. In: 4th IEEE conference on industrial electronics
and applications; 2009. p. 3382–87.
[73] Miller John M, Yeung John CK, Ma YQ, Sartorelli Gianni. Ultra capacitors
improve SWECS low wind speed energy recovery. Ultra capacitor and battery
for low wind energy harvesting. In: IEEE power electronics and machines in
wind applications; 2009. p. 1–6.
[74] Lei Wang, Hui Li. Maximum fuel economy-oriented power management
design for a fuel cell vehicle using battery and ultra capacitor. In: IEEE applied
power electronics conference and exposition; 2009. p. 171–8.
[75] Chong Han, Huang AQ, Ding Li, Mamath H, Ingram M. Atcitty S. Modeling and
design of a transmission ultra capacitor (TUCAP) integrating modular voltage
source converter with ultra capacitor energy storage. In: Twenty-first annual
IEEE on applied power electronics conference and exposition; 2006.
[76] Cheng DL, Wismer MG. Active control of power sharing in a battery/ultra
capacitor hybrid source. In: 2nd IEEE conference on industrial electronics and
applications; 2007. p. 2913–18.
[77] Marei MI, Samborsky SJ, Lambert SB, Salama MMA. On the characterization of
ultra capacitor banks used for HEVs. In: IEEE vehicle power and propulsion
conference; 2006. p. 1–6.
[78] Jia J, Wang G, Zhu Z, Cham YT, Han M. A clean power system combining fuel
cell and ultra capacitor and its application in electric scooter. IEEE
international conference on sustainable energy technologies; 2008. p. 389–
393.
[79] Baek-Haeng Lee, Dong-Hyun Shin, Hyun-Sik Song, Jin-Beom Jeong, Hee-Jun
Kim, Byeong-Woo Kim. The dynamic control of hybrid energy storage system
for mild HEV. In: IEEE conference on vehicle power and propulsion; 2007. p.
796–801.
[80] Rajakaruna RMA. Small-signal transfer functions of the classical boost
converter supplied by ultra capacitor banks. In: 2nd IEEE conference on
industrial electronics and applications; 2007. p. 692–7.
[81] Drolia A, Jose P, Mohan N. An approach to connect ultra capacitor to fuel cell
powered electric vehicle and emulating fuel cell electrical characteristics
using switched mode converter. In: The 29th annual conference of the IEEE
on industrial electronics society; 2003. p. 897–901.
[82] Gao Lijun, Dougal RA, Liu Shengyi. Power enhancement of an actively
controlled battery/ultra capacitor hybrid. IEEE Trans Power Electr
2005;20:236–43.
[83] Shuai Lu, Corzine KA, Ferdowsi M. A unique ultra capacitor direct integration
scheme in multilevel motor drives for large vehicle propulsion. IEEE Trans
Power Electr 2007;56:506–1515.
[84] Hui Li, Danwei Liu. Power distribution strategy of fuel cell vehicle system
with hybrid energy storage elements using triple half bridge (THB)
bidirectional DC–DC converter. In: 42nd IAS annual meeting. Conference
record of the 2007 IEEE industry applications conference; 2007. p. 636–42.
2912 P. Sharma, T.S. Bhatti / Energy Conversion and Management 51 (2010) 2901–2912
[85] Cegnar EJ, Hess HL, Johnson BK. A purely ultra capacitor energy storage
system hybrid electric vehicles utilizing a based DC–DC boost converter. In:
Nineteenth annual IEEE on applied power electronics conference and
exposition, vol. 22004. p. 1160–4.
[86] Pagano M, Piegari L. Hybrid electrochemical power sources for onboard
applications. IEEE Trans Energy Convers 2007.
[87] Stienecker AW, Stuart T, Ashtiani C. A combined ultra capacitor-lead acid
battery storage system for mild hybrid electric vehicles. In: IEEE conference
on vehicle power and propulsion; 2005.
[88] Bauman J, Kazerani M. An analytical optimization method for improved fuel
cell–battery–ultra capacitor power train. IEEE Trans Veh Technol 2009;
58:3186–97.
[89] Zhou Haihua, Khambadkone AM. Hybrid modulation for dual-active-bridge
bidirectional converter with extended power range for ultra capacitor
application. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 2009;45:1434–42.
[90] Uzunoglu M, Alam MS. Dynamic modeling, design, and simulation of a
combined PEM fuel cell and ultra capacitor system for stand-alone residential
applications. IEEE Trans Energy Convers 2006;21:767–75.
[91] Dixon JW, Ortuzar ME. Ultra capacitors + DC–DC converters in regenerative
braking system. IEEE Mag Aerospace Electr Syst Mag 2002;17:6–21.
[92] Gyawali Netra, Ohsawa Yasuharu. Effective voltage and frequency control
strategy for a stand-alone system with induction generator/fuel cell/ultra
capacitor. In: Integration of wide-scale renewable resources into the power
delivery system, CIGRE/IEEE PES joint symposium; 2009. p. 1–11.
[93] Miller JM, Deshpande U, Dougherty TJ, Bohn T. Power electronic enabled
active hybrid energy storage system and its economic viability. In: Applied
power electronics conference and exposition, APEC twenty-fourth annual
IEEE; 2009. p. 190–8.
[94] Haifang Yu, Shumei Cui, Tiecheng Wang. Simulation and performance
analysis on an energy storage system for hybrid electric vehicle using ultra
capacitor. In: IEEE vehicle power and propulsion conference; 2008. p. 1–5.
[95] Yuchen Lu, Hess HL, Edwards DB. Adaptive control of an ultra capacitor
energy storage system for hybrid electric vehicles. In: IEEE international
conference on electric machines and drives conference; 2007. p. 129–33.
[96] Miller JM, Everett M, Auer J. Ultra capacitor enabled gatekeeper energy
management strategy for single mode eCVT hybrid vehicle propulsion. In:
IEEE vehicle power and propulsion conference; 2006. p. 1–6.
[97] Lukic SM, Wirasingha SG, Rodriguez F. Jian Cao, Emadi A. Power management
of an ultra capacitor/battery hybrid energy storage system in an HEV. In: IEEE
vehicle power and propulsion conference; 2006. p. 1–6.
[98] Glavin ME, Hurley WG. Ultra capacitor/battery hybrid for solar energy
storage. In: 42nd International universities power engineering conference;
2007. p. 791–795.
[99] Auer J, Sartorelli G, Miller J. A gatekeeper energy management strategy for
ECVT hybrid vehicle propulsion utilizing ultra capacitors. In: Hybrid vehicle
conference, IET the institution of engineering and technology; 2006. p. 79–90.
[100] Ubong EU, Mizell C, Slota G, Lovria N. Ultra capacitor with Ballard Nexa in a
GEM vehicle in a hybrid mode. In: Electrical insulation conference and
electrical manufacturing expo, proceedings; 2005. p. 317–20.
[101] Zhou Haihua, Khambadkone AM. Hybrid modulation for dual active bridge
bi-directional converter with extended power range for ultra capacitor
application. In: IEEE industry applications society annual meeting; 2008. p.
1–8.
[102] Jayawickrama YRL, Rajakaruna S. Ultra capacitor based ride-through system
for a DC load. In: International conference on power system technology;
2004. p. 232–7.
[103] Burke A. The present and projected performance and cost of double-layer
pseudo-capacitive ultra capacitors for hybrid vehicle applications. In: IEEE
conference on vehicle power and propulsion; 2005.
[104] Woonki Na, Bei Gou. Analysis and control of bidirectional DC/DC converter
for PEM fuel cell applications. In: IEEE power and energy society general
meeting – conversion and delivery of electrical energy in the 21st century;
2008. p. 1–7.
[105] Douglas H, Pillay P. Sizing ultra capacitors for hybrid electric vehicles. In:
IEEE31st annual conference of industrial electronics society; 2005. p. 1–6.
[106] Flaherty PA. Multi-stage hybrid drives for traction applications. In: ASME/
IEEE joint rail conference; 2005. p. 171–5.
[107] Ortuzar M, Carmi R, Dixon J, Moran L. Voltage source active power
filter, based on multi-stage converter and ultra capacitor dc-link. In:
IEEE 29th annual conference on industrial electronics society; 2003. p.
2300–5.
[108] Spillane DO, Sullivan D, Egan MG, Hayes JG. Supervisory control of a HV
integrated starter-alternator with ultra capacitor support within the 42 V
automotive electrical system. In: Eighteenth annual IEEE applied power
electronics conference and exposition; 2003. p. 1111–7.
[109] Di Napoli A, Crescimbini F, Guilii Capponi F, Solero L. Control strategy for
multiple input DC–DC power converters devoted to hybrid vehicle
propulsion systems. In: IEEE international symposium on industrial
electronics; 2002. p. 1036–1041.
[110] Auer Juergen, Miller John. Ultra capacitor-based energy management
strategies for eCVT hybrid vehicles. In: 3rd institution of engineering and
technology conference on automotive electronics; 2007. p. 1–11.
[111] Vahidi A, Stefanopoulou A, Peng Huei. Current management in a hybrid fuel
cell power system: a model-predictive control approach. IEEE Trans Control
Syst Technol 2006;14:1047–57.
[112] Wenzhong Gao. Performance comparison of a fuel cell-battery hybrid
powertrain and a fuel cell-ultra capacitor hybrid powertrain. IEEE Trans
Technol 2005; 54: 846–55.
[113] Moreno J, Ortuzar ME, Dixon JW. Energy-management system for a hybrid
electric vehicle, using ultra capacitors and neural networks. IEEE Trans Indus
Electr 2006;53:614–23.
[114] Yee-Pien Yang, Jieng-Jang Liu, Tsan-Jen Wang, Kun-Chang Kuo, Pu-En Hsu. An
electric gearshift with ultra capacitors for the power train of an electric
vehicle with a directly driven wheel motor. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular
Technology 2007; 56: 2421–31.
[115] Ortuzar M, Moreno J, Dixon J. Ultra capacitor-based auxiliary energy system
for an electric vehicle: implementation and evaluation. IEEE Transactions on
Industrial Electronics 2007;54:2147–56.
[116] Schneuwly A. Charge ahead ultra capacitor technology and applications.
Power Eng J 2005;19:34–7.
[117] Kotz R, Bartschi M, Buchi F, Gallay R, Dietrich P. HY.POWER – a fuel cell car
boosted with supercapacitors. In: Proceedings of the 12th international
seminar on double layer capacitors and similar energy storage devices,
Deerfield Beach, Florida, US; 2002.
[118] Pawan Sharma. Application of ultra-capacitors in an electric toy vehicle. J
Electr Eng 2009. Archive No. 9.2.15.
[119] Spillane D, Osullivan D, Egan MG, Hayes JG. Supervisory control of a HV
integrated starter-alternator with ultra capacitor support within the 42 V
automotive electrical system. In: 18th Annual IEEE applied power electronics
conference and exposition APEC ’03; 2003.
[120] Andrieu X, Fauvarque JF. Supercapacitors for telecommunication applications.
In: Telecommunications energy conference 1993, Paris (France); 1993.
[121] Smith TA, Mars JP, Turner GA. Using supercapacitors to improve battery
performance. In: Presented at power electronics specialists conference;
2002.
[122] Merryman SA. Chemical double-layer capacitor power sources for electrical
actuation applications. In: 31st intersociety energy conversion engineering
conference, IECEC; 1996.
[123] Merryman SA, Hall DK. Characterization of CDL capacitor power sources for
electrical actuation applications. In: 32nd Intersociety energy conversion
conference, IECEC-97; 1997.
[124] Jordan BA, Spyker RL. Integrated capacitor and converter package. In: 15th
annual IEEE applied power electronics conference and exposition APEC, New
Orleans (LA, USA); 2000.
[125] Barker PP. Ultra capacitors for use in power quality and distributed resource
applications. In: IEEE Power engineering society summer meeting, Knoxville
(TN, USA); 2002.
[126] Robbins T, Hawkins JM. Powering telecommunications network interfaces
using photovoltaic cells and supercapacitors. In: Telecommunications energy
conference, Melbourne, Vic, Australia; 1997.
[127] Rufer A, Barrade P. A supercapacitor-based energy storage system for
elevators with soft commutated interface. In: Industry applications
conference, Chicago (IL, USA); 2001.