2-Concrete Mix Design - Rev2

Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Tsing Yi) CON3312 – Material and Concrete Technology
Department of Construction
Part 2 - Concrete Mix Design
Learning content:
 Understanding the principles of concrete mix design and the
concreting operation:
 Understanding the principles of concrete mix design
 Understanding the application of admixtures & PFA
 Introduction of high strength concrete, mixing, handling,
placing, compaction, curing of concrete and use of ready
mix concrete
 High strength concrete
Expected duration of this part:

 9 hours
Part 2: Concrete Mix Design Page 1 of 33

Part 2 - Normal Concrete Mix Design
1. Prescribed Mix (Standard Mix)
(Source: General Specification for Civil Engineering Works)

2. Designed Mix
2.1 Variability of Strength

 Design is based on the assumption of certain minimum properties of concrete, such as
strength.
 Actual strength of the concrete produced is a variable quantity.
 Source of variability include variations in mix ingredients, changes in concrete making
and placing; variations also occur in sampling procedure and testing.
 Knowledge of variability is required so that the strength values can be interpreted
properly.
2.2 Target Strength and Characteristic Strength

 It is generally accepted that the variation in concrete strengths or a particular mix follows
the normal distribution as shown below:
Figure 1 Normal distribution of concrete strength

(Source: Building Research Establishment)
 In the figure above, the mean strength of the mix is 40 N/mm2. That is, we can expect
half of the test results will be higher than 40 N/mm2 and half will be lower.
 In practice, we specify the quality of concrete not as a minimum strength, and not as a
mean strength, but as a characteristic strength below which a specified percentage of the
test results, often called defectives, may be expected to fall.
 Characteristic strength may be defined as to have any proportion of defectives. (BS

5328 – Guide to Specifying Concrete, and BS8110 – Structural Use of Concrete adopt the
5% defective level.)

 As a result, it is necessary to design a mix to have a target mean strength greater than the
specified characteristic strength by an amount termed the margin.
Target mean strength = characteristic strength + margin
f m = fk + k × s
where fm = target mean strength
fk = characteristic strength
k×s = margin
k = constant
s = standard deviation
 Constant k is derived from the mathematics of the normal distribution.

Defective Constant
1% 2.33
2% 2.01
2.5 % 1.96
5% 1.64
 Example 1
To design a concrete mix with characteristic strength of 30 MPa, what should the target
mean strength be?
Given that : defective level 5%, standard deviation 5 MPa.
Solution
fk = 30 MPa
k = 1.64
s = 5 MPa
f m = fk + k × s
= 30 + 1.64 x 5 MPa
= 38.2 MPa
The target mean strength should be 38.2 MPa.

2.3 BRE Mix Design Method (Formerly DoE Method)
 “Design of Normal Concrete Mixes” was published by the Building Research

Establishment Ltd. in 1997. (Formerly by Department of Environment).
 The design procedure is summarized in chart below:


 Equations for mix design
C1 M=kxs
where M = the margin
k = a value appropriate to the ‘percentage defectives’ permitted below the
characteristic strength
s = the standard deviation
C2 f m = fc + M
where fm = the target mean strength
fc = the specified characteristic strength
M = the margin
C3 free - water content

Cement content =
free - water / cement ratio
C4 Total aggregate content (saturated and surface–dry) = D – C – W

where D = the wet density of concrete (kg/m3)
C = the cement content (kg/m3)
W = the free water content (kg/m3)
C5 Fine aggregate content = total aggregate content x proportion of fines

Coarse aggregate content = total aggregate content – fine aggregate content
C6 (100  p) W
Portland cement content =
(100  0.7 p) [W / (C  0.3 F)]
where W = the free water content (kg/m3)
F = pfa content (of the mix) (kg/m3)
p = proportion of pfa specified as percentage of the combined weight of cement and
pfa
the ratio of W/(C+0.3F) is derived from Table 10 and Figure 4
C7 pC
pfa content =
100 - p
where C = the cement content (kg/m3)
p = proportion of pfa specified as percentage of the combined weight of cement and
pfa
C8 W
for comparison of maximum free-water/cement ratio
CF
F = pfa content (kg/m3)
C9 Total aggregate content (saturated and surface dry) = D – (C + F) – W

F = pfa content (of the mix) (kg/m3)
D = the wet density of concrete (kg/m3)

Figure 3
Relationship between standard deviation
and characteristic strength
Figure 4
Relationship between
compressive strength and
free-water/cement ratio

Figure 5 Estimated wet density of fully compacted concrete

Figure 6 Recommended proportions of fine aggregate according to percentage passing 600 μm

sieve

 Example 2 – unrestricted design
Specification of the mix:

 Characteristic compressive strength 30 N/mm2 at 28 days
 Defective rate 2.5 %
 No previous control data
 Cement: OPC class 42.5
 Slump required, 10-30 mm
 Maximum free-water/Cement ratio 0.55
 Minimum cement content 290 kg/m3
 Coarse aggregate: Uncrushed single sized 10 mm and 20 mm (1:2 by weight)
 Fine aggregate: Uncrushed with 70% passing 600 µm sieve
 Relative density of aggregate : 2.6 (assumed)
 Volume of trial mix : 0.05 m3
 Example 3 – mix restricted by maximum water/cement ratio

 No previous control data but a margin of 10 N/mm2 is specified
 Cement: OPC class 42.5
 Maximum free-water/Cement ratio 0.5
 Minimum cement content 290 kg/m3
 Coarse aggregate: Uncrushed single sized 10, 20 and 40 mm
(Suggested ratio 1 : 1.5 : 3 by weight)

Solution of Example 2


 Example 4 – mix restricted by minimum cement content

 Same as example, but
 Slump required 0 -10 mm
 Example 5 – mix restricted by maximum cement content

 Defective rate 1 %
 Previous control data: standard deviation 5 N/mm2
 Cement: RHPC class 52.5
 Maximum cement content 550 kg/m3
 Coarse aggregate: Crushed single sized 10 mm



Alternative Solution of Example 5

3. Cementitious Materials
3.1 Pulverized Fuel Ash (PFA)
a) Introduction
 Pulverized fuel ash is a by-product originated in the furnaces of power stations
where pulverized coal is used as fuel to generate electricity.
 The ash produced suspended in the exhaust gases is extracted by electrostatic
precipitation.
 Physically, it consists of glassy, spherical, solid or hollow particles from 1 to 200
μm.
 PFA can be used to replace some of the cement in the mix. (Typical PFA proportion
is about 25-35% of total cementitious content.)
 PFA initially assists in reducing the water demand of the concrete, but later, acting as
a pozzolana, it increases the strength of the concrete.
 In the process of hydration of cement, calcium hydroxide is formed. Calcium
hydroxide has no cementitious value and is water-soluble. It may come out or the
concrete with moisture, leaving voids in concrete.
 PFA reacts in the presence of moisture with the calcium hydroxide to form
calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) which improves the concrete strength and
impermeability. (This pozzolanic reaction is generally observed after 1-7 days.)
b) Main Effects of PFA on Properties of Concrete

(Comparison of PFA concrete with OPC concrete)
 Water demand / workability

 PFA demands less water than OPC.
 The workability of PFA concrete is increased with a fixed water content, or
 The water content and the W/C ratio can be reduced with a fixed workability.
 Temperature and thermal stress

 Since the chemical reaction of PFA is slow, the rate of heat evolved is reduced
which helps to reduce thermal stress in mass concrete.

 Strength development
 PFA concrete has a lower early strength.
 Provided it is properly cured, the
long-term strength of PFA concrete is
higher OPC concrete.
 Drying shrinkage of PFA concrete is reduced.
 Creep of PFA concrete is reduced.
 Permeability of PFA concrete is reduced. Typical relative rate of strength

development of OPC concrete and PFA
concrete.
(Source: Neville & Brooks)
c) Portland Pulverized Fuel Ash Cement (PPFAC)

 Portland pulverized fuel ash cement is OPC cement blended with PFA in the
manufacturing process.
 Typical proportion of PFA is 25% of total cementitious content.
(Source: Neville & Brooks)

4. Admixtures
4.1 Introduction
 Admixture implies addition at the mixing stage. (Additive refers to a substance

which is added at the cement manufacturing stage.
 They are used to modify the properties of either fresh or hardened concrete.
Sometimes these properties cannot be modified or obtained economically by changes
in the composition or proportions of the normal concrete mix, e.g., a harsh mix may
be made more plastic and cohesive by addition of a plasticizer or an air-entraining
agent.
 The degree of control must be higher than is usual for ordinary concrete work
because only a relatively minute quantity of admixture is added into a concrete mix.
4.2 Types of Admixtures
a) Accelerators
 Accelerators are admixtures which accelerate the hardening or the development of
early strength of concrete.
 Sometimes used when concrete is to be placed at low temperatures (2 to 4° C) or
when urgent repair work is required because it increases the rate of heat development
during the first few hours after mixing.
 The most common one of accelerators is calcium chloride (CaC12) which accelerates
primarily the early strength development of concrete.
 Quantity of calcium chloride added to the mix must be carefully controlled. A
calcium chloride content of 1 to 2% is generally sufficient.
 Main disadvantage is that its use can result in the corrosion of the reinforcement steel
within the concrete, particularly if the dosage is large and if it is not properly
controlled.
 Acceleration without risk of corrosion can be achieved by the use of very rapid
hardening cements or chloride-free admixtures. (Most of the latter are based on
calcium formate.)

b) Retarders
 Retarders delay the beginning of the setting and hardening of concrete.
 Useful in hot weather where concrete has to be transported for some distance, also
useful for concreting in large quantities.
 Sometime surface retarders are used to obtain an architectural surface finish of
exposed aggregate.
 Most retarders commonly used are also water-reducing.
 Compared with an admixture-free concrete, use of retarding admixtures reduces the
early strength but later the rate of strength development is higher, so that the
long-term strength is not much different.
 Most retarders tend to increase the plastic shrinkage because the plastic stage is
extended, but drying shrinkage is unaffected.
c) Water-reducers (plasticizers)
 To achieve a higher strength by decreasing the w/c ratio at the same workability.
(With about 10% water reduction for same slump concrete.)
 To achieve same strength by decreasing cement content so as to reduce the cost and
the heat of hydration in mass concrete.
 To increase workability for easy placing in inaccessible locations.
 In normal cement paste, opposing charges on adjacent particles of cement exert
considerable electrostatic attractions, causing the particles to flocculate and a
considerable amount of water is tied up in these mixtures.
 Water reducing admixture is absorbed onto the cement particles, giving them a
negative charge, causing them to become mutually repulsive.
 Consequently they are dispersed in the paste so that most of water becomes available
to reduce the viscosity of the paste.
 Although setting is retarded by the use of these admixtures, the rate of loss of
workability with time is not always reduced. Generally the higher the initial
workability, the greater the rate of loss of workability.
 Dispersing ability of water-reducing admixtures results in a more uniform
distribution of the cement throughout the concrete, there is also a slight improvement
in strength of the concrete.

d) Superplasticizers
 The functions of superplasticizers are similar to that of water reducer but they are
much powerful. (With about 15-35% water reduction, depending on dosage, for
same slump concrete.)
 They may be used to produce of very high strength concrete by significantly
reducing the water content and water/cement ratio whilst maintaining the same
workability; and
 To increase the workability of concrete considerably to produce a flowing’ concrete
(up to 200 mm slump) without the undesirable segregation that generally occurs with
very wet concrete.
 The chemicals disperse cement particles, causing them to become negatively charged
and thus mutually repulsive.
 However, the effect of the high workability lasts for only about 30 to 60 minutes
after the addition of the superplasticizer to the concrete, depending on temperature.
 For the above reason, it is common to add the chemical on site to the ready-mixed
concrete just be placing.
5. High-Strength Concrete
 High-strength concrete has 28-day compressive strength over 60 N/mm2. Such concretes
may offer the following advantages:
 Increased hardening rates leading to reduced construction times.
 Smaller section sizes for a given load, leading to economics of space.
 Greater stiffness, hardness, chemical resistance and durability.
 Mix design method can be used to produce high-strength concrete by use one or more of
the following modifications:
 Use super-plasticizers to obtain water/cement ratio of 0.3 or less.
 Produce rich mixes of very low workability by using pressure/vibration for
compaction.
 High-strength precast units can be made by autoclaving (high-pressure steam curing)
mixes containing pozzolanas.

High-performance concrete is a term used to describe concrete with special properties not attributed
to normal concrete. High-performance means that the concrete has one or more of the following
properties: low shrinkage, low permeability, a high modulus of elasticity, or high strength.
High-strength concrete is typically recognized as concrete with a 28-day cylinder compressive

strength greater than 6000 psi or 42 MPa. (https://www.engr.psu.edu/)
Challenge when applying High Strength Concrete:
High-strength concrete resists loads that cannot be resisted by normal-strength concrete. Not only
does high strength concrete allow for more applications, it also increases the strength per unit cost,
per unit weight, and per unit volume as well. These concrete mixes typically have an increased
modulus of elasticity, which increases stability and reduces deflections. To resolve the problems:
 Increased quality control is needed in order to maintain the special properties desired.
High-strength concrete must meet high-performance standards consistently in order for it to be
effective.
 Careful materials selection is necessary. High quality materials must be used. These materials
may cost more than materials of lower quality.
 Allowable stress design discourages the use of high-strength concrete. One solution is to use
load factor and resistance design when using high-strength concrete.
 Minimum cover over reinforcement or minimum thickness of members may restrict the
realization of maximum benefits.
 Available prestress force in a member may be inadequate to achieve maximum strength.
 Low water to cementitious materials ratios require special curing requirements.
 Since serviceabilty conditions such as deflection can control design, increased capacity may
not be fully utilized

Grade 100 concrete applied for the One Island East

(source: en.wikipenda.com)

6 Concrete Placing methods:

6.1 Hoists
 Fresh concrete can be lifted from the ground level to the upper floor level by hoists.
 However, the further distribution from the hoist to placing points relies upon wheel
barrows which is very slow and labour intensive.
Concreting with Hoists
6.2 Crane and Bucket

 The use of crane and bucket/skip is an appropriate means of handling concrete on sites
where crane is available.
 Buckets of 1 to 2 m3 capacity are most commonly used on building sites.
 On large mass concrete projects, buckets of up to 6 m3 capacity may be employed with
the discharge gates operated by compressed air.
Concrete skip

6.3 Pump and Pipelines

 Concrete pumps and pipelines are perhaps the most widely used method of moving
concrete on building sites.
 The ready availability of mobile pumps, and their relative reliability, makes them an
efficient and economical means of transporting concrete, even on quite small sites.
 Moreover, concrete for high-rise building is normally very suitable for pumping
because most high-strength concrete has high cement content and small maximum size
aggregate.
 A wide range of pump types are available, generally trailer or truck mounted.
 Fixed pumps generally have the highest pumping capacity and are the usual choice for
major projects.
 Modern technology in concrete pumping enables the pumping of concrete over 300 m
high in a single lift (a height of 308 m in Central Plaza was a record lift at that time).
 The rate of delivery (range from 10 to 80 m3/h) depends on the type of pump, the
pipeline diameter and the distances to be pumped horizontally and vertically.
Pump and Pipeline

6.4 Pumping Operation

 Pipelines must be adequately supported and fixed in position since quite substantial
forces can be generated as the concrete is forced along the lines.
 Before actual pumping of concrete, the pump and pipelines must be lubricated by
pumping through the pipes with a cement slurry or mortar.
 Once commenced, concrete pumping must be continuous to avoid blockages in the
pipeline.
 After pumping is completed, the pipelines must be cleaned out as soon as possible to
prevent mortar residue which will increase pipe friction and cause blockage.
Placing boom

7 Concreting in Hot Weather
7.1 Introduction
 Hong Kong lies in a subtropical area. The afternoon temperature raises above 34°C is
common.
 High air temperatures, particularly when combined with strong winds, can affect the
quality of both fresh and hardened concrete in many ways:
a. High temperature will speed up the hydration of cement which causes reduction in
setting time.
b. The workability of the fresh concrete will lose quickly due to evaporation and
hydration of cement. (Water should never be added to restore the workability.)
c. By causing the surface of the concrete to dry prematurely, they can cause cracking;
even before the concrete has stiffened and begun to harden (this is known as plastic
cracking).
d. High temperature will also cause thermal stress in the concrete members.
 Typical requirement in Hong Kong concerning concrete temperature
 Temperature before placing: 32°C
 Maximum concrete temperature after placing: 85°C
 Maximum temperature different in a concrete member: 25°C
7.2 Controlling concrete temperature
 The temperature of fresh concrete may be estimated from the following equation.
T = (TaWa + TcWc + 5TwWw) / (Wa + Wc + 5Ww)

where
T = temperature of the freshly mixed concrete in °C.
Ta = temperature of the aggregates in °C.
Tc = temperature of the cement in °C.
Tw = temperature of the mixing water in °C.
Wa = mass of aggregates including free moisture in kg.
We = mass of cement in kg.
Ww = mass of mixing water in kg.

(Note: This equation gives approximate results only but is sufficiently accurate for
practical purposes. For more accurate results, knowledge of the specific heats of the
constituent materials is necessary.)
 Therefore fresh concrete temperature can be controlled by controlling temperature of

its constituents:
a) Aggregate
 Aggregates account for the largest quantity in concrete and have the greatest effect
to fresh concrete temperature among the other constituents.
 Methods to reduce aggregate temperature:
 shading stockpile from the sun,
 keeping them moist with sprinkler (the moisture in the aggregate must be
accounted when mixing concrete, especially for fine aggregate).
b) Water
 Water has high specific heat capacity and also significantly affects fresh concrete
temperature.
 Water tank and pipeline should be shaded from strong sunlight.
 Chilled water or adding crushed ice will further reduce the fresh concrete
temperature.
c) Cement
 Cement does not usually contribute significantly to fresh concrete temperature
because of its low specific heat and its relatively small mass in the mix.
 However, cement temperature as high as 90°C should be recorded for fresh cement
leaving a cement factory. Fresh cement shall be allowed to cool before use.
 Unnecessary rises in temperature should also be avoided, such as painting silos
white or other reflective colours to reduce heat from sunlight.

7.3 Liquid Nitrogen Injection
 For large and important pours where temperature control is critical, cooling may be
achieved by injecting liquid nitrogen directly into the mix on the agitator truck.
 This is a very effective method but relatively expensive.
7.4 Admixture
 Admixtures are very useful to improve the workability of concrete without addition of
extra water, which may affect the concrete temperature, and to retard setting.
8 Ready-mix Concrete
 Instead of being batched and mixed on site, concrete can be delivered for placing from
a central plant; it is referred as ready-mixed concrete.
8.1 Advantages of using ready-mixed concrete
 On small sites, especially in urban area, there are no rooms for stockpiles of aggregates
and to set up site mixing plant.
 In small project where only small quantities of concrete or intermittent placing are
required, it is not worth to set up a site mixing plant.
 In large pours where large quantity of concrete and high supply rate are required, site
mixing usually cannot meet the requirement but ready mixed concrete can be supplied
from more than one plant.
 Close quality control of batching in concrete plant reduces the variability of the
strength of concrete.
8.2 Advantages of site mixing
 Proximity of mixing place and placing point reduce the unnecessarily rise in concrete
temperature and loss in workability.
 Reduce the cost of transportation of the concrete. The concrete can be delivered from
the site plant to the placing point by pump and pipeline.

9 Curing Methods
9.1 General
 Methods of curing concrete fall broadly into three categories:

 By which minimize moisture loss from the concrete by covering it with a relatively
impermeable membrane.
 By which prevent moisture loss of continuously wetting the surface of the concrete.
 By which accelerate strength gain by supplying heat and additional moisture to the
concrete.
 The timing of starting curing is critical for maximum effectiveness:
 For unformed surfaces, curing should be started as soon as possible without
marring the finish.
 For formed surfaces, curing should be started immediately after striking.
9.2 Impermeable membrane curing
a) Formwork
 Leaving formwork in place is often an efficient and cost-effective method of curing
concrete, particularly during its early ages.
 It is desirable that any exposed surface of the concrete (e.g. the tops of beams) be
covered with plastic sheeting or kept moist by other means.
b) Plastic sheeting
 Plastic sheets form an effective barrier against water loss. However, the
effectiveness is very much reduced if they are not kept securely in place.
Curing of concrete by plastic sheeting

c) Curing compounds
 Curing compounds are liquids which can be brushed or sprayed directly onto
concrete surfaces.
 They then dried to form relatively impermeable membranes which retard the loss of
moisture from the concrete.
 Curing compounds should be applied to the surface of the concrete after it has been
finished, as soon as the free water on the surface has evaporated and there is no
water sheen visible.
 Too early application dilutes the membrane, while too late results in curing
compound being absorbed into the concrete with a consequent failure of the
membrane to be formed.
 For formed surfaces, curing compounds should be applied immediately after
striking, but the concrete surfaces should be moistened first to prevent absorption of
curing compounds into the concrete.
 Using curing compounds is an effective and cost-effective means of curing concrete,
but, they may affect the bond between concrete and subsequent surface treatments.
Spraying of curing compound

9.3 Water curing
a) Wet coverings
 Fabrics such as Hessian can be used to maintain water on the surface of the
concrete.
 The fabrics should be kept wet with hoses or sprinklers regularly.
b) Ponding
 Flat surfaces such as floors, pavements, flat roofs, etc., may be cured by ponding.
 A “dam” or “dike” is erected around the edge of the slab and water is then added to
create a shallow “pond”.
 Since ponding requires considerable labour and supervision, the method is
generally used only for small jobs.

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Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Tsing Yi) CON3312 – Material and Concrete Technology

Part 2 - Concrete Mix Design

Expected duration of this part:

Part 2: Concrete Mix Design Page 1 of 33

Part 2 - Normal Concrete Mix Design

1. Prescribed Mix (Standard Mix)

(Source: General Specification for Civil Engineering Works)

Part 2: Concrete Mix Design Page 2 of 33

2.1 Variability of Strength

2.2 Target Strength and Characteristic Strength

Figure 1 Normal distribution of concrete strength

 Characteristic strength may be defined as to have any proportion of defectives. (BS

Part 2: Concrete Mix Design Page 3 of 33

 Constant k is derived from the mathematics of the normal distribution.

Part 2: Concrete Mix Design Page 4 of 33

2.3 BRE Mix Design Method (Formerly DoE Method)

 “Design of Normal Concrete Mixes” was published by the Building Research

(Source: Building Research Establishment)

Part 2: Concrete Mix Design Page 5 of 33

(Source: Building Research Establishment)

Part 2: Concrete Mix Design Page 6 of 33

 Equations for mix design

C3 free - water content

C4 Total aggregate content (saturated and surface–dry) = D – C – W

C5 Fine aggregate content = total aggregate content x proportion of fines

C9 Total aggregate content (saturated and surface dry) = D – (C + F) – W

Part 2: Concrete Mix Design Page 7 of 33

Part 2: Concrete Mix Design Page 8 of 33

Figure 5 Estimated wet density of fully compacted concrete

Figure 6 Recommended proportions of fine aggregate according to percentage passing 600 μm

Part 2: Concrete Mix Design Page 10 of 33

 Example 2 – unrestricted design

Specification of the mix:

 Example 3 – mix restricted by maximum water/cement ratio

Specification of the mix:

Part 2: Concrete Mix Design Page 11 of 33

(Source: Building Research Establishment)

Part 2: Concrete Mix Design Page 12 of 33

(Source: Building Research Establishment)

Part 2: Concrete Mix Design Page 13 of 33

 Example 4 – mix restricted by minimum cement content

Specification of the mix:

 Example 5 – mix restricted by maximum cement content

Specification of the mix:

Part 2: Concrete Mix Design Page 14 of 33

(Source: Building Research Establishment)

Part 2: Concrete Mix Design Page 15 of 33

(Source: Building Research Establishment)

Part 2: Concrete Mix Design Page 16 of 33

Alternative Solution of Example 5

Part 2: Concrete Mix Design Page 17 of 33

3.1 Pulverized Fuel Ash (PFA)

b) Main Effects of PFA on Properties of Concrete

 Water demand / workability

 Temperature and thermal stress

Part 2: Concrete Mix Design Page 18 of 33

 Drying shrinkage of PFA concrete is reduced.

 Creep of PFA concrete is reduced.

 Permeability of PFA concrete is reduced. Typical relative rate of strength

c) Portland Pulverized Fuel Ash Cement (PPFAC)

(Source: Neville & Brooks)

Part 2: Concrete Mix Design Page 19 of 33

 Admixture implies addition at the mixing stage. (Additive refers to a substance