Immaculate Conception - I College of Arts and Technology

MATHEMATICS FOR THE MODERN WORLD

LESSON 3 WEEK 4

Topics: Methods of Formal Proofs

At the end of the lesson, the students would be able to:

 Demonstrate understanding of the concepts of arguments, formal proofs, inferences
 Use truth table to determine an argument’s validity
 Discuss rules of inference and rules of replacement
 Express arguments using logical symbols
 Construct a formal proof of validity of an argument

Argument
 An argument is a finite sequence p1 , p 2 ..., pn , q of statements. The statements p1 , p 2 ..., p n are
called the premises of the argument and q is its conclusion.
 An argument p1 , p 2 ..., pn , q is called logically valid if ( p1  p2  ...  pn )  q is a tautology.

Example 1: Consider the following argument.

If Bryan solved ten math problems correctly then Bryan obtained a grade of 1.0. Bryan solved
10 math problems correctly. Therefore, Bryan obtained a grade of 1.0.

Solution: Let p : Bryan solved ten math problems correctly.

q : Bryan obtained a grade of 1.0.

Symbolizing the given argument,

pq
p
 q
The argument can be written in the form [( p  q)  p ]  q . We use the truth table to
determine the argument’s validity.

p q pq ( p  q)  p [( p  q)  p ]  q
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T
[( p  q)  p ]  q is a tautology. Hence the argument is valid.

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 Immaculate Conception - I College of Arts and Technology
MATHEMATICS FOR THE MODERN WORLD

Example 2: Consider a parallel argument.

If Romeo solved six Calculus problems correctly then Romeo obtained a grade of 2.0. Romeo
obtained a grade of 2.0. Therefore, Romeo solved six Calculus problems correctly.
Solution: Let p : Romeo solved six Calculus problems correctly.
q : Romeo obtained a grade of 2.0.

Symbolizing the given argument,

pq
q
 p
The argument can be written in the form [( p  q)  q]  p . We use the truth table to determine the
argument’s validity.

p q pq ( p  q)  q [( p  q)  q]  p
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T F T
[( p  q)  q]  p is not a tautology. Hence the argument is invalid.

Rules of Inference
1. Modus Ponens (MP) 1. Disjunctive Syllogism 7. Simplification (Simp)
pq (DS) pq
p pq p
q p
q
2. Modus Tollens (MT) 5. Constructive Dilemma 8. Conjunction (Conj)
pq (CD) p
q ( p  q)  ( r  s ) q
 p pr  pq
qs
3. Hypothetical Syllogism 6. Absorption (Abs) 9. Addition (Add)
(HS) pq p
pq  p  ( p  q)  pq
qr
pr

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 Immaculate Conception - I College of Arts and Technology
MATHEMATICS FOR THE MODERN WORLD

Rules of Replacement
1. De Morgan’s (DM) 6. Transposition (Trans)
 ( p  q)   p   q p  q ~ q ~ p
 ( p  q)   p   q
2. Commutative (Com) 7. Material Implication (Impl)
pq  q p pq ~ p  q
pq  q p
3. Associative (Assoc) 8. Material Equivalence (Equiv)
p  ( q  r )  ( p  q)  r ( p  q)  ( p  q)  ( q  p )
p  ( q  r )  ( p  q)  r ( p  q)  ( p  q)  (~ p  ~ q )
4. Distributive (Dist) 9. Exportation (Exp)
p  ( q  r )  ( p  q)  ( p  r ) ( p  q)  r  p  ( q  r )
p  ( q  r )  ( p  q)  ( p  r )
5. Double Negation (DN) 10. Tautology
p ~ ~ p p  ( p  p)
p  ( p  p)

Formal Proofs of Validity

Every proposition must satisfy one or more of the following criteria:
i. It is a premise of the argument.
ii. It can be derived from one or more of the propositions already included in the list using one of
the rules of inference.
iii. It is equivalent to a proposition already included in the list because one of the replacement
rules guarantees the logical equivalence of the appropriate underlying prepositional forms.

Example 1: Construct a formal proof of the validity of the following argument.

If Mel is enrolled in Algebra then Joan is enrolled in Calculus. Mel is enrolled in Algebra and
Vince is enrolled in Physics. Therefore, Joan is enrolled in Calculus.

Solution:
We symbolize the component simple propositions:
p : Mel is enrolled in Algebra.
q : Joan is enrolled in Calculus.
r : Vince is enrolled in Physics.

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 Immaculate Conception - I College of Arts and Technology
MATHEMATICS FOR THE MODERN WORLD

The premises of the argument are p  q and p  r . The conclusion is q.

Use the rules of inference,
1. p  q Premise
2. p  r Premise
3. p Simp, 2
4. q MP 1, 3

Example 2: Provide a formal proof of the validity of the following arguments.

If Mark is correct then his analysis is correct and if Anne is correct then her calculation is
correct. Anne is correct. Therefore, Mark’s analysis is correct or Anne’s calculation is correct or both.

Solution:
Let p : Mark is correct.
q : Mark’s analysis is correct.
r : Anne’s is correct.
s : Anne’s calculation is correct.

The argument is symbolized as follows:

( p  q)  ( r  s )
r
q  s

We commence the formal proof:

1. ( p  q)  ( r  s ) Premise
2. r Premise
3. r  p Add, 2
4. p  r Com, 3
5. q  s CD, 1, 4
or
1. ( p  q)  ( r  s ) Premise
2. r Premise
3. ( r  s )  ( p  q) Com, 1
4. r  s Simp, 3
5. s MP, 2, 4
6. s  q Add, 5
7. q  s Com, 6