A dream is a succession of images, ideas, emotions, and sensations that usually

occur involuntarily in the mind during certain stages of sleep.[1] Humans spend
about two hours dreaming per night,[2] and each dream lasts around 5 to 20 minutes.
[3]

The content and function of dreams have been a topic of scientific, philosophical
and religious interest throughout recorded history. Dream interpretation, practiced
by the Babylonians in the third millennium BCE[4] and even earlier by the ancient
Sumerians,[5][6] figures prominently in religious texts in several traditions and
has played a lead role in psychotherapy.[7][8] The scientific study of dreams is
called oneirology.[9] Most modern dream study focuses on the neurophysiology of
dreams and on proposing and testing hypotheses regarding dream function. It is not
known where in the brain dreams originate, if there is a single origin for dreams
or if multiple regions of the brain are involved, or what the purpose of dreaming
is for the body or mind.

The human dream experience and what to make of it have undergone sizable shifts
over the course of history.[10][11] Long ago, according to writings from
Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, dreams dictated post-dream behaviors to an extent
sharply reduced in later millennia. These ancient writings about dreams highlight
visitation dreams, where a dream figure, usually a deity or a prominent forebear,
commands the dreamer to take specific actions and may predict future events.[12]
[13][14] The brain activity capable of formulating such dreams, rare among literate
people in later eras, conforms to the bicameral mentality hypothesized by Julian
Jaynes as dominant into the second or first millennium BCE. Framing the dream
experience varies across cultures as well as through time.

Dreaming and sleep are intertwined. Dreams occur mainly in the rapid-eye movement
(REM) stage of sleep—when brain activity is high and resembles that of being awake.
Because REM sleep is detectable in many species, and because research suggests that
all mammals experience REM,[15] linking dreams to REM sleep has led to conjectures
that animals dream. However, humans dream during non-REM sleep, also, and not all
REM awakenings elicit dream reports.[16] To be studied, a dream must first be
reduced to a verbal report, which is an account of the subject's memory of the
dream, not the subject's dream experience itself. So, dreaming by non-humans is
currently unprovable, as is dreaming by human fetuses and pre-verbal infants.[17]

Contents
1 Subjective experience
2 Neurophysiology
3 Generation
4 Theories on function
5 Religious and other cultural contexts
5.1 Hindu
5.2 Abrahamic
5.3 Buddhist
5.4 Other
6 Interpretation
7 Images and literature
8 Lucidity
9 Recollection
10 Miscellany
10.1 Illusion of reality
10.2 Absent-minded transgression
10.3 Daydreams
10.4 Hallucination
10.5 Nightmare
10.6 Night terror
10.7 Déjà vu
11 See also
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links
Subjective experience
Further information: Oneiromancy

Usha Dreaming Aniruddha (oleographic print) Raja Ravi Varma (1848–1906)

Preserved writings from early Mediterranean civilizations indicate a relatively
abrupt change in subjective dream experience between Bronze Age antiquity and the
beginnings of the classical era.[18]

In visitation dreams reported in ancient writings, dreamers were largely passive in

their dreams, and visual content served primarily to frame authoritative auditory
messaging.[19][10][20] Gudea, the king of the Sumerian city-state of Lagash
(reigned c. 2144–2124 BCE), rebuilt the temple of Ningirsu as the result of a dream
in which he was told to do so.[6] After antiquity, the passive hearing of
visitation dreams largely gave way to visualized narratives in which the dreamer
becomes a character who actively participates.

From the 1940s to 1985, Calvin S. Hall collected more than 50,000 dream reports at
Western Reserve University. In 1966, Hall and Robert Van de Castle published The
Content Analysis of Dreams, in which they outlined a coding system to study 1,000
dream reports from college students.[21] Results indicated that participants from
varying parts of the world demonstrated similarity in their dream content. The only
residue of antiquity's authoritative dream figure in the Hall and Van de Castle
listing of dream characters is the inclusion of God in the category of prominent
persons.[22] Hall's complete dream reports were made publicly available in the mid-
1990s by his protégé William Domhoff. More recent studies of dream reports, while
providing more detail, continue to cite the Hall study favorably.[23]

A soldier dreams: the trenches of WWI. Jan Styka (1858–1925).

In the Hall study, the most common emotion experienced in dreams was anxiety. Other
emotions included abandonment, anger, fear, joy, and happiness. Negative emotions
were much more common than positive ones.[21] The Hall data analysis showed that
sexual dreams occur no more than 10% of the time and are more prevalent in young to
mid-teens.[21] Another study showed that 8% of both men's and women's dreams have
sexual content.[24] In some cases, sexual dreams may result in orgasms or nocturnal
emissions. These are colloquially known as "wet dreams."[25]

The visual nature of dreams is generally highly phantasmagoric; that is, different
locations and objects continuously blend into each other. The visuals (including
locations, people, and objects) are generally reflective of a person's memories and
experiences, but conversation can take on highly exaggerated and bizarre forms.
Some dreams may even tell elaborate stories wherein the dreamer enters entirely
new, complex worlds and awakes with ideas, thoughts and feelings never experienced
prior to the dream.

People who are blind from birth do not have visual dreams. Their dream contents are
related to other senses like hearing, touch, smell and taste, whichever are present
since birth.[26]

Neurophysiology
Main article: Cognitive neuroscience of dreams
Further information: Neuroscience of sleep
Dream study is popular with scientists exploring the mind–brain problem. Some
"propose to reduce aspects of dream phenomenology to neurobiology."[27] But current
science cannot specify dream physiology in detail. Protocols in most nations
restrict human brain research to non-invasive procedures. In the United States,
invasive brain procedures with a human subject are allowed only when these are
deemed necessary in surgical treatment to address medical needs of the same human
subject.[28] Non-invasive measures of brain activity like electroencephalogram
(EEG) voltage averaging or cerebral blood flow cannot identify small but
influential neuronal populations.[29] Also, fMRI signals are too slow to explain
how brains compute in real time.[30]

Scientists researching some brain functions can work around current restrictions by
examining animal subjects. As stated by the Society for Neuroscience, "Because no
adequate alternatives exist, much of this research must be done on animal
subjects."[31] However, since animal dreaming can be only inferred, not confirmed,
animal studies yield no hard facts to illuminate the neurophysiology of dreams.
Examining human subjects with brain lesions can provide clues, but the lesion
method cannot discriminate between the effects of destruction and disconnection and
cannot target specific neuronal groups in heterogeneous regions like the brain
stem.[29]

Generation

The Knight's Dream, 1655, by Antonio de Pereda

Denied precision tools, obliged to depend on imaging, much dream research has
succumbed to the law of the instrument. Studies detect an increase of blood flow in
a specific brain region and then credit that region with a role in generating
dreams. But pooling study results has led to the newer conclusion that dreaming
involves large numbers of regions and pathways, which likely are different for
different dream events.[32]

Since eyes are closed during sleep, what generates dream vision? Image creation in
the brain involves significant neural activity downstream from eye intake, and it
is theorized that "the visual imagery of dreams is produced by activation during
sleep of the same structures that generate complex visual imagery in waking
perception."[33]

Dreams do more than present visual images. They present them in a running
narrative. Following their work with split-brain subjects, Gazzaniga and LeDoux
postulated, without attempting to specify the neural mechanisms, a "left-brain
interpreter" that seeks to create a plausible narrative from whatever electro-
chemical signals reach the brain's left hemisphere. Sleep research has determined
that some brain regions fully active during waking are, during REM sleep, activated
only in a partial or fragmentary way.[34] Drawing on this knowledge, textbook
author James W. Kalat explains, "[A] dream represents the brain's effort to make
sense of sparse and distorted information.... The cortex combines this haphazard
input with whatever other activity was already occurring and does its best to
synthesize a story that makes sense of the information."[35] Neuroscientist Indre
Viskontas is even more blunt, calling often bizarre dream content "just the result
of your interpreter trying to create a story out of random neural signaling.”[36]

Theories on function
Main article: Oneirology
Further information: Rapid eye movement sleep
For humans in the pre-classical era, and continuing for some non-literate
populations into modern times, dreams are believed to have functioned as revealers
of truths sourced during sleep from gods or other external entities.[37][11]
Ancient Egyptians believed that dreams were the best way to receive divine
revelation, and thus they would induce (or "incubate") dreams. They went to
sanctuaries and slept on special "dream beds" in hope of receiving advice, comfort,
or healing from the gods.[14] From a Darwinian perspective dreams would have to
fulfill some kind of biological requirement, provide some benefit for natural
selection to take place, or at least have no negative impact on fitness. Robert
(1886),[38] a physician from Hamburg, was the first who suggested that dreams are a
need and that they have the function to erase (a) sensory impressions that were not
fully worked up, and (b) ideas that were not fully developed during the day. In
dreams, incomplete material is either removed (suppressed) or deepened and included
into memory. Freud, whose dream studies focused on interpreting dreams, not
explaining how or why humans dream, disputed Robert's hypothesis[39] and proposed
that dreams preserve sleep by representing as fulfilled those wishes that otherwise
would awaken the dreamer.[40] Freud wrote that dreams "serve the purpose of
prolonging sleep instead of waking up. Dreams are the GUARDIANS of sleep and not
its disturbers."[41]

Grandmother and Granddaughter Dream (1839 or 1840). Taras Shevchenko

A turning point in theorizing about dream function came in 1953, when Science
published the Aserinsky and Kleitman paper[42] establishing REM sleep as a distinct
phase of sleep and linking dreams to REM sleep.[43] Until and even after
publication of the Solms 2000 paper that certified the separability of REM sleep
and dream phenomena,[16] many studies purporting to uncover the function of dreams
have in fact been studying not dreams but measurable REM sleep.

Theories of dream function since the identification of REM sleep include:

Hobson's and McCarley's 1977 activation-synthesis hypothesis, which proposed "a

functional role for dreaming sleep in promoting some aspect of the learning
process...."[44] In 2010 a Harvard study was published showing experimental
evidence that dreams were correlated with improved learning.[45]

Crick's and Mitchison's 1983 "reverse learning" theory, which states that dreams
are like the cleaning-up operations of computers when they are offline, removing
(suppressing) parasitic nodes and other "junk" from the mind during sleep.[46][47]

Hartmann's 1995 proposal that dreams serve a "quasi-therapeutic" function, enabling

the dreamer to process trauma in a safe place.[48]

Revonsuo's 2000 threat simulation hypothesis, whose premise is that during much of
human evolution, physical and interpersonal threats were serious, giving
reproductive advantage to those who survived them. Dreaming aided survival by
replicating these threats and providing the dreamer with practice in dealing with
them.[49]

Eagleman's and Vaughn's 2021 defensive activation theory, which says that, given
the brain's neuroplasticity, dreams evolved as a visual hallucinatory activity
during sleep's extended periods of darkness, busying the occipital lobe and thereby
protecting it from possible appropriation by other, non-vision, sense operations.
[50]

Religious and other cultural contexts

Dreams figure prominently in major world religions. The dream experience for early
humans, according to one interpretation, gave rise to the notion of a human
"soul,"[51] a central element in much religious thought. J. W. Dunne wrote:

But there can be no reasonable doubt that the idea of a soul must have first arisen
in the mind of primitive man as a result of observation of his dreams. Ignorant as
he was, he could have come to no other conclusion but that, in dreams, he left his
sleeping body in one universe and went wandering off into another. It is considered
that, but for that savage, the idea of such a thing as a 'soul' would never have
even occurred to mankind....[52]
Hindu
In the Mandukya Upanishad, part of the Veda scriptures of Indian Hinduism, a dream
is one of three states that the soul experiences during its lifetime, the other two
states being the waking state and the sleep state.[53] The earliest Upanishads,
written before 300 BCE, emphasize two meanings of dreams. The first says that
dreams are merely expressions of inner desires. The second is the belief of the
soul leaving the body and being guided until awakened.

Abrahamic

Jacob's dream of a ladder of angels, c. 1690. Michael Willmann

In Judaism, dreams are considered part of the experience of the world that can be
interpreted and from which lessons can be garnered. It is discussed in the Talmud,
Tractate Berachot 55–60.

The ancient Hebrews connected their dreams heavily with their religion, though the
Hebrews were monotheistic and believed that dreams were the voice of one God alone.
Hebrews also differentiated between good dreams (from God) and bad dreams (from
evil spirits). The Hebrews, like many other ancient cultures, incubated dreams in
order to receive a divine revelation. For example, the Hebrew prophet Samuel would
"lie down and sleep in the temple at Shiloh before the Ark and receive the word of
the Lord." Most of the dreams in the Bible are in the Book of Genesis.[54]

Christians mostly shared the beliefs of the Hebrews and thought that dreams were of
a supernatural character because the Old Testament includes frequent stories of
dreams with divine inspiration. The most famous of these dream stories was Jacob's
dream of a ladder that stretches from Earth to Heaven. Many Christians preach that
God can speak to people through their dreams. The famous glossary, the Somniale
Danielis, written in the name of Daniel, attempted to teach Christian populations
to interpret their dreams.

Iain R. Edgar has researched the role of dreams in Islam.[55] He has argued that
dreams play an important role in the history of Islam and the lives of Muslims,
since dream interpretation is the only way that Muslims can receive revelations
from God since the death of the last prophet, Muhammad.[56] According to Edgar,
Islam classifies three types of dreams. Firstly, there is the true dream (al-
ru’ya), then the false dream, which may come from the devil (shaytan), and finally,
the meaningless everyday dream (hulm). This last dream could be brought forth by
the dreamer's ego or base appetite based on what they experienced in the real
world. The true dream is often indicated by Islam's hadith tradition.[56] In one
narration by Aisha, the wife of the Prophet, it is said that the Prophet's dreams
would come true like the ocean's waves.[56] Just as in its predecessors, the Quran
also recounts the story of Joseph and his unique ability to interpret dreams.[56]

Buddhist
In Buddhism, ideas about dreams are similar to the classical and folk traditions in
South Asia. The same dream is sometimes experienced by multiple people, as in the
case of the Buddha-to-be, before he is leaving his home. It is described in the
Mahāvastu that several of the Buddha's relatives had premonitory dreams preceding
this. Some dreams are also seen to transcend time: the Buddha-to-be has certain
dreams that are the same as those of previous Buddhas, the Lalitavistara states. In
Buddhist literature, dreams often function as a "signpost" motif to mark certain
stages in the life of the main character.[57]

Buddhist views about dreams are expressed in the Pāli Commentaries and the Milinda
Pañhā.[57]

Other
Dreaming of the Tiger Spring (虎跑夢泉) Statue at Hupao Spring (Hupaomengquan) in
Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.
In Chinese history, people wrote of two vital aspects of the soul of which one is
freed from the body during slumber to journey in a dream realm, while the other
remained in the body.[58] This belief and dream interpretation had been questioned
since early times, such as by the philosopher Wang Chong (27–97 CE).[58]

The Babylonians and Assyrians divided dreams into "good," which were sent by the
gods, and "bad," sent by demons.[59] A surviving collection of dream omens entitled
Iškar Zaqīqu records various dream scenarios as well as prognostications of what
will happen to the person who experiences each dream, apparently based on previous
cases.[6][60] Some list different possible outcomes, based on occasions in which
people experienced similar dreams with different results.[6] The Greeks shared
their beliefs with the Egyptians on how to interpret good and bad dreams, and the
idea of incubating dreams. Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams, also sent warnings
and prophecies to those who slept at shrines and temples. The earliest Greek
beliefs about dreams were that their gods physically visited the dreamers, where
they entered through a keyhole, exiting the same way after the divine message was
given.

Antiphon wrote the first known Greek book on dreams in the 5th century BCE. In that
century, other cultures influenced Greeks to develop the belief that souls left the
sleeping body.[61] Hippocrates (469–399 BCE) had a simple dream theory: during the
day, the soul receives images; during the night, it produces images. Greek
philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BCE) believed dreams caused physiological activity.
He thought dreams could analyze illness and predict diseases. Marcus Tullius
Cicero, for his part, believed that all dreams are produced by thoughts and
conversations a dreamer had during the preceding days.[62] Cicero's Somnium
Scipionis described a lengthy dream vision, which in turn was commented on by
Macrobius in his Commentarii in Somnium Scipionis.

Herodotus in his The Histories, writes "The visions that occur to us in dreams are,
more often than not, the things we have been concerned about during the day."[63]

The Dreaming is a common term within the animist creation narrative of indigenous
Australians for a personal, or group, creation and for what may be understood as
the "timeless time" of formative creation and perpetual creating.[64]

Some Indigenous American tribes and Mexican populations believe that dreams are a
way of visiting and having contact with their ancestors.[65] Some Native American
tribes have used vision quests as a rite of passage, fasting and praying until an
anticipated guiding dream was received, to be shared with the rest of the tribe
upon their return.[66][67]

Interpretation
Main article: Dream interpretation
Further information: Psychoanalysis and Precognition

Joseph Interprets Pharaoh's Dream c. 1896–1902. Jacques Joseph Tissot (1836–1902).

Beginning in the late 19th century, Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud, founder of
psychoanalysis, theorized that dreams reflect the dreamer's unconscious mind and
specifically that dream content is shaped by unconscious wish fulfillment. He
argued that important unconscious desires often relate to early childhood memories
and experiences.[7] Carl Jung and others expanded on Freud's idea that dream
content reflects the dreamer's unconscious desires.

Dream interpretation can be a result of subjective ideas and experiences. One study
found that most people believe that "their dreams reveal meaningful hidden
truths."[68] The researchers surveyed students in the United States, South Korea,
and India, and found that 74% of Indians, 65% of South Koreans and 56% of Americans
believed their dream content provided them with meaningful insight into their
unconscious beliefs and desires. This Freudian view of dreaming was believed
significantly more than theories of dreaming that attribute dream content to memory
consolidation, problem-solving, or as a byproduct of unrelated brain activity. The
same study found that people attribute more importance to dream content than to
similar thought content that occurs while they are awake. Americans were more
likely to report that they would miss their flight if they dreamt of their plane
crashing than if they thought of their plane crashing the night before flying
(while awake), and that they would be as likely to miss their flight if they dreamt
of their plane crashing the night before their flight as if there was an actual
plane crash on the route they intended to take. Participants in the study were more
likely to perceive dreams to be meaningful when the content of dreams was in
accordance with their beliefs and desires while awake. They were more likely to
view a positive dream about a friend to be meaningful than a positive dream about
someone they disliked, for example, and were more likely to view a negative dream
about a person they disliked as meaningful than a negative dream about a person
they liked.

According to surveys, it is common for people to feel their dreams are predicting
subsequent life events.[69] Psychologists have explained these experiences in terms
of memory biases, namely a selective memory for accurate predictions and distorted
memory so that dreams are retrospectively fitted onto life experiences.[69] The
multi-faceted nature of dreams makes it easy to find connections between dream
content and real events.[70] The term "veridical dream" has been used to indicate
dreams that reveal or contain truths not yet known to the dreamer, whether future
events or secrets.[71]

In one experiment, subjects were asked to write down their dreams in a diary. This
prevented the selective memory effect, and the dreams no longer seemed accurate
about the future.[72] Another experiment gave subjects a fake diary of a student
with apparently precognitive dreams. This diary described events from the person's
life, as well as some predictive dreams and some non-predictive dreams. When
subjects were asked to recall the dreams they had read, they remembered more of the
successful predictions than unsuccessful ones.[73]

Images and literature

Main article: Dream art
Further information: Dream world (plot device)
Graphic artists, writers and filmmakers all have found dreams to offer a rich vein
for creative expression. In the West, artists' depictions of dreams in Renaissance
and Baroque art often were related to Biblical narrative. Especially preferred by
visual artists were the Jacob's Ladder dream in Genesis and St. Joseph's dreams in
the Gospel according to Matthew.

Nicolas Dipre. Le songe de Jacob. c.1500 Avignon, Petit Palais.

José de Ribera (1591–1652). El sueño de Jacob, from Prado in Google Earth

Raphael. Jacob's Dream (1518)

Rembrandt. Dream of Joseph (1645)

Anton Raphael Mengs. Traum des Hl. Joseph (1773 or 1774)

Many later graphic artists have depicted dreams, including Japanese woodblock
artist Hokusai (1760–1849) and Western European painters Rousseau (1844–1910),
Picasso (1881–1973), and Dali (1904–1989).

In literature, dream frames were frequently used in medieval allegory to justify

the narrative; The Book of the Duchess[74] and The Vision Concerning Piers
Plowman[75] are two such dream visions. Even before them, in antiquity, the same
device had been used by Cicero and Lucian of Samosata.

The cheshire cat, John Tenniel (1820–1914), illustration in Alice's Adventures in

Wonderland, 1866 edition.
Dreams have also featured in fantasy and speculative fiction since the 19th
century. One of the best-known dream worlds is Wonderland from Lewis Carroll's
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, as well as Looking-Glass Land from its sequel,
Through the Looking-Glass. Unlike many dream worlds, Carroll's logic is like that
of actual dreams, with transitions and flexible causality.

Other fictional dream worlds include the Dreamlands of H. P. Lovecraft's Dream

Cycle[76] and The Neverending Story's[77] world of Fantastica, which includes
places like the Desert of Lost Dreams, the Sea of Possibilities and the Swamps of
Sadness. Dreamworlds, shared hallucinations and other alternate realities feature
in a number of works by Philip K. Dick, such as The Three Stigmata of Palmer
Eldritch and Ubik. Similar themes were explored by Jorge Luis Borges, for instance
in The Circular Ruins.

Modern popular culture often conceives of dreams, as did Freud, as expressions of

the dreamer's deepest fears and desires.[78] In speculative fiction, the line
between dreams and reality may be blurred even more in service to the story.[79]
Dreams may be psychically invaded or manipulated (Dreamscape, 1984; the Nightmare
on Elm Street films, 1984–2010; Inception, 2010) or even come literally true (as in
The Lathe of Heaven, 1971).[78]

Lucidity
Main article: Lucid dream
Lucid dreaming is the conscious perception of one's state while dreaming. In this
state the dreamer may often have some degree of control over their own actions
within the dream or even the characters and the environment of the dream. Dream
control has been reported to improve with practiced deliberate lucid dreaming, but
the ability to control aspects of the dream is not necessary for a dream to qualify
as "lucid"—a lucid dream is any dream during which the dreamer knows they are
dreaming.[80] The occurrence of lucid dreaming has been scientifically verified.
[81]

"Oneironaut" is a term sometimes used for those who lucidly dream.

In 1975, psychologist Keith Hearne successfully recorded a communication from a

dreamer experiencing a lucid dream. On April 12, 1975, after agreeing to move his
eyes left and right upon becoming lucid, the subject and Hearne's co-author on the
resulting article, Alan Worsley, successfully carried out this task.[82] Years
later, psychophysiologist Stephen LaBerge conducted similar work including:

Using eye signals to map the subjective sense of time in dreams.

Comparing the electrical activity of the brain while singing awake and while
dreaming.
Studies comparing in-dream sex, arousal, and orgasm.[83]
Communication between two dreamers has also been documented. The processes involved
included EEG monitoring, ocular signaling, incorporation of reality in the form of
red light stimuli and a coordinating website. The website tracked when both
dreamers were dreaming and sent the stimulus to one of the dreamers where it was
incorporated into the dream. This dreamer, upon becoming lucid, signaled with eye
movements; this was detected by the website whereupon the stimulus was sent to the
second dreamer, invoking incorporation into that dreamer's dream.[84]

Recollection
Further information: Dream diary

Raphael's dream (1821). Johannes Riepenhausen and Franz Riepenhausen.

The recollection of dreams is extremely unreliable, though it is a skill that can
be trained. Dreams can usually be recalled if a person is awakened while dreaming.
[85] Women tend to have more frequent dream recall than men.[85] Dreams that are
difficult to recall may be characterized by relatively little affect, and factors
such as salience, arousal, and interference play a role in dream recall. Often, a
dream may be recalled upon viewing or hearing a random trigger or stimulus. The
salience hypothesis proposes that dream content that is salient, that is, novel,
intense, or unusual, is more easily remembered. There is considerable evidence that
vivid, intense, or unusual dream content is more frequently recalled.[86] A dream
journal can be used to assist dream recall, for personal interest or psychotherapy
purposes.

Adults report remembering around two dreams per week, on average.[87][88] Unless a
dream is particularly vivid and if one wakes during or immediately after it, the
content of the dream is typically not remembered.[89] Recording or reconstructing
dreams may one day assist with dream recall. Using the permitted non-invasive
technologies, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electromyography
(EMG), researchers have been able to identify basic dream imagery,[90] dream speech
activity[91] and dream motor behavior (such as walking and hand movements).[92][93]

In line with the salience hypothesis, there is considerable evidence that people
who have more vivid, intense or unusual dreams show better recall. There is
evidence that continuity of consciousness is related to recall. Specifically,
people who have vivid and unusual experiences during the day tend to have more
memorable dream content and hence better dream recall. People who score high on
measures of personality traits associated with creativity, imagination, and
fantasy, such as openness to experience, daydreaming, fantasy proneness,
absorption, and hypnotic susceptibility, tend to show more frequent dream recall.
[86] There is also evidence for continuity between the bizarre aspects of dreaming
and waking experience. That is, people who report more bizarre experiences during
the day, such as people high in schizotypy (psychosis proneness), have more
frequent dream recall and also report more frequent nightmares.[86]

Miscellany
Illusion of reality
Main article: Dream argument
Some philosophers have proposed that what we think of as the "real world" could be
or is an illusion (an idea known as the skeptical hypothesis about ontology). The
first recorded mention of the idea was in the 4th century BCE by Zhuangzi, and in
Eastern philosophy, the problem has been named the "Zhuangzi Paradox."

He who dreams of drinking wine may weep when morning comes; he who dreams of
weeping may in the morning go off to hunt. While he is dreaming he does not know it
is a dream, and in his dream he may even try to interpret a dream. Only after he
wakes does he know it was a dream. And someday there will be a great awakening when
we know that this is all a great dream. Yet the stupid believe they are awake,
busily and brightly assuming they understand things, calling this man ruler, that
one herdsman—how dense! Confucius and you are both dreaming! And when I say you are
dreaming, I am dreaming, too. Words like these will be labeled the Supreme Swindle.
Yet, after ten thousand generations, a great sage may appear who will know their
meaning, and it will still be as though he appeared with astonishing speed.[94]

The idea also is discussed in Hindu and Buddhist writings.[95] It was formally
introduced to Western philosophy by Descartes in the 17th century in his
Meditations on First Philosophy.

Absent-minded transgression
Dreams of absent-minded transgression (DAMT) are dreams wherein the dreamer absent-
mindedly performs an action that he or she has been trying to stop (one classic
example is of a quitting smoker having dreams of lighting a cigarette). Subjects
who have had DAMT have reported waking with intense feelings of guilt. One study
found a positive association between having these dreams and successfully stopping
the behavior.[96]

Daydreams
Main article: Daydream

Dante Meditating, 1852, by Joseph Noel Paton.

A daydream is a visionary fantasy, especially one of happy, pleasant thoughts,
hopes or ambitions, imagined as coming to pass, and experienced while awake.[97]
There are many different types of daydreams, and there is no consistent definition
amongst psychologists.[97] The general public also uses the term for a broad
variety of experiences. Research by Harvard psychologist Deirdre Barrett has found
that people who experience vivid dreamlike mental images reserve the word for
these, whereas many other people refer to milder imagery, realistic future
planning, review of past memories or just "spacing out"—i.e. one's mind going
relatively blank—when they talk about "daydreaming."[98][99]'

While daydreaming has long been derided as a lazy, non-productive pastime, it is

now commonly acknowledged that daydreaming can be constructive in some contexts.
[100] There are numerous examples of people in creative or artistic careers, such
as composers, novelists and filmmakers, developing new ideas through daydreaming.
Similarly, research scientists, mathematicians and physicists have developed new
ideas by daydreaming about their subject areas.

Hallucination
Main article: Hallucination
A hallucination, in the broadest sense of the word, is a perception in the absence
of a stimulus. In a stricter sense, hallucinations are perceptions in a conscious
and awake state, in the absence of external stimuli, and have qualities of real
perception, in that they are vivid, substantial, and located in external objective
space. The latter definition distinguishes hallucinations from the related
phenomena of dreaming, which does not involve wakefulness.

Nightmare
Main article: Nightmare

Woman having a nightmare. Jean-Pierre Simon (1764–1810 or 1813).

A nightmare is an unpleasant dream that can cause a strong negative emotional
response from the mind, typically fear or horror, but also despair, anxiety and
great sadness. The dream may contain situations of danger, discomfort,
psychological or physical terror. Sufferers usually awaken in a state of distress
and may be unable to return to sleep for a prolonged period of time.[101]
Night terror
Main article: Night terror
A night terror, also known as a sleep terror or pavor nocturnus, is a parasomnia
disorder that predominantly affects children, causing feelings of terror or dread.
Night terrors should not be confused with nightmares, which are bad dreams that
cause the feeling of horror or fear.[102]

Déjà vu
Main article: Déjà vu
One theory of déjà vu attributes the feeling of having previously seen or
experienced something to having dreamed about a similar situation or place, and
forgetting about it until one seems to be mysteriously reminded of the situation or
the place while awake.[103]

See also
Psychology portal
Cognitive neuroscience of dreams
Daydream
Déjà vu
Dream argument
Dream art
Dream diary
Dream dictionary
Dream incubation
Dream interpretation
Dream of Macsen Wledig
Dream pop
Dream sequence
Dream speech
Dream world (plot device)
Dream Yoga
Dreamcatcher
Dreamwork
False awakening
Hallucination
Hatsuyume
Incubus
Lilith, a Sumerian dream demoness
List of dream diaries
List of dreams
Lucid dream
Mare (folklore)
Morpheus
Mabinogion
Neuroscience of sleep
Night terror
Nightmare
Oneirology
Oneiromancy
Precognition
Psychoanalysis
Rapid eye movement sleep
Sleep in non-human animals
Sleep paralysis
Spirit spouse
Succubus
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Further reading
Dreaming (journal)
Jung, Carl (1934). The Practice of Psychotherapy. "The Practical Use of Dream-
analysis". New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-7100-1645-4.
Jung, Carl (2002). Dreams (Routledge Classics). New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-
415-26740-3.
Harris, William V. (2009) Dreams and Еxperience in Classical Antiquity. Cambridge,
MA & London: Harvard University Press.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dreaming.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Dream
Dreams on In Our Time at the BBC
LSDBase – an online sleep research database documenting the physiological effects
of dreams through biofeedback.
Archive for Research in Archetypal Symbolism website
The International Association for the Study of Dreams
Dream at Curlie
Dixit, Jay (November 2007). "Dreams: Night School". Psychology Today. Retrieved
December 1, 2018.
alt.dreams A long-running USENET forum wherein readers post and analyze dreams.
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