NOAKHALI SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

(EEE)
Course Code : EEE 4109

Course Title : Wireless and Mobile Communication

Assignment On : Some Theoretical Question Solving

❖Submitted To
Mr. Kamaruzzaman

Assistant Professor,

Department of EEE, NSTU.

❖Submitted By
Group-2

Year: 04; Term:01

Session: 2016-17

Submission Date: 12.07.2021

1. Define cell capacity. Deduce the equation of Erlang C formula.

Channel Capacity: The total number of channels within a particular area is called
cell capacity.

In a cellular network, the total area is subdivided into smaller areas called
“cells”. Each cell can cover a limited number of mobile subscribers within its
boundaries. Each cell can have a base station with a number of RF channels. Cell
capacity of a cellular system can also be defined as the maximum number of
channels or users that can be provided in a fixed frequency band.

The offered traffic load of a cell is typically characterized by the following two
important random parameters:
1. Average number of MSs requesting the service (average call arrival rate, λ)
2. Average length of time the MSs requiring the service (average holding time, T )
The offered traffic load is defined as
𝑎 = λ𝑇

Erlang: Erlang is a unit of measurement of traffic density in a telecommunications

system. The erlang describes the total traffic volume of one hour, or 3600 seconds.
One Erlang represents the amount of traffic intensity carried by a channel that is
completely occupied.

For example, 60 calls in one hour, each lasting 5 minutes, results in the
following number of erlangs:
minutes of traffic in the hour = number of calls x duration
minutes of traffic in the hour = 60 x 5
minutes of traffic in the hour = 300
hours of traffic in the hour = 300/60
hours of traffic in the hour = 5
traffic figure = 5 erlangs

Erlang C: This model assumes that all blocked calls are queued in the system until
they can be handled. Call centers can use this calculation to determine how many
call agents to staff, based on the number of calls per hour, the average duration of
class and the amount of time calls are left in the queue.

The average arrival rate is λ, and the average service (departure) rate is μ. When all
channels are busy, an arriving call is turned away. Therefore, this system is analyzed
by a M/M/S/S queuing model. Here the first M represents the call arrival rate, 2nd M
represents the service rate. M/M/S/S is a special case of the M/M/S/∞ model.
Let i (i = 0, 1, 2, . . .) be the number of customers in the system and let P(i) be the
steady-state probability of the system having i customers. Here, S is the number of
channels in a cell. Thus, we have
𝑖
𝑎
𝑃(𝑖) = 𝑖!
𝑃(0)
where a = λ/μ is the offered load and
𝑠 −1
⎡ 𝑎𝑖 ⎤
𝑃(0) = ⎢ ∑ 𝑖! ⎥
⎢𝑖=0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Therefore, the probability P(S) of an arriving call being blocked is equal to the
probability that all channels are busy, that is,
𝑆
𝑎
𝑆!
𝑃(𝑆) = 𝑠 𝑖
𝑎
∑ 𝑖!
𝑖=0

This equation is called the Erlang B formula and is denoted as B(S, a). B(S, a) is
also called blocking probability, probability of loss, or probability of rejection.

𝑆
𝑎

Therefore, 𝐵(𝑆, 𝑎) = 𝑠
𝑆!
𝑖
𝑎
∑ 𝑖!
𝑖=0

The probability of an arriving call being delayed is

𝑆
𝑎
(𝑆−1)! (𝑆−𝑎)
𝐶(𝑆, 𝑎) = 𝑆 𝑆−1 𝑖
𝑎 𝑎
(𝑆−1)! (𝑆−𝑎)
+ ∑ 𝑖!
𝑖=0

𝑆 𝐵 (𝑆, 𝑎)
= 𝑆 − 𝑎 [1 − 𝐵 (𝑆, 𝑎)]
, for a < S
This is called the Erlang C formula.

For example, if S = 5 and a = 3, we have

5
3
𝑆!
𝐵(5, 3) = 5 𝑖
= 0. 11
3
∑ 𝑖!
𝑖=0

Therefore, the probability of an arriving call being delayed is

5 𝐵 (5, 3)
𝐶(𝑆, 𝑎) = 5 − 3 [1 − 𝐵 (5, 3)]
5 ✕ 0.11
= 5 − 3 [1 − 0.11)]
= 0.2360
2. What is hand off? Explain the different types of hand off. Handoff
process involves four basic steps. Explain it.

Hand Off: In cellular communications, the handoff is the process of transferring an

active call or data session from one cell in a cellular network or from one channel to
another. In satellite communications, it is the process of transferring control from one
earth station to another. Handoff is necessary for preventing loss of interruption of
service to a caller or a data session user. Handoff is also called handover.

Different types of hand off

There are two types of handoffs −
Hard Handoff − In a hard handoff, an actual break in the connection occurs while
switching from one cell to another. The radio links from the mobile station to the
existing cell is broken before establishing a link with the next cell. It is generally an
inter-frequency handoff. It is a “break before make” policy.
Soft Handoff − In soft handoff, at least one of the links is kept when radio links are
added and removed to the mobile station. This ensures that during the handoff, no
break occurs. This is generally adopted in co-located sites. It is a “make before
break” policy.

Figure: Types of handoff

The handoff process involves four basic steps:
1. Initiation: Either the mobile unit or the network determines the need for a handoff
and initiates the necessary network procedures.
2. Resource reservation: Appropriate network procedures reserve the resources
needed to support the handoff (i.e., a voice and a control channel).
3. Execution: The actual transfer of control from one base station to another base
station takes place.
4. Completion: Unnecessary network resources are relinquished and made
available to other mobile units.

3. Explain central battery (CB) exchange with suitable circuit

diagram.
Central-battery system is a telephone or telegraph system which obtains all
the energy for signaling (and for speaking, in the case of the telephone) from a single
battery of secondary cells located at the main exchange.

Central battery system are ideal for medium to large installations. For projects
where central control and testing is desirable, a central battery system is a viable
and cost effective alternative to self-contained emergency lighting products.
The main advantages of central battery systems over self-contained systems are:
• Testing and maintenance is much easier to carry out
• Battery replacement is much quicker and less disruptive
• Battery life is generally 10 years or more
• Luminaires can be centrally controlled
• High light levels can easily be achieved
• The emergency lighting system can be completely unobtrusive.

A simple CB system which was operated by a human being is shown in Figure.

 Figure: A drawing of a manned Central Battery Exchange

The system consists of one or more switchboards manned by operators. The

subscriber lines are terminated on jacks mounted on the switchboard. There is one
jack for every subscriber line. Associated with each jack is a light indicator to draw
the attention of the operator. When a subscriber lifts the hand set, the off-hook switch
is closed, causing a current to flow through the handset and the lamp relay coil. The
lamp relay operates and the indicator corresponding to the subscriber lights up. The
operator establishes contact with the subscriber by connecting the headset to the
subscriber line via the headset key and a plug-ended cord pair. A plug-ended cord
pair has two cords that are connected internally and terminated with a plug each at
the external ends. The plugs mate with the jacks. To establish contact, a cord is
plugged into the subscriber jack and the key corresponding to the chosen cord is
thrown in position to connect the headset.
On being told the number required by the subscriber, the operator verifies whether
the called party is free, and if so, sends out the ringing current to the called
subscriber using a plug-ended cord pair. The ringing circuit at the subscriber end
was a bell, with a capacitor C, in series.

They remain connected to the circuit always. The capacitor allows the alternating
ringing current from the exchange to pass through the bell but prevents the loop
direct current. If the called party is busy, the calling subscriber is told about the
same. When the called party answers, his indicator lamp lights up. The operator then
establishes a connection between the calling and the called party by plugging in the
cord pair to the called party jack.
In a manual switching system, the operator has full control of a connection. He/She
enables the signaling systems, performs switching and releases a connection after a
conversation.

4. Describe the call set-up between MS and BS.

MS: MS stands for Mobile station. Mobile station is a combination of all the user's
equipment (mobile phone, SIM, card etc.) and software needed for communication
with a GSM network.

Mobile station communicate the information with the user and modify it to the
transmission protocols of the air interface to communicate with the Base Station
Subsystem (BSS).

BS: BS stands for Base station. A base station transmits and receives user data in
the cellular network to customer phones and cellular devices. It is connected to an
antenna (or multiple antennas). BS is a fixed point of communication for customer
cellular phones on a carrier network.

Steps of call set-up between MS and BS is given below:

 Figure: Call setup between MS and BS using control channels.

5. What is meant by frequency reuse factor? Why was a honeycomb

pattern selected for a cell area?

Frequency reuse is the process in which the same set of frequencies (channels) can
be allocated to more than one cell, provided the cells are separated by sufficient
distance. Reducing each cell’s coverage area invites frequency reuse.

Figure: Cellular frequency reuse concept.

Frequency reuse factor: The frequency reuse factor is the rate at which the same
frequency can be used in the network. It is 1/N .where N is the number of cells which
cannot use the same frequencies for transmission. Common values for the
frequency reuse factor are 1/3, 1/4, 1/7, 1/9 and 1/12 (or 3, 4, 7, 9 and 12 depending
on notation).
The number of subscribers who can use the same set of frequencies (channels) in
nonadjacent cells at the same time in a small area, such as a city, is dependent on
the total number of cells in the area. The number of simultaneous users is generally
four, but in densely populated areas, that number may be significantly higher. The
number of users is called the frequency reuse factor (FRF). The frequency reuse
factor is defined mathematically as
FRF = N / C
where , FRF = frequency reuse factor (unitless)
N = total number of full-duplex channels in an area
C = total number of full-duplex channels in a cell

Honeycomb pattern of cell area:

Cellular telephone systems allow a large number of users to share the limited
number of common-usage radio channels available in a region.
The fundamental concepts of cellular telephone are quite simple. The FCC originally
defined geographic cellular radio coverage areas on the basis of modified 1980
census figures. With the cellular concept, each area is further divided into
hexagonal-shaped cells that fit together to form a honeycomb pattern as shown in
figure below.

Figure: Honeycomb cell pattern

Reason to use honeycomb pattern:

The hexagon shape was chosen because
- it provides the most effective transmission by approximating a circular pattern
- eliminates gaps inherently present between adjacent circles.
A cell is defined by its physical size and, more importantly, by the size of its
population and traffic patterns.Each geographical area is allocated a fixed number of
cellular voice channels. The physical size of a cell varies, depending on user density
and calling patterns.
When designing a system using hexagonal-shaped cells, base station transmitters
can be located in the center of a cell, or on three of the cells’ six vertices.
Omnidirectional antennas are normally used in center-excited cells, and sectored
directional antennas are used in edge- and corner-excited cells (omnidirectional
antennas radiate and receive signals equally well in all directions).
In epitome, cellular telephone is an intriguing mobile radio concept that calls for
replacing a single, high-powered fixed base station located high above the center of
a city with multiple, low-powered duplicates of the fixed infrastructure distributed over
the coverage area on sites placed closer to the ground.

6. Determine-
a. The channel capacity for a cellular telephone area comprised
of seven macro cells with 10 channels per cell.
b.Channel capacity if each macro cell is split into four mini cells.
c. Channel capacity if each mini cell is further split into four
micro cells.

Solution:

10 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑠 7 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙
a. 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙
* 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
= 70 Channels/area
b. Splitting each macrocell into 4 minicells increases the total number of cell in
the area to 7*4 = 28 cells

10 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑠 28 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙
* 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
= 280 Channels/area

c. Further splitting each minicell into 4 microcells increases the total number of
cell in the area to 28*4 = 112 cells

10 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑠 112 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙

𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙
* 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
= 1200 Channels/area
7. Draw and explain GSM system architecture briefly.

The GSM network architecture provided a simple and yet effective architecture to
provide the services needed for a 2G cellular or mobile communications system.

There were four main elements to the overall GSM network architecture and these
could often be further split. Elements like the base station controller, MSC, AuC,
HLR, VLR and the like are brought together to form the overall system.

The 2G GSM network architecture, although now superseded, gives an excellent

introduction into some of the basic capabilities required to set up a mobile
communications phone network and how all the entities operate together.

Figure: A base station antenna carrying 2G GSM signals

GSM network architecture elements

In order that the GSM system operates together as a complete system, the overall
network architecture brings together a series of data network identities, each with
several elements.

The GSM network architecture is defined in the GSM specifications and it can be
grouped into four main areas:
 ● Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
● Base-Station Subsystem (BSS)
● Mobile station (MS)
● Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

The different elements of the GSM network operate together and the user is not
aware of the different entities within the system.
As the GSM network is defined but the specifications and standards, it enables the
system to operate reliably together regardless of the supplier of the different
elements.
A basic diagram of the overall system architecture for the 2G GSM mobile
communications system includes four major elements which are shown below:

Figure: Simplified GSM Network Architecture Diagram

Within this diagram the different network areas can be seen - they are grouped into
the four areas that provide different functionality, but all operate to enable reliable
mobile communications to be achieved.

The overall network architecture proved to be very successful and was developed
further to enable 2G evolution to carry data and then with further evolutions to allow
3G to be established.

Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

The GSM system architecture contains a variety of different elements, and is often
termed the core network. It is essentially a data network with a various entities that
provide the main control and interfacing for the whole mobile network. The major
elements within the core network include:

● Mobile Services Switching Centre (MSC): The main element within the
core network area of the overall GSM network architecture is the Mobile
switching Services Centre (MSC). The MSC acts like a normal switching
node within a PSTN or ISDN, but also provides additional functionality to
enable the requirements of a mobile user to be supported.
● Home Location Register (HLR): This database contains all the
administrative information about each subscriber along with their last
known location. In this way, the GSM network is able to route calls to the
relevant base station for the MS. When a user switches on their phone, the
phone registers with the network and from this it is possible to determine
which BTS it communicates with so that incoming calls can be routed
appropriately. Even when the phone is not active (but switched on) it
re-registers periodically to ensure that the network (HLR) is aware of its
latest position. There is one HLR per network, although it may be
distributed across various sub-centres to for operational reasons.
● Visitor Location Register (VLR): This contains selected information from
the HLR that enables the selected services for the individual subscriber to
be provided. The VLR can be implemented as a separate entity, but it is
commonly realised as an integral part of the MSC, rather than a separate
entity. In this way access is made faster and more convenient.
● Equipment Identity Register (EIR): The EIR is the entity that decides
whether a given mobile equipment may be allowed onto the network. Each
mobile equipment has a number known as the International Mobile
Equipment Identity. This number, as mentioned above, is installed in the
equipment and is checked by the network during registration. Depending
 upon the information held in the EIR, the mobile may be allocated one of
three states - allowed onto the network, barred access, or monitored in
case of its problems.
● Authentication Centre (AuC): The AuC is a protected database that
contains the secret key also contained in the user's SIM card. It is used for
authentication and for ciphering on the radio channel.
● Gateway Mobile Switching Centre (GMSC): The GMSC is in charge of
obtaining the MSRN (Mobile Station Roaming Number) from the HLR
based on the MSISDN (Mobile Station ISDN number, the "directory
number" of a MS) and routing the call to the correct visited MSC. The
"MSC" part of the term GMSC is misleading, since the gateway operation
does not require any linking to an MSC.
● SMS Gateway (SMS-G): The SMS-G or SMS gateway is the term that is
used to collectively describe the two Short Message Services Gateways
defined in the GSM standards. The two gateways handle messages
directed in different directions. The SMS-GMSC (Short Message Service
Gateway Mobile Switching Centre) is for short messages being sent to an
ME. The SMS-IWMSC (Short Message Service Inter-Working Mobile
Switching Centre) is used for short messages originated with a mobile on
that network.

These entities were the main ones used within the GSM network. They were typically
co-located, but often the overall core network was distributed around the country
where the network was located. This gave some resilience in case of failure.

Although the GSM system was essentially a voice system, the core network was a
data network as all signals were handled digitally.

Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

The Base Station Subsystem (BSS) section of the 2G GSM network architecture that
is fundamentally associated with communicating with the mobiles on the network.

It consists of two elements:

 ● Base Transceiver Station (BTS): The BTS used in a GSM network
comprises the radio transmitter receivers, and their associated antennas
that transmit and receive to directly communicate with the mobiles. The
BTS is the defining element for each cell. The BTS communicates with the
mobiles and the interface between the two is known as the Um interface
with its associated protocols.
● Base Station Controller (BSC): The BSC forms the next stage back into
the GSM network. It controls a group of BTSs, and is often co-located with
one of the BTSs in its group. It manages the radio resources and controls
items such as handover within the group of BTSs, allocates channels and
the like. It communicates with the BTSs over what is termed the Abis
interface.

It is important to have the different BTSs linked with the BSS and the BSSs
linked back to the core network.

Mobile station

Mobile stations (MS), mobile equipment (ME) or as they are most widely known, cell
or mobile phones are the section of a GSM mobile communications network that the
user sees and operates. In recent years their size has fallen dramatically while the
level of functionality has greatly increased. A further advantage is that the time
between charges has significantly increased. There are a number of elements to the
cell phone, although the two main elements are the main hardware and the SIM.

● The hardware itself contains the main elements of the mobile phone including
the display, case, battery, and the electronics used to generate the signal, and
process the data receiver and to be transmitted.
● The mobile station, or ME also contains a number known as the International
Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI). This is installed in the phone at
manufacture and "cannot" be changed. It is accessed by the network during
registration to check whether the equipment has been reported as stolen.
 ● The SIM or Subscriber Identity Module contains the information that provides
the identity of the user to the network. It contains are variety of information
including a number known as the International Mobile Subscriber Identity
(IMSI). As this is included in the SIM, and it means that by moving the SIM
card from one mobile to another, the user could easily change mobiles. The
ease of changing mobiles whilst keeping the same number meant that people
would regularly upgrade, thereby creating a further revenue stream for
network providers and helping to increase the overall financial success of
GSM.

Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

The OSS or operation support subsystem is an element within the overall GSM
mobile communications network architecture that is connected to components of the
NSS and the BSC. It is used to control and monitor the overall GSM network and it is
also used to control the traffic load of the BSS. It must be noted that as the number
of BS increases with the scaling of the subscriber population some of the
maintenance tasks are transferred to the BTS, allowing savings in the cost of
ownership of the system.

The 2G GSM network architecture follows a logical method of operation. It is far

simpler than current mobile phone network architectures which use software defined
entities to enable very flexible operation. However the 2G GSM architecture does
show the voice and operational basic functions that are needed and how they fit
together. As the GSM system was all digital, the network was a data network.

8. Describe the OSI model. In which layer(s) does CDPD operate?

OSI Model
The standard model for networking protocols and distributed applications is the
International Standards Organization’s (ISO) open systems interconnection model
(OSI) model. The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network
systems that allows communication between all types of data systems. The OSI
model is composed of seven ordered layers: physical layer (layer 1), data link layer
(layer 2), network layer (layer 3), transport layer (layer 4), session layer (layer 5),
presentation layer (layer 6), and application layer (layer 7). These layers are defined
to be modular in nature so that compatibility can be easily maintained.
 Figure: Open systems interconnection model (OSI) model.

The 7 Layers of the OSI Model

Layer 1: Physical Layer

The physical layer supports the electrical or mechanical interface to the physical
medium and performs services requested by the data link layer. The major functions
and services performed by the physical layer are as follows:
➢ Establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium
➢ Participation in the process whereby the communication resources are
effectively shared among multiple users (e.g., contention resolution and flow
control)
➢ Conversion between the representation of digital data in the end user’s
equipment and the corresponding signals transmitted over a communications
channel.
The physical layer is concerned with the following:
● Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
● Representation of bits, transmission rate, synchronization of bits
● Link configuration
● Physical topology, and transmission mode

Layer 2: Data Link Layer

The data link layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data
between network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in
the physical layer. This layer responds to service requests from the network layer
and issues service requests to the physical layer. Specific responsibilities of the data
link layer include the following:
➢ Framing
➢ Physical addressing
➢ Flow control
➢ Error control
➢ Access control
l
Layer 3: Network Layer
The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring
variable-length data sequences from a source to a destination via one or more
networks while maintaining the QoS requested by the transport layer. This layer
responds to service requests from the transport layer and issues service requests to
the data link layer. Specific responsibilities of the network layer include the following:
➢ Logical addressing
➢ Routing

Layer 4: Transport Layer

The purpose of the transport layer is to provide transparent transfer of data between
end users, thus relieving the upper layers from any concern with providing reliable
and cost-effective data transfer. This layer responds to service requests from the
session layer and issues service requests to the network layer. Specific
responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:
➢ Service-point addressing
➢ Segmentation and reassembly
➢ Connection control and flow control
➢ Error control

Layer 5: Session Layer

The session layer provides the mechanism for managing a dialog between end-user
application processes. It supports either duplex or half-duplex operations and
establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. This
layer responds to service requests from the presentation layer and issues service
requests to the transport layer. Specific responsibilities of the session layer include
the following:
➢ Dialog control
➢ Synchronization

Layer 6: Presentation Layer

The presentation layer relieves the application layer of concern regarding syntactical
differences in data representation within the end-user systems. This layer responds
to service requests from the application layer and issues service requests to the
session layer. Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:
➢ Translation
➢ Encryption
➢ ComCellular digital packet data (CDPD)pression

Layer 7: Application Layer

The application layer is the highest layer. This layer interfaces directly to and
performs common application services for the application processes and also issues
requests to the presentation layer. Specific services provided by the application layer
include the following:
➢ Network virtual terminal
➢ File transfer, access, and management
➢ Mail services
➢ Directory services

The OSI model layers in which CDPD operates

Cellular digital packet data (CDPD) is a wireless data service used to access the
Internet and other packet-switched systems over a cellular network. CDPD was
normally used by analog advanced mobile phone service (AMPS) standards and
was one of the first generation cellular frequencies. It supports both data and voice
communication.
Although the physical location of a mobile-end system, or mobile unit, may change
as the user's location changes, continuous network access is maintained. The
Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) specification stipulates that there will be no
changes to protocols above the network layer of the seven-layer Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model, so that applications software will operate in the Cellular
Digital Packet Data environment. At the network sublayer and below, mobile units
and backbone routers cooperate to allow the equipment of mobile subscribers to
move transparently from cell to cell, or roam from network to network. This mobility is
accomplished transparently to the network layer and above.

9. What are the differences between OSI and TCP/IP protocol

models?

Ans: The differences between OSI and TCP/IP protocol models are given below:
Sl OSI Model TCP/IP Model
no.

1. OSI stands for Open System TCP stands for Transmission Control
Interconnection. Protocol.

2. OSI model has been developed by It was developed by ARPANET

ISO (International Standard (Advanced Research Project Agency
Organization). Network).

3. It consists of 7 layers. It consists of 4 layers.

4. OSI model has a separate TCP/IP does not have a separate

Presentation layer and Session layer. Presentation layer or Session layer.

5. In the OSI model, the data link layer In TCP, physical and data link are both
and physical are separate layers. combined as a single network access
layer.

6. In the OSI model, the transport layer is In the TCP/IP model, the transport
only connection-oriented. layer is both connection-oriented and
connectionless.

7. In this model, the network layer The network layer provides only
provides both connection-oriented and connectionless service.
connectionless service.

8. Follows a vertical approach. Follows a horizontal approach.

9. The minimum size of the OSI header The minimum header size is 20 bytes.
is 5 bytes.

10. It is defined after the advent of the It was defined before the advent of the
Internet. internet.

11. OSI model provides a clear distinction TCP/IP doesn't have any clear
between interfaces, services, and distinguishing points between
protocols. services, interfaces, and protocols.

12. Protocols in the OSI model are hidden In this model, the protocol cannot be
and can be easily replaced when the easily replaced.
technology changes.

13. The usage of this model is very low. This model is highly used.

14. It is a theoretical model which is used It is a client server model used for
for computing system. transmission of data over the internet.