DigitalConcrete2018 ExtendedAbstracts

RILEM 1st International Conference on
Digital Fabrication with Concrete
Zurich, Switzerland, 10-12 September 2018
EXTENDED ABSTRACTS
1st$International$Conference$on$Concrete$and$Digital$Fabrication$
Digital$Concrete$2018$–$Zurich,$Switzerland,$10@12$September$2018
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EVOLUTION OF CONCRETE INTERFACE OF SLIPFORMING 1
FEASIBILITY OF USING LOW CO2 CONCRETE ALTERNATIVES IN EXTRUSION- 3

BASED 3D CONCRETE PRINTING
IS IT POSSIBLE TO PRINT AN EARTH-BASED STRUCTURE? 5
ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING OF CONCRETE ELEMENTS USING SELECTIVE 7

CEMENT PASTE INTRUSION – EFFECT OF LAYER ORIENTATION ON STRENGTH
AND DURABILITY
POWDER-BASED 3D PRINTING USING CEMENT-BASED MATERIALS FOR 9
CONSTRUCTION APPLICATIONS
DEVELOPMENT OF 3D PRINTABLE GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE CURED IN AMBIENT 11
TEMPERATURE
COLD JOINTS IN ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING – EFFECT OF EXTRUSION AND 13
SPRAYING ON LAYER BONDING
CHARACTERIZATION OF 3D PRINTING MORTARS MADE WITH OPC/CSA MIXES 15
THE STRUCTURAL PARADOX OF 3D CONCRETE PRINTING 17
[P]ARAMETRIC [A]DJUSTABLE [M]OULD FOR CONCRETE PANEL CASTING 19
INTRUSION OF CEMENT PASTE FOR PARTICLE BASED METHOD 21
SELECTIVE CEMENT ACTIVATION TECHNIQUE – EFFECT OF WATER/CEMENT- 23

RATIO AND PARTICLE CHARACTERISTICS ON STRENGTH AND SHAPE ACCURACY
REINFORCING CONCEPTS FOR EXTRUDED 3D CONCRETE 25
A CRITICAL REVIEW OF INTERLAYER ADHESION IN 3D PRINTING OF CONCRETE 27
ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING OF STRUCTURALLY OPTIMIZED CONCRETE VAULT 28

USING ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGY
MICROMECANICAL TESTING FOR A 3D-PRINTED LONG FIBER REINFORCED 30
CONCRETE
i
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF 32

EXTRUDABLE FOAMED CONCRETE FOR 3D PRINTING APPLICATIONS IN
MULTILAYER INSULATING PANELS
3D PRINTING WITH PIGMENTED CERAMIC 34
SYNTHESIS AND 3D PRINTING OF ONE-PART GEOPOLYMER MORTAR 36
OPTIMIZING RHEOLOGY AND SETTING PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE FOR ROBOT 38

DRIVEN 3D PRINTING APPLICATIONS
THE EFFECT OF PRINT PARAMETERS ON THE (MICRO)STRUCTURE OF 3D PRINTED 39
CEMENTITIOUS MATERIAL
PROTOTYPE OF A THIN, VAULTED CONCRETE FLOOR USING A KNITTED STAY-IN- 41
PLACE FORMWORK
WEAK BOND STRENGTH BETWEEN SUCCESSIVE LAYERS IN EXTRUSION6BASED 43
ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING: MEASUREMENT AND PHYSICAL ORIGIN
OPTIMIZING FRESH PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE FOR EXTRUSION AND 3D 45
PRINTING
SELF-REINFORCED, STRAIN-HARDENING CEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITES FOR 47
BUILDING-SCALE 3D PRINTING
PROPERTIES OF 3D PRINTABLE AMBIENT TEMPERATURE CURED ONE-PART 48
GEOPOLYMER FOR CONSTRUCTION APPLICATIONS
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF 3D PRINTING BIO-BASED FIBRE CEMENT-BASED 50
MATERIALS
THREE-DIMENSIONAL PRINTING SELF-CLEANING ENGINEEREDCEMENTITIOUS 52
COMPOSITES FOR STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
WHY IS ON-SITE MANUFACTURED CONTINUOUS CONCRETEPIPE AN IDEAL 53
APPLICATION FOR AM TECHNOLOGY?
CONTROLLING THE RHEOLOGY CONCRETE FOR DIGITALFABRICATION: 55
SYNERGISTIC EFFECT OF ORGANICADMIXTURES
DESIGN AND 3D PRINTING OF TWO-PART GEOPOLYMERMORTAR 57
METHOD OF ENHANCING INTERLAYER BOND STRENGTH IN 3DCONCRETE 59

PRINTING
SPAGHETTI AND MEATBALL CONCRETE OR THE ART OFENGINEERED JAMMING 61
ii
ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN CUSTOMIZATION OF UHPFRCFAÇADE COMPONENTS 63
MIXTURE DESIGN OF 3D PRINTABLE CONCRETE WITHDIFFERENT BINDERS 65
FRESH AND RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF 3D PRINTING BASEDCEMENT 67

MATERIALS USING NATURAL FIBRES
PARAMETRIC BIM-DESIGN OF PRINTED CONCRETE WALLS 69
A FLUENT METHOD FOR THE REAL-TIME ROBOTIC DEPOSITIONOF COMPLEX 71

CONCRETE FORMWORK
A 3D PRINTING CEMENT MORTAR FOR POWDER-BED (D-SHAPE) MACHINE 74
BOND STRENGTH MEASUREMENT IN ADDITIVE MANUFACTURINGOF 75

GEOPOLYMER MORTAR
CONCRETE FORM[ING]WORK: DIGITAL PATTERNING ANDSIMULATION OF FABRIC 77
FORMWORK
COMPLIANCE, STRESS-BASED AND MULTI-PHYSICS TOPOLOGYOPTIMIZATION 80
FOR 3D PRINTED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
ON SOME CHALLENGES TO DESIGN PRINTED FORMWORK 82
ROTOCRETE 84
ICE FORMWORK FOR UHPC: TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF USE OFICE IN FABRICATION 86

OF NON-STANDARD PRECAST ELEMENTS
ICE FORMWORK FOR UHPC: A SIMULATION-BASED DESIGNTOOL INFORMED WITH 88
THE PROCESS OF FABRICATION
3D-PRINTABLE CEMENTITIOUS BINDERS: MICROSTRUCTURAL PACKINGAND 90
RHEOLOGY CONSIDERATIONS
DISCRETE ELEMENT SIMULATIONS OF RHEOLOGICAL RESPONSE 92
OFCEMENTITIOUS BINDERS AS APPLIED TO EXTRUSION-BASED 3D PRINTING
SYNCLASTIC DOMES IN PRECAST UHPFRC WITHOUT SHORINGABSTRACT 94
SCAFFOLDLESS, 3D-PRINTED FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE SHELLS 96
iii
3D-PRINTING CHALLENGE WITH CEMENTITIOUS MATERIAL 98
GRAPHENE AND OTHER 2D MATERIALS AS NANO-INCLUSIONSFOR EFFECTIVE 100

DIGITAL FABRICATION
DIGITAL CLAY PROCESSING FOR BRICKWORK 103
ENHANCING PRINTABLE CONCRETE THIXOTROPY BY HIGHSHEAR MIXING 105
IMPACT OF 3D PRINTING DIRECTION ON TENSILEPERFORMANCE OF STRAIN- 107

HARDENING CEMENTITIOUSCOMPOSITES
DEVELOPMENT OF A SPRAYED CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY FOR ADDITIVE 109
MANUFACTURING OF FREEFORM CONCRETE STRUCTURES
6-AXIS ROBOTIC ARM SYSTEM FOR 3D PRINTING CONCRETE OFCOMPLEX FORMS 112
EFFECT OF VISCOSITY-ENHANCING ADMIXTURE ON THE STRUCTURATION RATE 114

OF EXTRUDABLE CONCRETES
RHIZOMATIC CONCRETISED FABRIC MESH 116
MATERIAL RESOLUTIONS OF CONCRETE 119
ADAPTING SDC TO THIN FOLDED GEOMETRIES 121
SUSTAINABLE 3D-PRINTABLE BIO-BASED SUPPORT MATERIALFOR DIGITAL 123

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGIES
EVALUATION OF CONCRETE MIX APPLICABILITY FOR 3DPRINTING 125
DIGITAL FABRICATION AS CHANCE FOR A “NEW STANDARD” IN CONCRETE 127

DESIGN
ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING AND PERFORMANCE OFARCHITECTURED CEMENT- 130
BASED MATERIALS
POTENTIAL OF STEEL FIBRES FOR MESH MOULD ELEMENTS 132
WATER RETENTION CAPACITY AND RHEOLOGICAL BEHAVIOROF CEMENT-BASED 134

3D PRINTING MATERIALS
iv
1st International Conference on Concrete and Digital Fabrication
Digital Concrete 2018 – Zurich, Switzerland, 10-12 September 2018
CHARACTERISING BOND BETWEEN CONCRETE LAYERSRESULTING OF 136

EXTRUSION-BASED DIGITAL CONSTRUCTION
ROBOT-AIDED MAGNETIC ARRANGEMENT OF STEEL FIBERS INUHPFRC: FROM 139
PRELIMINARY TESTS TO NOVEL APPLICATIONS
ARCHITECTURAL APPLICATION OF SMART DYNAMIC CASTING 140
A FRAMEWORK FOR PERFORMANCE BASED TESTING OF FRESHMIXTURES FOR 143

CONSTRUCTION-SCALE 3D PRINTING
EFFECT OF PROCESS PARAMETERS ON CONCRETEBUILDABILITY IN ROBOT- 145
BASED 3D CONCRETE PRINTING
TOPOLOGY OPTIMIZATION FOR STRESS-CONSTRAINED 3DPRINTED CONCRETE 147
STRUCTURES
CORROSION CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES IN DIGITALFABRICATION OF 149
REINFORCED CONCRETE
CASE STUDY: FULL SCALE CONCRETE 3D PRINTING OFCORBELLED SACRIFICIAL 151
FORMWORK IN BUILDINGS USING ARECYCLABLE GRAVEL AGGREGATE AS
TEMPORARY SUPPORT
INDUSTRIALIZING THE NON-WASTE-WAX-FORMWORK TECHNOLOGY 153
EXPERIENCE IN ONLINE MODIFICATION OF RHEOLOGY ANDSETTING TIME OF 3D 155

PRINTABLE MORTAR
3D PRINTING OF STEEL FIBER REINFORCED CONCRETE:RHEOLOGICAL AND 157
MECHANICAL ASPECTS
LAYER-BY-LAYER ROBOTIC CONSTRUCTION: ROBUSTNESS OFPRINTING 159
MIXTURE
RHEOLOGICAL CONTROL OF 3D PRINTED CEMENT PASTE 161
CAPILLARY WATER INTAKE BY 3D-PRINTED CONCRETEVISUALISED AND 163

QUANTIFIED BY NEUTRON RADIOGRAPHY
THE TECTONICS OF DIGITALLY FABRICATED CONCRETE 165
REINFORCEMENT SYSTEMS FOR SMART DYNAMIC CASTING STRUCTURES 167
MECHANICAL PERFORMANCE OF 3D-PRINTED STEEL REINFORCEMENTFOR 169

DIGITAL CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
v
SHAPE STABILITY OF MORTAR WITH SUPPLEMENTARYCEMENTITIOUS 171

MATERIALS AND ADMIXTURES
CHALLENGES IN FULL SCALE FILLING OF A DIGITALLYFABRICATED LEAKY 173
FORMWORK
ULTRA-HIGH-PERFORMANCE FIBER-REINFORCEDCEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITE 175
OCTET LATTICE UNIT CELLS
ROBOTIC POST-PROCESSING OF 3D PRINTED CONCRETE FORTHERMAL BEHAVIOR 177
IN DESIGN
THIN CONCRETE PANELS FORMED BY A ROBOTIC FLEXIBLEMOULD TABLE 179
CONCRETE CANOE USING FDM 3D PRINTING AND UHPFRC 181
EXPLOITING THE POTENTIAL OF DIGITAL FABRICATION FORSUSTAINABLE AND 183

ECONOMIC CONCRETE STRUCTURES
MECHANISMS CONTROLING THE INTERFACIAL BEHAVIOUR OF3D PRINTED 185
CONCRETE LAYERS
LARGE SCALE TESTING OF DIGITALLY FABRICATED CONCRETE(DFC) ELEMENTS 187
DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTABLE STRAIN HARDENINGCEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITE 190

PART I: MIX DESIGNDEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTABLE STRAIN HARDENINGCEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITE 192
PART II: CHARACTERIZATION OFTHE PRINTED COMPOSITE
INFLUENCE OF ADMIXTURE ON RHEOLOGY OF 3D PRINTABLE CONSTRUCTION 194
MATERIALS
SIMPLIFYING THE QUESTION OF HYDRATION CONTROL FOR DIGITAL 195
FABRICATION WITH CONCRETE
CONTINUOUS CHARACTERISATION METHOD FOR STRUCTURAL BUIDLUP 197
HOW NANOCLAYS IMPROVE PRINTING QUALITY IN PRESENCE OF PCE 199
FROM MASTERING FLUIDITY TO CONTROLLING HYDRATIONRETARDATION: 200

FIRST STEP TO PCES MOLECULAR STRUCTUREOPTIMIZATION
ENVIRONMENTAL POTENTIAL OF DIGITAL FABRICATION FORCONCRETE 202
CONSTRUCTION
vi
DIGITAL DESIGN AND OPTIMIZED FABRICATION OF ACONCRETE SHELL BRIDGE 204

WITH 36M SPAN
STABILITY EVALUATION OF 3D PRINTED CONCRETE ELEMENTTHROUGH 206
NUMERICAL MODELING
USE OF SELECTED GCC IN DIGITAL FORMULATION 208
PRESSURE MAPPED SQUEEZE FLOW APPLIED TO CEMENTBASEDMATERIALS 210
CHLORIDE INGRESS THROUGH COLD JOINTS IN DIGITALLYFABRICATED 212

CONCRETE BY μXRF MAPPING
ULTRA HIGH PERFORMANCE SANDWICH PANEL FOR WALLS, USING AEROGEL 214
MORTAR, UHPFRC AND A ROBOTICALLY FABRICATED STEEL MESH
vii
EVOLUTION OF CONCRETE INTERFACE OF SLIPFORMING
T. Craipeau* (1)(2), T. Lecompte (1), A. Perrot (1), F. Toussaint (2)

(1) Institut de Recherche Dupuy De Lôme, Centre de recherche Christian Huygens, Lorient,
France
(2) LafargeHolcim R&D Center, Saint Quentin Fallavier, France
*corresponding author: typhanie.craipeau@lafargeholcim.com
Keywords: suction, adhesion, interface, shear stress, friction
1. SUBJECT DESCRIPTION
Concrete presents the advantage to be shaped in any shape easily. Its rheological
properties can be adjusted, depending on the application. Therefore, the mix-design can be
adapted regarding the process. Most of the time, the interface between concrete and a support
is essential during its fresh state and early age. When concrete is pumped or cast in a
formwork, the adhesion properties with the pipe or the formwork, are crucial. As another
example, concrete can be sprayed on a wall; in that specific case concrete needs to stick to the
surface, and not to the tool which is used to place the concrete.
In concrete processing, different physical phenomena occur, such as adherence to the
support (with spraying and rendering), friction forces (with lubrication and slipforming),
grabbing (mortar rendering, slipforming), and tensile strength between layers (in additive
manufacturing).
An interesting process is the slipforming, where concrete is poured and the formwork
is raised during hardening. “Smart Dynamic Casting” [1] is a 3D digital evolution of the
slipforming process. The problematic of optimizing concrete properties are very similar in
both processes. Many questions, concerning fresh concrete, are linked with the interface
conditions between the concrete and a given support.
In a slipforming process, the formwork is in contact with concrete at different states of
hydration. Concrete behavior at the beginning of hydration changes drastically because of the
chemical activity related to cement hydration.
The aim of this study is to improve our knowledge of the physical phenomena which
govern friction and adhesion between concrete shifting from fresh state to early age and
various supports. Industrial techniques should take benefit from this understanding. For
example, slipforming has been used for decades but there are still practical issues with aspect
defaults for instance. That is why understanding physical phenomena is essential. In a
practical way, most of the experiments are carried out at the mortar scale in order to find the
best compromise between concrete representativeness and lab scale.
Chemical reactions start just after the first contact between cement and water. It has
been experienced that suction increases with mortar setting [2]. Interpreting structuration is
essential in order to understand hydrates formation and thus free water consumption. This
evolution induces drastic changes on the mechanical behavior of the interface (adhesiveness,
suction, shear stress) and thus the mortar interface property is modified.
1
It has been shown that water consumption caused by cement hydration induces
capillary suction which plays a major role on the interface [3]. Therefore, our study focuses
on cement water consumption which first induces pore water depression that increases
granular stresses as shown on the Figure 1 and hydrate formation which creates a physical
bond with the surface. In order to appreciate the overall behavior, we observe the contribution
of each parameter separately.
A specific device was developed. It consists in a parallelepiped box, filled with mortar.
One face of the box can move and is made of the material that represent the interface (for
example, steel for slipforming or hardened concrete for rendering applications). This face is
moved by a highly sensitive traction machine that is able to characterize the interfacial
shearing. It is also fitted with pore pressure sensors and force transducers to estimate the
water consumption and other effects due to hydration. It permits to improve the understanding
of the impact of suction on granular/interfacial friction and to assess its relative influence on
the total stress. Thereby, we will present the results of our multi-scale approach linking
interfacial phenomena and cement hydration.
2. FIGURE
Figure 1. Shear stress and pore water pressure evolution with the experimental device: pore
water pressure decrease induces an increasing tangential stress during concrete setting.
REFERENCES
[1] Lloret, Ena et al. « Complex Concrete Structures ». Computer-Aided Design 60 (2015): 40
49.
[2] Foss\a a, K. T. Slipforming of Vertical Concrete Structures. Friction between Concrete
and Slipform Panel. (Fakultet for ingeniørvitenskap og teknologi, 2001).
[3] Hammer, T. A., «The use of pore water presure to follow the evolution from fresh to
hardened concrete », 2006 (e-ISBN: 2351580028) RILEM Publications SARL.
2
FEASIBILITY OF USING LOW CO2 CONCRETE ALTERNATIVES IN

EXTRUSION-BASED 3D CONCRETE PRINTING
A. Yu Chen* (1), B. Fred Veer (1) and C. Oguzhan Copuroglu (2)
(1) Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Delft University of Technology,
Delft, Netherlands
(2) Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, Delft,
Netherlands
*corresponding author
In the recent periods, extrusion-based 3D concrete printing (3DCP) as a new concrete

construction method has been significantly developed by many research institutions and
enterprises throughout the world. The potential advantages of 3DCP include increasing
architecture flexibility, reducing labor usage, as well as saving in-situ construction time and
the building costs. As a future construction trend, 3DCP may be a potential low CO2 approach
since no formwork process. Moreover, less amount of ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
concrete might be consumed by using 3DCP to fabricate the topology-optimized structure.
Whereas, this advantage may be faded when manufacturing the regular-shaped concrete
components. It has been found that small amounts of supplementary cementitious materials
(SCMs), limestone or their mixture has been blended with OPC to improve the fresh
properties of printing concrete. In conventional concrete, replacing the high volume of OPC
by SCMs is a CO2 reduction strategy. However, there is no exploration for using the high
volume of cementitious alternatives in printable concrete to CO2 reduction. Thus, the initial
aim of this study is to investigate the existing binder mixes of 3DCP by reviewing the relevant
publications over last 20 years. Furthermore, the constraints of using those low CO2 concrete
alternatives in extrusion-based 3DCP are illustrated and discussed.
Table 1: Cementitious binder content of 3D printable concrete

Source Cementitious binder content (by weight)
[1] OPC (90%) and silica fume (10%)
[2] OPC (70%), fly ash (20%) and silica fume (10%)
[3] OPC (62%w), fly ash (25%) and silica fume (13%)
[4] OPC (60-67%), limestone filler (17-20%) and silica fume (17-20%)
As shown in Table 1, the conventional SCMs like fly ash and silica fume as well as the
inert filler - limestone have been mixed into the binder of printing concrete in different
research groups. The total amount of those cement alternatives in binders is around 10-40%
by weight. OPC still possesses the highest content of binder mix in the existing printing
concrete proposals. The primary objective of blending SCMs and limestone in the
3
cementitious binder mix is to achieve the high workability and excellent final mechanical
performance of printable concrete.
Using the high-volume of SCMs or the mixture of limestone and SCMs to replace more
than 40% of Portland cement is not a novel CO2 reduction method in the conventional
concrete industry. However, this low CO2 method is rarely adapted in 3DCP at present since
two constraints. First, the demand for high early strength of the printing concrete cannot be
satisfied. Because of no formwork process in 3DCP, the concrete filaments should be able to
immediately stiff after extruded from the nozzle to sustain the weight from themselves and
upper layers. Substituting more than 30% of OPC by SCMs can affect the mechanical
performance of concrete at the earlier stage [5]. The stable printed shapes cannot be achieved
during the printing process. Second, the distributions of many SCMs which are sourced from
other industrial by-products such as fly ash, furnace-blast slags and silica fume are imbalance
worldwide. The quantities of those SCMs are insufficient to satisfy the demands of low CO2
concrete in the long term. However, using natural pozzolans, like volcanic ash and calcined
clay, as the source of cementitious alternatives may be a solution, since the most of them are
abundant and widely distributed throughout the world. Among of those natural pozzolans,
clay seems to be a better choice with a high reactivity after calcined at 600-800°C. Mixing
proper amount of OPC with limestone and calcined clay can acquire the concrete with
excellent early strength [5]. Recently, the ternary blended cement which consists of limestone,
OPC and calcined clay (sourced from low-grade kaolinitic clay), has received significant
amounts of attention in the concrete industry [6]. Therefore, it is possible to use limestone
calcined clay concrete as a kind of low CO2 printable concrete in 3DCP.
Overall, due to the constraints of the lower early strength and unabundant resource
quantities, it might be not feasible to use a high volume of conventional SCMs, like fly ash
and silica fume, in the binder mix of printable concrete. Nevertheless, limestone calcined clay
concrete might be a choice with fewer limitations to develop low CO2 printable concrete
which worth to be explored furtherly.
REFERENCES
[1]! Kazemian, A., Yuan, X., Cochran, E. and Khoshnevis, B., 'Cementitious materials for
construction-scale 3D printing: Laboratory testing of fresh printing mixture', Construction and
Building Materials. 145 (2017) 639-647.
[2]! Le, T.T., Austin, S. A., Lim, S., Buswell, R.A., Gibb, A.G. and Thorpe, T., 'Mix design and fresh
properties for high-performance printing concrete', Materials and Structures. 45 (8) (2012) 1221-
1232.
[3]! Nerella, V.N., Krause, M., Näther, M. and Mechtcherine, V., 'Studying printability of fresh
concrete for formwork free Concrete on-site 3D Printing technology (CONPrint3D)', in
Proceeding of the 25th Conference on Rheology of Building Materials, Regensburg, June, 2016.
[4]! Gosselin, C., Duballet, R., Roux, P., Gaudillière, N., Dirrenberger, J. and Morel, P., 'Large-scale
3D printing of ultra-high performance concrete–a new processing route for architects and
builders', Materials & Design. 100 (2016) 102-109.
[5]! Antoni, M., Rossen, J., Martirena, F. and Scrivener, K., 'Cement substitution by a combination of
metakaolin and limestone', Cement and Concrete Research. 42 (12) (2012) 1579-1589.
[6]! Tironi, A., Scian, A.N., and Irassar, E.F., 'Ternary blended cement with limestone filler and
kaolinitic calcined clay', Calcined clays for sustainable concrete: RILEM book series, Scrivener,
K. and Favier, A., eds., 10 (Springer, Dordrecht, 2015) 195–201.
4
IS IT POSSIBLE TO PRINT AN EARTH-BASED STRUCTURE?

A. Perrot* (1), D. Ranegard (2) and E. Courteille (2)
(1) Univ. Bretagne Sud, FRE CNRS 3744, IRDL, F-56100 Lorient, France
(2) INSA Rennes, EA 3913, LGCGM, F- 35000 Rennes, France
1. ABSTRACT
Earthen construction has recently regaining much attention in the building industry due to
its low environmental impact and recyclability. Nevertheless, the development of earthen
construction is still limited because of the time required for the material to harden and by a
slower production rate than that of the concrete industry. At the present time, it is difficult to
have a mix-design that allows for both fast casting and sufficient strength in the dry state. In
order to address both problems and to improve mix-design of earth-based material, a recent
trend has been to apply scientific knowledge and expertise developed by the concrete industry
to earthen construction.
Some attention has been paid to the possibility of simulating the cement setting by using
biopolymers such as alginate or using a combination of hydraulic binders and admixtures.
Moreover, unconventional processing methods have been recently introduced and studied
to improve the simplicity of building with earth and accelerate the building rate. For example,
extrusion, self-compacting clays or hyper compaction have been developed for that purpose.
A recent trend in construction is to introduce digitally based construction method such as
3D printing in order to accelerate the production rate, improve the security of workers, and
provide design freedom to architects. Cement-based materials 3D printing is beginning to be
well documented. Among the developed techniques, extrusion-based additive manufacturing
methods have been the most studied. In this technique, the successive layers of concrete are
deposited by a robot to build a complete structure. It is important to note that the success of
this process is based on a competition between the material structural build-up rate and the
construction rate [1, 2]: the deposited material must be hard enough to support the increasing
load induced by subsequently deposited layers of the “in process” construction. It follows that
the fast development of so-called green strength of the cement-based material is required to
ensure fast production and structure stability; this problem has required an accurate
description of the evolution of the cement-based material with time.
The basic aim of this paper is to show that it is possible to print a structure with an earth-
based material. It is a great challenge to attempt to mix the world oldest construction material
with the newest construction processing techniques. To achieve this objective, alginate
seaweed biopolymer has been added to earth in order to provide fast development of the
earth’s green strength, such fast hardening is here studied and described. This method allows
the computation of the maximum building rate of the structure. The elastic rigidity of the
freshly mixed earth has also been evaluated using the penetration method. To our knowledge,
it is a first study dealing with earth 3D printing (Figure 1), however some clay-based systems
have already been printed at small-scale in the ceramics industry. In this paper an example of
5
laboratory-scale printing of an earth structure is presented and the subsequent mechanical

testing of the final structures.
Figure 1. Earth-based printed sample
REFERENCES
[1] Wangler T, Lloret E, Reiter L, et al (2016) Digital Concrete: Opportunities and Challenges.
RILEM Tech. Lett. Vol 1 2016. DO - 1021809rilemtechlett201616
[2] Perrot A, Rangeard D, Pierre A (2015) Structural built-up of cement-based materials used for 3D-
printing extrusion techniques. Mater Struct 1–8. doi: 10.1617/s11527-015-0571-0
6
ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING OF CONCRETE ELEMENTS USING

SELECTIVE CEMENT PASTE INTRUSION – EFFECT OF LAYER
ORIENTATION ON STRENGTH AND DURABILITY
D. Weger* (1), D. Lowke (2), Ch. Gehlen (1)
(1) cbm - Centre for Building Materials, TUM - Technical University of Munich, Germany
(2) Institute of Building Materials, Concrete Construction and Fire Safety (iBMB), Technical
University of Braunschweig, Germany
Keywords: Anisotropy, durability, 3D printing, additive manufacturing, cement, concrete
1. METHOD
Since the 1980´s additive manufacturing (AM) methods have started to revolutionise the
production of complex elements. Selective paste intrusion (SPI) belongs to the selective
binding AM techniques. An element is formed layer-by-layer using data supplied by a
computerized sliced CAD model. After spreading a particle-bed (aggregate with average
diameter ≤ 3.0 mm and layer height ≤ 3.0 mm), a fluid cement paste is selectively applied as a
binder in order to form the component. The residual loose material functions as support
structure for overlying layers. Therefore very complex and overhanging designs can be
produced without additional supporting structures or moulds. After production the loose
material is removed and can be used for further production.
2. MOTIVATION
Owing to the high freedom in design, the method is predestined for gradation of materials
and free form element construction. Constructions can follow the principle “form follows
force” which has a material saving potential of up to 40% [1]. Moreover, expenditure for
scaffolding and formwork can be reduced. Gradation can be divided in two groups: a)
gradation of the inner structure, e.g. integration of supply lines or by inclusion of voids for
increased heat insulation, and b) gradation of the material properties, e.g. variation of density
for lower thermal conductivity or fibre content for increased flexural strength in tensile zones.
3. OBJECTIVE TARGET
SPI has already achieved good results for shape accuracy and compressive strength at the
level of ordinary concrete C20/25. Investigations have shown a dependence of strength on
layer bonding which is related to the rheological parameters of the fresh paste like yield stress
[2, 3]. However, the effects of layer orientation on durability and strength have not been
systematically investigated. Therefore, the carbonation resistance (at atmospheric conditions
and at enhanced concentration of 2% CO2) as well as freeze-thaw resistance with and without
de-icing agents (CDF and CF according to CEN/TS 12390-9:2016) were determined in this
study. Freeze-thaw resistance and compressive strength were tested parallel and perpendicular
directions to the layers. Additionally, the compressive strength was determined at two levels
7
of layer bonding (produced by varying the yield stress τ0 of the paste): A paste A with
w/c = 0.3, τ0 ≈ 1.5 Pa (yielding full layer connection) and a paste B with w/c = 0.3, τ0 ≈ 9.5 Pa
(yielding partial layer connection) were used in the investigations. Finally, the results were
compared to those of conventionally cast specimens.
4. FIRST RESULTS OF STRENGTH AND DURABILITY

The compressive strength of 3D printed 100 mm cubes produced with paste A was
70.8 MPa after 7 d and 70.6 MPa after 28 d for the load applied at 90° to the plane of the
layers, i.e. no appreciable strength change between 7 and 28d. When the force was applied
parallel to the layer after 7 d, the compressive strength decreased by a small amount reaching
64.2 MPa. Hence pronounced bonding of the layers is likely because the anisotropy of the
compressive strength is relatively small.
Figure 1. Left: freeze-thaw scaling and, right: relative dynamic E-modulus depending on
freeze-thaw cycles. Paste A applied to 1.0 / 2.2 mm sand bed. Exposed surface perpendicular
to layer
Figure 1 shows the evolution of scaling and relative dynamic E-modulus (inner damage) of
3D printed specimens (paste A) with the number of freeze-thaw cycles during the CIF test.
These first results show that 3D printed specimens can resist freeze-thaw attack without de-
icing agent applied perpendicular to the layer (limiting scaling: 1500 g/m2; limiting relative
dynamic modulus: 80%).
The first carbonation tests with paste A showed no carbonation under natural as well as
increased CO2 conditions.
REFERENCES
[1]! Menna, C. 2017. “3D Printed RC Structures: Concept and Technology.”
[2]! Weger, D. et al. 2016. “3D Printing of Concrete Structures with Calcium Silicate Based Cements
Using the Selective Binding Method – Effects of Concrete Technology on Penetration Depth of
Cement Paste.”
[3]! Weger, D. et al. 2016. “3D printing of concrete structures using the selective binding method -
Effect of concrete technology on contour precision and compressive strength.”
8
POWDER-BASED 3D PRINTING USING CEMENT-BASED

MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION APPLICATIONS
Ming XIA* (1), Behzad NEMATOLLAHI (1) and Jay SANJAYAN (1)
(1) Centre for Sustainable Infrastructure, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Technology,
Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
EXTENDED ABSTRACT
Additive manufacturing (AM), commonly known as three-dimensional (3D) printing is a
process of manufacturing objects in a layer-wise form directly from a digital model. AM
technologies have been successfully applied in a wide range of industries including aerospace,
automotive, biomedical, consumer and food [1]. The construction industry, however, is lagging
behind. 3D printing is recently receiving great attention in construction industry owing to its
potential use for direct construction of buildings and other complex structures of virtually any
shape without the use of expensive formwork.
Two major techniques are emerging for 3D concrete printing (3DCP) for construction
applications, one of which is powder-based 3DCP technique. This technique is capable of
making complex structures with fine details and intricate shapes through jetting a liquid binder
(or “Ink”) selectively through nozzle(s) on a layer of printable powder, resulting in particles of
the powder to bind each other. Examples of technologies developed based on the powder-based
3DCP technique include D-shape [2] and Emerging Objects [3].
The powder-based 3DCP technique is an off-site process which is highly suitable for
producing building components such as panels, permanent formworks and interior structures,
which can be later assembled on site. There is a demand in the construction industry for such
components, which currently can only be manufactured with the use of expensive formworks
using the available construction systems. The powder-based 3DCP technique has the potential
to make robust and durable building components at a reasonable speed to satisfy this industrial
demand. However, the very limited scope of cement-based printing materials that can be used
in commercially available powder-based 3D printers prevent this technique performing at its
maximum potential for construction applications [4].
To tackle the aforementioned limitation, this study is aimed to formulate cement-based
materials for the requirements and demands of commercially available powder-based 3D
printers. Three types of cements including ordinary Portland cement (OPC), calcium aluminate
cement (CAC) and calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) cement were selected to prepare the printable
powder that can be used in commercially available powder-based 3D printers. Different key
parameters of powder were used to quantitatively evaluate the printability of the developed
cement-based materials. As shown in Figure 1, two models with intricate shapes were printed
using the developed cement-based materials. A 40 mm cube was also printed for the mechanical
and accuracy characterization purposes (Figure 1-c).
9
Figure 1. 3D printed models using the developed cement-based powder (a) Opera House, (b)
Porous plate structure, (c) 40 mm Cubic structure.
REFERENCES
[1]! T. Wohlers, 'Wohlers report 2016', (Colorado, 2016).
[2]! Cesaretti, G., Dini, E., De Kestelier, X., Colla, V. and Pambaguian, L., 'Building components for
an outpost on the Lunar soil by means of a novel 3D printing technology', Acta Astronaut. 93 (2014)
430-450.
[3]! Rael, R., San Fratello, V., 'Developing Concrete Polymer Building Components for 3D Printing',
Proceedings of the 31st Annual Conference of the Association for Computer Aided Design in
Architecture (ACADIA 11), Banff, 2011 152-157.
[4]! Xia, M. and Sanjayan, J., 'Method of formulating geopolymer for 3D printing for construction
applications', Mater. Design. 110 (2016), 382-390.
10
DEVELOPMENT OF 3D PRINTABLE GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE

CURED IN AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
Shin Hau Bong*, Ali Nazari, Behzad Nematollahi and Jay G. Sanjayan
Centre for Sustainable Infrastructure, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Technology,
Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria 3122, Australia
EXTENDED ABSTRACT
Additive Manufacturing (AM), also known as three-dimensional (3D) printing, is a
manufacturing process that fabricates complex 3D objects directly from a digital 3D model in
a layer-by-layer manner. Although AM has been extensively applied in many industries such
as aerospace, automotive and medicine, the construction industry has been rather slow in
adopting AM. The application of AM in the concrete construction industry may offer several
advantages over conventional approach of casting concrete into a formwork, including
enhanced geometrical freedom and reduction in construction cost and time [1].
One of the main challenges of current 3D concrete printing (3DCP) technology is the very
limited scope of printable concretes. To tackle this limitation, the researchers at Swinburne
University of Technology, Australia have been working on developing innovative
methodologies for formulating geopolymer-based material for 3DCP for construction
applications. Geopolymer is a sustainable alternative binder to ordinary Portland cement
(OPC). It is made by alkaline activation of fly ash and/or slag, being industrial by-products of
coal power stations and iron manufacture, respectively. Different geopolymer-based
formulations have recently been developed by the authors of this study for the requirements
and demands of commercially available powder-based 3D printers [2,3]. Recently, the
researchers at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore have reported the properties of a
3D printable fly ash and slag blended geopolymer mortar. However, the selection of material
ingredients and mixture proportions were based on trial-and-error [4]. In other words, no
fundamental study has been undertaken to investigate the effect of material ingredients and
mixture proportions on the properties of 3D printed geopolymer. Therefore, the authors of this
study has recently conducted a comprehensive study to investigate the effect of several
parameters such as type of activator, type of sodium silicate solution, mass ratio of sodium
silicate to sodium hydroxide solutions, and activator to fly ash ratio on the fresh and hardened
properties of a 3D printable fly ash based geopolymer for extrusion-based 3DCP [5].
Nevertheless, the developed 3D printable fly ash based geopolymer requires heat curing (24
hours at 60 °C) which may limit its in-situ application.
To tackle this limitation, this study aims to develop an ambient temperature cured 3D
printable geopolymer-based material to expand the application of this ecologically friendly
material in 3DCP. The effect of several parameters such as type of alkaline solution, alkaline
solution to geopolymer binder ratio, slag and ultra-fine fly ash contents on the fresh and
hardened properties of the ambient temperature cured 3D printed geopolymer concrete were
11
investigated. The results indicated that among the parameters studied, the type of alkaline
solution and the amount of fly ash being replaced by slag had significant effect on the fresh
and hardened properties of the ambient temperature cured 3D printed geopolymer concrete.
Figure 1 shows the feasibility of printing six layers of the developed ambient temperature
cured geopolymer material.
Figure 1. A six-layer filament printed with the developed ambient temperature cured
geopolymer-based material.
REFERENCES
[1]! Nematollahi, B., Xia, M, and Sanjayan, J., 'Current Progress of 3D Concrete Printing
Technologies'. Proceedings of 34th International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in
Construction (ISARC 2017), Taiwan 2017, 260-267.
[2]! Xia, M. and Sanjayan, J., 'Method of formulating geopolymer for 3D printing for construction
applications', Mater. Design. 110 (2016), 382-390.
[3]! Xia, M. and Sanjayan, J., 'Post-processing methods for improving strength of geopolymer
produced using 3d printing technique', Proceedings of International Conference on Advances in
Construction Materials and Systems (ICACMS-2017), India 2017, 350–358.
[4]! Panda, B., Paul, S.C., Hui, L.J., Tay, Y.W.D., and Tan, M.J., 'Additive manufacturing of
geopolymer for sustainable built environment', Journal of Cleaner Production. 167 (2017), 281-
288.
[5]! Vijay, P., Nematollahi, B., Sanjayan, J., Xia, M., Nerella, V.N. and Mechtcherine, V., 'Fresh and
hardened properties of extrusion-based 3D printed geopolymer concrete'. To be published in
Proceedings of 1st Asia-Pacific International Conference on Additive Manufacturing
(APICAM2017), Melbourne 2017.
12
COLD JOINTS IN ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING – EFFECT OF

EXTRUSION AND SPRAYING ON LAYER BONDING
N. Nolte* (1), H.-W. Krauss (1), P. Varady (1) and D. Lowke (1)
(1) Institute of Building Materials, Concrete Construction and Fire Protection, Braunschweig, Germany
1. DIGITAL BUILDING FABRICATION LABORATORY (DBFL)

At present, significant advances in the field of computer-aided fabrication of concrete
elements have been achieved. However, a major challenge of these layer based manufacturing
methods is the prevention of cold joints. Therefore, a novel additive manufacturing (AM)
method based on robot-aided digital fabrication by concrete spraying is being developed at TU
Braunschweig, TU Clausthal and LU Hannover. This spraying technique is characterized by a
homogenous formation of the layer.
2. CHALLENGES IN ROBOT-AIDED SPRAYING

To optimize the spraying process different material requirements have to be considered. The
concrete pumping process e.g. requires a rather low yield stress and low plastic viscosity of the
material in order to enable proper flow properties. However, for shotcrete application a very
high yield stress is advantageous. With high initial yield stress, a higher build up rate can be
achieved, since a high initial yield stress of the material is important to sustain its own weight
and to ensure shape stability. Receiving a high yield stress and a rather low viscosity at the
same time is challenging. To fulfill the stated material requirements a well-marked thixotropic
behavior is intended.
Furthermore, the characteristics of the individual AM processes (e.g. layer by layer) require
materials with very specific setting and hardening behaviors, which are connected to geometric
parameters (layer height, element size, etc.), the application rate and the processing steps (time,
shear rate). The setting and hardening behavior can generally be controlled by the addition of
accelerating admixtures. Moreover, a proper bond strength has to be achieved in a layer based
AM process. Material layers without proper bond create cold joints.
By considering both, the setting process and the layer bonding, an optimal operation window
for an individual manufacturing task is defined. With different dosages of accelerating admix-
tures the operation window for the spraying process can be controlled to a certain limit. Wangler
et al. [2] give an example of an operation window for an extrusion based process. They
concluded, that the deposition of material able to sustain its own weight and the weight of the
subsequent layers, while having a good bond between the layers to avoid cold joints, is a major
challenge for layer based AM techniques. In order to avoid cold joints, the spraying technique
may offer major advantages due to the characteristic application process. One special feature
of the spraying process is the acceleration of the material by compressed air leading to a good
compaction and therefore to a low porosity. As a result, good mechanical performance of the
concrete elements is achieved – even in case of a layer based process.
In this contribution, first test results are presented demonstrating the potential of the concrete
spraying technique as a novel AM method.
13
3. INVESTIGATION PROGRAM AND RESULTS

For characterization of the bond properties between two layers specimens were produced by
spraying and by extrusion technique (same nozzle, without air pressure) using the same material
and similar processing parameters. Drill cores were obtained from the fabricated concrete
specimens and investigated by Computer Tomography (CT). Figure 1 illustrates the porosity
distribution of the two specimens over the height determined from the CT-scans. The specimens
produced by spraying technique show a more homogeneous distribution of porosity over the
specimen height. In contrast to that, a constant alternation of the porosity in the specimen manu-
factured by extrusion can be observed. The inhomogeneity is caused by the bond zones between
the layers and could be an indication for lower bond strength. This was verified by pull-off tests
where the sprayed specimens showed higher strengths and a different fracture behavior. For
final conclusions further tests are needed.
7
Extrusion technique
6
Porosity of the examined
Spraying technique
5
segment [%]
4
3
2
1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Height of the specimen [mm]
Figure 1. Porosity distribution of specimens produced by spraying and extrusion technique

(from CT; segmentation of air voids by a proprietary algorithm; scan resolution: 35 µm) [3].
A more detailed investigation of material and process parameters affecting the bond strength
by using different test methods (Vicat Needle, penetration test, ultrasonic technique and
Computer Tomography) will be presented in the contribution. The potential of the CT for the
prediction of bond properties will be discussed. Finally, the development of mechanical
properties will be addressed, with special focus on the inter-layer bond strength achieved by
robot-aided spraying technique in comparison to other AM techniques.
REFERENCES
[1]! Neudecker S., Bruns C., Gerbers, R., Heyn, J., Dietrich, F., Dröder, K., Raatz, A., Kloft, H., ‘A new
robotic spray technology for generative manufacturing of complex concrete structures without
formwork’, Procedia CIRP 43 (2016) 333-338.
[2]! Wangler, T., Lloret, E., Reiter, L., Hack, N., Gramazio, F., Kohler, M., Bernhard, M., Dillenburger,
B., Buchli, J., Roussel, N. and Flatt, R., ‘Digital Concrete: Opportunities and Challenges’, Rilem
Techn. lett. 1 (2016) 67-75.
[3]! Nolte, N., Heidmann-Ruhz, M., Krauss, H.-W., Varady, P., Budelmann, H. and Wolter, A.,
‘Development of shotcrete mixtures with controllable properties for the additive manufacturing of
concrete structures’ (engl. title), in ‘Spritzbeton-Tagung 2018’, Tagungsband der 12. Fachtagung
in Alpbach, Januar, 2018
14
CHARACTERIZATION OF 3D PRINTING MORTARS MADE

WITH OPC/CSA MIXES
Noura Khalil* (1), Sébastien Rémond (1) and Georges Aouad (2)
(1) IMT Lille Douai, Univ. Lille, EA 4515 - LGCgE – Laboratoire de Génie Civil et
géoEnvironnement, département Génie Civil & Environnemental, F-59000 Lille, France
(2) Faculty of Engineering, University Of Balamand, UOB, Al Koura, Lebanon
1. GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS
Printing cementitious structures in 3D (3D Printing) requires the use of a mortar which
rheological behaviour and setting are rigorously controlled. In our research, a mix made of
two types of cement, ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and Calcium Sulfo-aluminate cement
(CSA), is adopted to control the printability of a mortar. The latter is formulated in order to be
extrudable, buildable and to reach a compressive strength comparable to that of a traditional
mortar. Different mixes of OPC/CSA cement pastes and 2 mixes of OPC/CSA mortars are
studied.
1.1. Cement pastes

The percentages of CSA replacing the OPC in the cement pastes are 0% 2%, 5%, 7% and
10% and 100%. Heat of hydration of these mixes, studied by isothermal calorimetry,
demonstrates that the hydration mechanism of the OPC is not affected by the introduction of
the CSA. However, the heat of hydration of these pastes increases with the increase in
percentage of CSA [1]. A rheological study of these cement pastes is carried out using parallel
plate geometry and thixotropy is calculated via the Athix parameter (equation (1)) [2].
Similarly, their shear stress increases proportionally to the percentage of CSA. As well, the
cumulative heat of hydration and the shear stresses variation of the OPC/CSA cement pastes
mixes are higher than those of OPC or CSA alone. These results confirm a synergy between
the two cements used. Finally, a printable mix made out of 7% CSA and 93% OPC is chosen
to be characterized. The cement pastes of these mixes are then tested by XRD and ATG to
specify the reactions happening during the hydration.
1.2. Mortars
A mortar of 7% CSA and 93% OPC and another one of 100% OPC are studied. They are
first checked for the two characteristics of printability (extrudability and buildability) by a
manual home-made device. Then, an estimation of the rheological properties of the mortars
using a penetration test was done. Afterwards, 4x4x16cm mortars specimens are filled by two
ways: a normalized method (EN 196-1) and printed method (printing layers in the moulds
using the manual printing device). Porosity of normalised and printed specimens is studied by
mercury intrusion porosimetry test. A compressive strength of 88MPa is found after 28 days
for non-printed specimens and 79MPa for printed specimens. These values are very close to
those of normalised and printed specimens of 100%OPC (89MPa and 81MPa respectively).
Therefore, the synergy between the two cements increases the heat of hydration and the yield
15
stress of the material but does not affect its mechanical properties keeping its compressive
strength close to that of an OPC.
2. FIGURE
350 14000
P100/0 P100/0
300 12000 P-93/7
P93/7 P0/100
Cumulative*heat*of*hydration*
250 P0/100 10000
Yield*stress*(Pa)
200 8000
150 6000
mW/g)
100 4000
50 2000
0 0
0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60
Time*(minutes) Time*(minutes)
Figure 1. Cumulative heat of hydration of the cement pastes during the first hour
Figure 2. Yield stress of the cement pastes during the first hour
3. TABLE
Table 1: Composition of cement pastes and mortars
Cement pastes Mortars
Mixes P100/0 P98/2 P95/5 P93/7 P90/10 P0/100 M100/0 M93/7

M100/0P M93/7P
OPC (g) 40 39.2 38 37.2 36 0 682.75 627.75
CSA (g) 0 0.8 2 2.8 4 40 0 47.25
Sand - - - - - - 850 800
Water 20 20 20 20 20 20 236.25 236.25
(g)
SP (g) - - - - - - 1.75 1.75
4. EQUATIONS AND UNITS

The following equations are used in calculations of the thixotropy of the cement pastes:
Athix = ρ*g*H/√3*tH = τ* tH (1)
REFERENCES
[1] N. Khalil, G. Aouad, K. El Cheikh, and S. Rémond, “Use of calcium sulfoaluminate cements
for setting control of 3D-printing mortars,” Constr. Build. Mater., vol. 157, pp. 382–391, 2017.
[2] T. Wangler et al., “Digital Concrete$: Opportunities and Challenges,” vol. 1, pp. 67–75, 2016.
16
THE STRUCTURAL PARADOX OF 3D CONCRETE PRINTING

R.J.M. Wolfs* (1), F.P. Bos (1) and T.A.M. Salet (1, 2)
(1) Eindhoven University of Technology, Department of the Built Environment, Eindhoven,

the Netherlands
(2) Witteveen+Bos consulting engineers, the Netherlands
1. INTRODUCTION
The potential of 3D concrete printing is rapidly being explored worldwide and first real life
structures are being realized. A successful application requires understanding of the structural
performance of printed concrete. Contrary to traditional concrete structures, in which usually
only the hardened product properties are of (structural) interest, for 3D concrete printing the
structural performance in both the fresh and hardened material state need to be known.
The nature of the 3D printing process introduces a complexity. Due to the absence of
formwork, the fresh concrete has to be sufficiently strong and stiff to carry the weight of the
subsequent layers, and to maintain overall stability of the printed geometry. Additionally, due
to the layered process, weak interfaces may occur in between printed filaments of material that
reduce the overall strength of the hardened end product.
This results in competing requirements for each phase. To guarantee a robust printing
process, it is desirable to use a fast hardening material or to print slowly, such that significant
deformations or failure in the printing process are avoided. On the other hand, to realize a proper
bond between subsequent layers, the material should remain in its dormant phase sufficiently
long or be printed rapidly to minimize the time gap between layers. The optimum is unknown
in advance, as the structural integrity in both material phases depends on the geometry of the
printed object, on the printing strategy (e.g. speed, nozzle size, and layer to layer transition) and
on the material composition. These variables and their interdependency need to be determined
to guarantee a robust printing process, and a structurally safe end result.
2. EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL WORK

To understand these dependencies, the essential structural parameters in both material phases
have been studied experimentally, using the 3D Concrete Printer setup and material as defined
by Bos et al. [1]. The mechanical properties of fresh concrete at age t = 0 to 90 minutes have
been derived by means of uniaxial compression and direct shear testing (Fig 1A). The fresh
concrete shows a linear development of strength and stiffness in time [2].
The bond strength in hardened concrete samples was studied by means of direct tensile tests
on layered samples, printed with different time intervals in between the layers (Fig 1C). The
tensile tests showed a decrease in bond strength when the time interval between deposition of
subsequent layers increases. Similar findings have been reported by Le et al. [3] and Panda et
al. [4].
The experimentally derived properties of fresh concrete have been used to analyse the
printing process and products numerically by Finite Element Modelling. The printing process
has been modelled in a transient analysis, simulating a growing geometry in time, and including
the corresponding time-dependent development of structural properties and loading. Given a
17
certain printing strategy, this model will show the failure-deformation mode of the printed
object, i.e. how and where the object may fail during printing (Fig 1B).
The interface bond strength in hardened concrete, on the other hand, has been modelled by
means of a 2D Cohesive Zone Model (Fig 1D). The cohesive elements were given different
tensile strengths defined as normal distributions which were obtained from the experimental
results, and varied as a parameter of interface interval time. The numerical simulations
described the crack surfaces from the experimental research very well.
Figure 1. Experimental tests (A,C) and numerical work (B,D) on fresh and hardened 3D printed
concrete.
3. DISCUSSION AND OUTLOOK

The numerical models of both material phases can be used to find a balance in the structural
paradox of concrete printing. As the material properties are known, given a certain geometry,
the optimal printing strategy can be derived in advance. Using the same model, different
material compositions can be studied, or the printed geometry can be (topologically) optimized
for structural performance, keeping in mind the constraints of the printing process. A robust
printing process is guaranteed, while sufficient bond strength for the end product is maintained.
The properties of both fresh and hardened 3D printed concrete can be controlled by means
of e.g. admixtures like accelerator, additives like fibres, or temperature (in relation to maturity).
As such, an experimental program on their influence is desirable, such that the numerical
models can be extended and a more comprehensive simulation tool is achieved. The numerical
models can then be used as a digital design tool, to study and optimize the printing process and
objects, which seamlessly shifts into digital manufacturing by 3D printing.
REFERENCES
[1]! F. P. Bos, R. J. M. Wolfs, Z. Y. Ahmed, T. A. M. Salet, Additive manufacturing of concrete in
construction: potentials and challenges, Virtual and Physical Prototyp. 11 (3) (2016) 209-225.
[2]! R.J.M. Wolfs, F.P. Bos, T.A.M. Salet, Early age mechanical behavior of 3D printed concrete:
numerical modeling and experimental testing. Cement and Concrete Research (2017). Submitted
[3]! T. T. Le, S. A. Austin, S. Lim, R. A. Buswell, R. Law, A. G. F. Gibb, T. Thorpe, Hardened
properties of high-performance printing concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 42 (2012) 558-566.
[4]! B. Panda, S.C. Paul, N.A.N. Mohamed, Y.W.D.Tay, M.J. Tan, Measurement of tensile bond
strength of 3D Printed geopolymer mortar, Measurement 113 (2018) 108-116
18
[P]ARAMETRIC [A]DJUSTABLE [M]OULD FOR CONCRETE PANEL

CASTING
P. Loh (1), D. Leggett (2) and D. Prohasky (3)
(1, 3) University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia

(2) Power to Make, Melbourne, Australia
1. INTRODUCTION
The research project Parametric Adjustable Mould 2 (PAM2) explores the design and
construction of a bespoke computer numerically controlled (CNC) machine that can create
variable mould positions using doubly curved ruled surface geometry for the manufacturing
of cast concrete panels. This paper discusses the invention of the mould design and its
potential applications in the construction industry. The machine can be used to fabricate large
format, non-structural doubly curved concrete panels, with applications such as rain screen
cladding systems. The paper outlines future research that can extend the potential of the panel
to structural applications for use as permanent concrete formwork and shell structure.
The fabrication method presented in this project consists of a single adjustable mould
which receives translated digital information from a panelised surface using a custom script to
actuate the mould for concrete casting. Once cured, the concrete panel is removed from the
mould with no immediate waste. The project eliminates the need for individually unique
mould design in the manufacturing of doubly curved panels, thereby reducing manufacturing
waste and improving cost efficiency.
2. BACKGROUND AND PRECEDENT

Variable adjustable moulds have been of research interest in recent years, and a few
systems have been put to test in practice [1]. Current state of the art variable mould designs is
mostly based on single-direction multi-point system, where actuated pins define the surface
curvature [2]. Research by Lee and Kim [3] outlined several advantages of such procedure,
including speed of manufacture and low production cost even for short runs, over traditional
techniques where individual mould is fabricated for each panel. Other state of the art
techniques for variable mould includes wax formwork with robotic milling [4 & 5]. PAM2
further contributes to this emerging field of automated fabrication techniques and provides an
alternative method to the fabrication of doubly curved panel.
3. CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE
The key contributions to knowledge of this project is listed below; these will be expanded
into sections in the full paper.
1) The application and translation of quadric-ruled surfaces to develop mould
design which results in less automated parts compared to multipoint adjustable mould
systems.
2) The design and development of a tri-axial joint utilised in the machine design
is a novel application to enable accuracy of the machine.
19
3) The mathematical solution allowing the translation of computational geometry

into the procedural code for manufacturing of the panels.
4) The cast panels are digitally scanned and verified against the initial digital
surface. The results are near industry standard accuracy with a maximum -3.36mm to
2.59mm deviation range across panel.
Figure 1. Left, two cast concrete panels using PAM2. Right, verification of scanned panel
against digital surface
3. CONCLUSION
This paper outlined a novel manufacturing procedure that digitally modified the form of
concrete through the design of a single adjustable mould. The invention addresses two key
industry problems: the complexity of producing doubly curved geometry, and the wasteful
manufacturing procedures associated with one-off mould design. The prototype machine uses
only four actuators which significantly reduced the number of actuators compare to current
state of the art multipoint systems. This improvement allows the system to be used for entry
level production. Doubly curved panels produced from PAM2 can be used for non-structural
applications and with future research, it can be used for structural applications, which greatly
increases the efficiency and feasibility of building the complex architectural forms that define
our future build environment.
REFERENCES
[1]! Schipper, H. R.. "Double-curved precast concrete elements." PhD diss., Technische Universiteit
Delft, 2015.
[2]! Wang, S, Cai, Z, Li, M and Lan, Y. "Numerical simulation on the local stress and local
deformation in multi-point stretch forming process." The International Journal of Advanced
Manufacturing Technology 60, no. 9 (2012): 901-911.
[3]! Lee, G. and Kim, S., "Case Study of Mass Customization of Double-Curved Metal Façade Panels
Using a New Hybrid Sheet Metal Processing Technique." Journal of Construction Engineering
and Management 138 (2012): 1322-1330.
[4]! Gardiner, J., Janssen, B. and Steven, R., FreeFab. McGee, W. and Ponce de Leon, M., eds.
Robotic Fabrication in Architecture, Art and Design 2014, Springer International Publishing,
Cham (2014)., 131-146.
[5]! Oesterle, S., Vansteenkiste, A. and Mirjan, A., "Zero Waste Free-Form Formwork." Proceedings
of the Second International Conference on Flexible Formwork (2012): 258 - 267.
20
INTRUSION OF CEMENT PASTE FOR PARTICLE BASED METHOD

A. Pierre* (1), D. Weger (2), A. Perrot (3), D. Lowke (4)
(1) L2MGC EA4114, Université de Cergy-Pontoise, 5 mail Gay-Lussac – Neuville-sur-Oise,

95031 Cergy-Pontoise, France
(2) Technical University of Munich, Centre for Building Materials (cbm), Munich, Germany
(3) IRDL, Université de Bretagne Sud, Centre de Recherche de St Maudé, 56321 Lorient,
France
(4) Technical University of Braunschweig, Department of Building Materials, Braunschweig,
Germany
3D printing processes of concrete and cement based materials have a great potential to
bring architectural and structural innovation in construction industry. Among the 3D printing
processes that could bring new perspectives in innovative and designed architectural
elements, one of the most interesting is called the selective paste intrusion method. The
component is built layer by layer by selectively applying cement paste on an aggregate
packing using a 3D printer nozzle and a subsequent penetration of the paste into the aggregate
layer. The residual loose grains function as support structure for overlying layers which
facilitates the production of high complex and overhanging structures without additional
supporting structures or moulds. The implementability of the selective paste intrusion method
requires the prediction of the flow of a yield stress fluid through a porous media. The
rheological behaviour of the cement paste must be adapted for its penetration through the
porous network of the aggregate particle packing. An adequate penetration depth of the
cement paste produces homogeneous materials that are capable of sustaining a high
mechanical stress (see Figure 1).
a)a)
hhlay,2
lay,2 hhpen
pen hhlay,2
lay,2
hhpen
pen hhlay,1
lay,1 hhpen
pen hhlay,1
lay,1
Applicationof
Application of Application of
Application FULL PENETRATION
PENETRATION
aggregatelayer
aggregate layer cement paste
cement
HOMOGENEOUS 3D
HOMOGENEOUS 3D
PRINTED MATERIAL
MATERIAL
b)b)
hhpen
pen h
hhlay,2
lay,2 hlay,2
lay,2
hhpen
pen h
hhpen
pen hh
hlay,1
lay,1 lay,1
lay,1
c)
Applicationof
Application of Application of
Application of PARTIAL PENETRATION
PARTIAL PENETRATION
aggregatelayer
aggregate layer cement paste
cement paste
HETEROGENEOUS
HETEROGENEOUS
3D PRINTED
3D PRINTED MATERIAL
MATERIAL
Figure 1. Selective paste intrusion method and effect of penetration depth on the final
product: a) schematization of full penetration; b) schematization of partial penetration; c)
picture of a pipe with 3D stiffening elements.
21
We show in this work that the compressive strength of a component made by such a
technique is directly linked to the penetration depth of the cement paste into the aggregate
layer; consequently, this work aims at predicting the penetration depth of cement pastes into
aggregate layers. A theoretical framework has been developed to propose an evaluation of
penetration depth as a function of the median aggregate diameter and the yield stress of the
cement paste, which is experimentally validated with specific penetration measurements.
Finally, we stress that the prediction of penetration with an analytical model is an effective
technique to ensure building homogeneous cement based materials with the selective paste
intrusion method following the evaluation of a penetration ratio !"#$ with equation (1):
! gd agg (1 % & S ) (1)
& pen =
&S
"# c % ! gd agg & S + 6# c$
1 % &S
With %&'' is the median diameter of the aggregates; ( the cement paste density; Φ* is the
volume fraction of the aggregate particles; +, is the yield stress of the cement paste; ! is a
parameter that represents the fraction of the aggregate particle surface area where the cement
paste is sheared and is assumed to be equal to 1.
Figure 2 compares the measured penetration depths and the predicted penetration from
equation (1).
Figure 2. Comparison of the measured penetration depths and the predicted penetration
from equation (1) of cement pastes with different yield stress +, =2 Pa and +, =4 Pa through
aggregate layer height of 20 mm or 30 mm with mean diameters of 1.0, 1.6 and 2.6 mm.
We show from figure 2 that the penetration depth can be predicted if four parameters are
known: the median diameter of the aggregate, the solid volume fraction or the void ratio of
the aggregate packing, the yield stress, and the density of the cement paste.
22
SELECTIVE CEMENT ACTIVATION TECHNIQUE – EFFECT OF

WATER/CEMENT-RATIO AND PARTICLE CHARACTERISTICS ON
STRENGTH AND SHAPE ACCURACY
D. Lowke (1)*, D. Weger (2), C. Gehlen (2), R. Rael (3), C. Ostertag (3)
(1) Technical University of Braunschweig, Institute of Building Materials, Concrete

Construction and Fire Safety (iBMB) , Germany
(2) Technical University of Munich, Centre for Building Materials (cbm), Germany
(3) UC Berkeley, USA
Keywords: 3D printing, additive manufacturing, selective cement activation, cement, concrete
1. METHOD
Selective cement activation (SCA) belongs to the selective binding additive manufacturing
methods. All of these techniques use data of a computerized sliced CAD model to fabricate an
object layer-by-layer. The printing process consists of two repetitive work steps: (1) application
of a layer of dry particles and (2) selective deposition of a fluid phase onto the particle packing
by means of a print head or nozzle in order to bind the particles. Finally, the non-bonded
particles are removed in a de-powdering process
In the selective binder activation technique the particle bed consists of a dry mixture of very
fine aggregate (typically sand < 1mm) and binder. In the case of concrete components, cement
is used as binder. The cement is locally activated by spraying or jetting water or a water-
admixture solution into the packed particles thus forming a cement paste matrix around the
aggregate particles. The residual loose material supports the overlying layers. Therefore designs
with high complexity and overhangs can be realized without additional supporting structures or
moulds. Furthermore, the loose material can be recycled and used for a new production process.
2. MOTIVATION
The invention of the additive manufacturing methods revolutionised the possibilities of
designing complex elements. Due to the high freedom in construction, SCA is predestined for
free form element construction and gradation of the structure. Structures can be designed and
produced by the principle “form follows force” which has a material saving potential of up to
40% [1]. No expenditure for scaffolding and formwork is needed. Furthermore a gradation of
the inner element structure can be realized, e.g. by integrated supply lines or voids for increased
heat insulation. Due to the fine material and the small layer heights a smooth concrete surface
with high resolution is generated. Hence, no post processing of the surface is necessary.
3. OBJECTIVES AND INVESTIGATIONS

This contribution deals with the effect of water/cement-ratio and particle characteristics on
strength and shape accuracy. For this reason, cubes (40 x 40 x 40 mm) with a layer height of
100 µm were printed using a commercially available powder bed printer. The dry particle
23
mixture consists of of 40 % cement and 60 % sand by volume. The packing density and the
specific surface of the dry mix were varied by changing the sand fraction with maximum
particle size of 200, 350 and 500 µm, respectively. The water/cement ratio was varied between
0.16 and 0.36. Compressive strength and shape accuracy were determined after 35d.
4. RESULTS
The compressive strength of the specimens manufactured by the selective cement activation
technique averaged between 2 and 16 MPa. In the investigated range of water/cement-ratios
and particle sizes, the compressive strength is increasing with increasing water/cement-ratio
and increasing particle size. On the other hand, water/cement-ratio significantly affects the
shape accuracy, Fig. 1. The higher the water/cement-ratio the lower the shape accuracy. Thus,
an optimum with respect to strength and shape accuracy has to be determined.
Figure 1. Effect of w/c-ratio on shape accuracy (dmax = 500 µm)
REFERENCES
[1]! Menna, C. 2017. “3D Printed RC Structures: Concept and Technology.”
24
REINFORCING CONCEPTS FOR EXTRUDED 3D CONCRETE

J. P. Tapley* (1), R. Schmid (1), G. Hansemann (1), D. Schraml (1), A. Trummer (1) and
S. Peters (1)
(1) Institute for Structural Design, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria
1. MOTIVATION
The advances in digital concrete have created many opportunities for designers and
architects. The 3D extrusion techniques make it possible to create concrete objects in also most
any shape imaginable. However, the use of these technologies in the production of structural
elements has, thus far, been extremely limited. This is due to the poor tensile strength of the
concrete and therefore, the necessity for reinforcement. In addition to the reinforcing
challenges, there are questions that arise due to the fire resistance of structural elements.
2. METHODS
2.1. Current reinforcement techniques

The first part of this paper examines the current methods used in reinforcing concrete,
whether it be for new building elements or for restoring existing elements. It summarises the
standard and state of the art methods for reinforcing concrete elements. It investigates, not only
the “How?”, but also the materials which are being used. It also looks at results from other
research facilities which are producing structural elements that are entirely exposed to
compressive forces [1], thus removing the necessity for internal reinforcement.
2.2. Reinforcement concepts and concept tests

Five theoretical production processes were considered and developed. These varied from
placement of standard reinforcement in printed concrete to formwork to external reinforcement.
The pros and cons of each method were considered and from these five methods, three were
then selected as the most feasible and followed up. A series of concept tests were prepared and
carried out. The concept tests checked the practicality of the systems. The results were then
compared to decide which of the three systems would be developed further. Finally, one of the
systems was selected.
2.3. Automated process

Several automated processes for producing reinforcement and printing concrete have been
created and tested [2]. What is missing, however, is a completely automated concrete printing
and reinforcing process. The method that was selected after the concept tests to be a viable
solution during the tests was developed further. A process for extruding concrete and
reinforcing the printed objects was created. This system can be used to produce structural
elements. Two full size prototypes were produced using the system and they were also tested.
The strengths and weaknesses of the system are also presented.
25
Figure 1. Testing the practicability of one reinforcement method by producing a printed

concrete canoe
3. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION

Although there are many methods for producing printed concrete objects and many methods
of producing reinforcement, the success of combining the two has been, thus far limited. With
this system, it is possible to combine the two aspects into one process. Not only the combination
of the two systems is important it also opens the door to producing structural elements.
REFERENCES
[1] P. Block, A. Schlueter, D. Veenendaal et al., 'NEST HiLo: Investigating lightweight construction
and adaptive energy systems', Journal of Building Engineering 12 (2017) 332–341.
[2] T. Wangler, E. Lloret, L. Reiter et al., 'Digital Concrete: Opportunities and Challenges', RILEM
Technical Letters 1 (2016) 67-75.
26
A CRITICAL REVIEW OF INTERLAYER ADHESION IN 3D PRINTING

OF CONCRETE
Author* B. Zareiyan
(1) University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA

ABSTRACT
3D printing of concrete uses computer control layering of material to fabricate structures by
integrating computer aided design (CAD) and computer aided manufacturing (CAM). The
technology is based on additive manufacturing process which is deposition of successive layers
of material to shape the object. During fabrication, layers must be bonded together to make a
homogenous structure, as there is no vibration or external force during layer deposition. Bonding
between layers in 3D printing is critical in many applications especially in 3D printing of
concrete. Although in some cases bond strengths as strong as the bulk material (the monolithic
segments) are achievable, a series of preliminary experiments on layered concrete fabrication
show the vulnerability of the structures due to low strength at bond interfaces. The objective of
this work is to review current design methodologies and evaluation methods for adhesion at
layers of 3D printed concrete structure.!The result of this research may be used to introduce a
methodology to enhance the bond interface of cementitious material used in 3D printing.
27
ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING OF STRUCTURALLY OPTIMIZED

CONCRETE VAULT USING ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGY
A. Hao Meng* (1), B. ZhiHao Liang (2) and C.WenYuan Gao (2)
(1) Tongji University, Shanghai, China

(2) Xuberance, Shanghai, China
In the present paper a non-conventional addictive manufacturing method is introduced to
fabricate rib-stiffened concrete vault structure using advanced robotic system. The research
aims to take full advantage of industrial robot’s axial flexibility to print layered interlocking
structures using tangential continuity method. Interdisciplinary work involves material
science, computational design, structural optimization and robotic fabrication in order to
realize structurally optimized, functionally integrated and light weight none linear building
components. The overall geometrical form and rib pattern is aligned with the structural
principle and force flow of the design to ensure most sufficient material usage and economical
production time.
1.1.! Computational Design and Structural Optimization

The design and optimization of the vault structure follows the geometry and logic of
compression in order to minimize the impact of stresses, which allows for the use of less
material that take considerable amounts of compression but no tension or bending, such as
stone or unreinforced concrete. Finite Element Analysis is conducted using Abaqus to ensure
the structural rigidity and material efficiency of vaults with varies sectional profiles.
1.2.! Material Study

The concrete mix has been designed to be extruded through a nozzle to build layer-by-layer
structural components. The most critical fresh properties are proven to be extrudability and
buildability, which have mutual relationships with workability and open time. These
properties are significantly influenced by the mix proportions and the presence of
superplasticiser, retarder, accelerator and water reducing agent. An optimum mix is validated
through testing different design prototypes.
1.3.! Interlock Configuration and Load Test

In this research, the structural vault is made up of three discrete parts which are
typologically interlocked to improve mechanical and functional properties including
resistance to crack propagation, tolerance to local failure, and energy absorption. Different
interlock configurations regarding size and thickness have been load tested to verify bonding
strength.
28
1.4.! Robotic Fabrication

External curved support made by polystyrene foam is quickly produced using robotic
hotwire cutting technique. A digitally controlled concrete printing device is mounted to a
KUKA KR60 robotic arm as a secondary system to optimize printing speed and extrusion
continuity.
2. FIGURE
Figure 1. Design and Fabrication Processing Route
REFERENCES
[1]! Block P., Rippmann M. and Van Mele T.Compressive assemblies: Bottom-up performance for a
new form of construction, AD Architectural Design,87(4): 104-109,2017 (July/August).Special
issue S. Tibbits (Ed.) - Autonomous Assembly: Designing for a new era of collective
construction.
[2]! Perrot, A., Rangeard, D., Pierre, A.: Structural built-up of cement-based materials used for 3D-
printing extrusion techniques. Mater. Struct. 49(4), 1213–1220 (2016)
[3]! Rippmann, M.: Funicular Shell Design: Geometric Approaches to Form Finding and Fabrication
of Discrete Funicular Structures. Ph.D. Thesis, ETH Zurich, Department of Architecture, Zurich
(2016)
[4]! Shyshko, S., Mechtcherine, V.: Simulating the workability of fresh concrete. In: Proceedings of
the International RILEM Symposium Of Concrete Modelling—CONMOD, pp. 173–181 (2008)
29
MICROMECANICAL TESTING FOR A 3D-PRINTED LONG FIBER

REINFORCED CONCRETE
N. Ducoulombier* (1), J-F, Caron (1), H. Bessaies-Bey (1), N. Roussel (1),
(1) Laboratoire Navier, Paris-Est University, Ecole des Ponts ParisTech, IFSTTAR,
CNRS, 6-8 Ave Blaise Pascal 77455 Champs-sur-Marne, France
* Corresponding author
1. CONTEXTS AND OBJECTIVES

Since the beginning of the 21th century, more and more studies have emerged on the
robotic additive manufacturing of concrete, also called Concrete 3-D printing. Numerous
academic and industrial projects have also flourished with the stated aims to export that
technic to large-scale building construction. A review of them can be found in [1] and [2].
But, despite the apparent operational readiness of different teams, numerous questions
remains unsolved concerning the reinforcement of such structures, mandatory in most
normative context. The reinforced concrete is by far the most used material for structural
application, and its generalisation for 3D printed issues would push the boundary of the actual
technics.
Many technic are prospected to answer that question: robotic placement of reinforcement
[3], fabric reinforcement [4] and [5], short fibres inclusion and long fibres inclusion.
2. EFFECTIVE STUDY
In this study, we propose to explore the possibility and the potential of the last technic
consisting in the inclusion of continuous long fibres during the mortar extrusion,
reinterpreting precedent work found in literature such as [6], [7], [8]
2.1. Experimental work
As a starting point, printable mortars along with printing process are simultaneously
formulated and developed. A specific table-top extruder is designed to validate the process.
Many couple of formulation and fibres are then tested and various mechanical tests are
performed. First, compression and flexion tests are made on mortar specimen to validate the
formulation and traction tests are made on the different fibres.
Then, unique fibre embedded by matrix cylinder, ether handmade or extruded, specimen
are prepared and characterised by mainly two technics:
- Visual osculation by different imagery technics such as micro tomography (Cf. figure 1).
- Micromechanical test (fragmentation, Pull out)
2.2. Modelling and characterisation of long fibre reinforced concrete
30
Through a simple micromechanical model of micromechanical test, experimental results

are then used to qualify the affinity between the fibre and the matrix and to obtain interfacial
property for each formulation/reinforcement duo. Finally, macro-mechanical elastic properties
of long fibres reinforced concrete is derived through homogenisation technic for a given fibre
volume content.
0,2 mm
Figure 1: Micro tomography images of a bundle of glass fiber (left) and of a unique steel fibre
(right) in mortar matrix
3. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

In this paper the possibility and the potential of the inclusion of continuous long fibres
during the mortar extrusion are explored, through several micromechanical experimentations.
Mixture rules are obtained using homogenisation technic Finally, a first fabrication process
will be detailed, able to embed many fibres in the extruded mortar to obtain a long fibre
reinforced concrete with a chosen fibre volume content.
REFERENCES
[1]! Duballet, R., and al. ‘Classification of Building Systems for Concrete 3D Printing’
Automation in Construction 83 (2017) 247–58
[2]! Wangler, T. and al. ‘Digital Concrete: Opportunities and Challenges’ RILEM Technical
Letters 1 (2016) 67
[3]! Hack, N. and Lauer, W. V. ‘Mesh-Mould: Robotically Fabricated Spatial Meshes as
Reinforced Concrete Formwork’ Architectural Design 84 (3), (2014), 44–53.
[4]! Häußler-Combe, U. and Hartig. J. ‘Bond and Failure Mechanisms of Textile Reinforced
Concrete (TRC) under Uniaxial Tensile Loading.” Cement and Concrete Composites 29
(4) (2007) 279
[5]! Schladitz, F. and al. ‘Bending Load Capacity of Reinforced Concrete Slabs Strengthened
with Textile Reinforced Concrete’ Engineering Structures 40 (2012) 317–26
[6]! Walton, P. L., and Majumdar, A. J. ‘Cement-Based Composites with Mixtures of
Different Types of Fibres’ Composites 6 (5) (1975) 209–16
[7]! Langlois, V. and al. ‘Experimental Study of the Mechanical Behavior of Continuous
Glass and Carbon Yarn-Reinforced Mortars’ Construction and Building Materials 21 (1)
(2007) 198–210.
[8]! Jun, P, and Mechtcherine, V. ‘Behaviour of Strain-Hardening Cement-Based Composites
(SHCC) under Monotonic and Cyclic Tensile Loading’ Cement and Concrete Composites
32 (10) (2010) 801–09
31
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON THE THERMAL

CONDUCTIVITY OF EXTRUDABLE FOAMED CONCRETE FOR 3D
PRINTING APPLICATIONS IN MULTILAYER INSULATING PANELS
D. Falliano* (1), G. Ricciardi (1) and E. Gugliandolo (2)
(1) Department of Engineering, University of Messina, Messina, Italy

(2) G. Gugliandolo srl, Messina, Italy
*corresponding author. Email: dfalliano@unime.it
1. INTRODUCTION
Foamed concrete belongs to the category of lightweight concrete. It is characterized by a
density which is generally ranging from 200!2000 kg/m3 and typically comprises cement,
water, preformed foam, fine sand and eventually fine particles such as fly ash or silica fume.
The foam component mixed with the cement paste give rise to the development of a system of
air-voids in the cementitious matrix.
The peculiar characteristics of foamed concrete elements are summarized in the following
aspects: 1) lightness which allows reducing the dimensions of the resisting frame structure and
is advantageous in the scope of refurbishment or seismic retrofitting in seismically vulnerable
areas; 2) thermal insulating properties, especially in the case of low densities; 3) the good
resistance against fire as compared to ordinary concrete; 4) the improved workability; 5) cost-
effectiveness due to the usage of rather simple constituting elements that are easily available
locally.
2. EXTRUDABLE FOAMED CONCRETE FOR 3D PRINTING APPLICATIONS

Classic foamed concrete can not be used for 3D printing applications as the dimensional
stability is not permitted in the green state: this special type of concrete is not extrudable.
In fact, viscosity enhancing agents (VEA) used to extrude traditional concrete [1], in the case
of foamed concrete cause the collapsing of air bubbles, so that it is impossible to extrude a
lightweight product.
To exceed this limit a suitable additive was developed: in particular, it modifies the reology
of foamed concrete fresh paste by increasing cohesion and viscosity and, at the same time,
stabilizes the bubbles into the cementitious matrix, in order to allow the dimensional stability
in the green state and, consequently, the extrusion of a lightweight product. There are plans to
submit the additive’s formulation to patent.
This extrudable foamed concrete is characterized by air bubbles of smaller dimensions than
the classic one; besides, the bubbles are homogeneously distributed within the cementitious
matrix.
32
3. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

OF EXTRUDABLE FOAMED CONCRETE
The experimental campaign has comprised a set of three extrudable foamed concrete
specimens. These specimens are slabs of 50cm x 50cm x 3cm sides. Besides an aerated
autoclaved concrete slab was subjected to the same determination.
To determine the thermal conductivity value, the heat flow meter method was used [2, 3].
The thermal conductivity was evaluated on specimens in natural moisture conditions.
Interestingly, due to the smaller size of the air bubbles, the thermal conductivity of the
extrudable foamed concrete is 18% lower than that of the aerated autoclaved concrete at
comparable densities as shown in Table 1. Besides, experimental evidence shows that the
thermal conductivity values of extrudable foamed concrete are significantly lower than that of
the classic foamed concrete reported in the literature [4].
Table 1: Summary of test results

Mixes designation Density Thermal conductivity
[kg/m3] [W/mK]
Extrudable foamed concrete/1 316 0,0779
Aerated autoclaved concrete 566 0,1530
4. MULTILAYER INSULATING PANELS

Due to the possibility to 3D printing extrudable foamed concrete with density ranging from
200!2000 kg/m3, an interesting application is the formation of multilayer insulating panels.
The number of layers, their density and thickness can be designed according to the needs.
Besides, the circumstance that it is possible to insert fiber or netting reinforcements both
longitudinally, at the layer interface, and transversely, at the subsequent material stratifications,
allows to obtain a constructive element with both structural and thermal insulation properties.
REFERENCES
[1]! Micaelli, F., 'Proprietà reologiche di paste di cemento estrudibili ad elevato contenuto di ceneri di
carbone', PhD thesis (University of Pisa, Italy, 2008).
[2]! CTI, 'Thermal performance of building materials and products – Determination of thermal
resistance by means of guarded hot plate and heat flow meter methods – Products of high and
medium thermal resistance', UNI EN 12667.
[3]! CTI, 'Thermal performance of building materials and products – Determination of thermal
resistance by means of guarded hot plate and heat flow meter methods – Dry and moist products of
medium and low thermal resistance ', UNI EN 12664.
[4]! Mydin, A.O., 'Effective thermal conductivity of foamcrete of different densities', Concrete
Research Letters Vol. 2 (1) (2011) 181-189.
33
3D PRINTING WITH PIGMENTED CERAMIC

Nora Dominique Wagner, Hochschule Luzern Design & Kunst, Luzern, Switzerland
1. EVOLUTION OF TRADITIONAL LAYER CONSTRUCTION
The process of paste extrusion by ceramic 3d printing shows a form of evolution of the
ceramic trade, which has digitized the traditional coil technique of the ceramic structure. This
makes the conventional layer structure controllable and allows decentralized reproducible
ceramics. By using the earthen material clay in combination with the digital processing
technique of 3d printing, a bridge between tradition and modernity can be built.
1.1. Innovation
The Dutch designer Dries Verbruggen considers: “The full potential of a new process can
only be discovered by rigorous experimentation and listening to what the tool wants to make.”
[1] The aim of the bachelor thesis was to emphasize the 3d-typical layer structure by the clay
and coloured minerals to become an innovative design element. So the aesthetics of the
printed object is derived from the process and the tool-driven use of form. Due to the way of
filling of the printer cartridge and customer-specific composition of material, colour gradients
and machine-made patterns may arise. The interaction between man and machine thus leads
to the unique feature of this technique compared to other ceramic processing methods. The
specific technique is shown in the following video https://vimeo.com/222180911.
1.2. Aesthetics
The colour mixture from the fundamental colour of the ceramic mass to a specific colour
creates gradients which produces a depth effect in the printed object. Depending on the
pressure angle, this pigmentation may additionally vary, resulting in shadow-like patterns.
The colouration through man and machine will only become its true colour after firing.
Whereats the material imperfection intensifïes the uniqueness of every printed object
additionally.
34
1.3. Content
Due to the modifications of topographic data as seen in the sample (inspired by the Swiss
tarn Oeschinensee), an exemplary application of ceramic-3d-printing was found in my the
bachelor thesis of object design. The conclusion of this material research could be extended to
other areas of interest. Thanks to geometry adaptation and individualization, the technology is
reflectable as well in architectural dimensions as for example an 2017 launched assignment
where the developed technique was implemented as house numbers in an architectural project
with an aesthetic value by the inclusion of related colours. Transfer of the technique to other
materials with similar consistency and properties is conceivable. The technique of paste
extrusion of color-changeable base material therefore holds as well potential for digital
production with cement materials.
Figure 1. Extract from my bachelor thesis berg|see by the ceramic 3d printer PotterBot, 2017.
[1] Verbruggen, Dries, ‘The Digital Crafsman and His Tools’, in: Conference Journal (1) (2014),
URL: URL: http://unfold.be/pages/the-digital-craftsman-and-his-tools-essay (27th February 2017).
35
SYNTHESIS AND 3D PRINTING OF ONE-PART GEOPOLYMER

MORTAR
M. Hojati (1), A. Radlinska* (1), S. Nazarian (1), J. Duarte (1), A. Memari (1), and S. Bilén
(1)
(1) The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA

1. EXTENDED ABSTRACT
Digital fabrication of cementitious materials presents great potential to the future of modern
construction [1-4] and the research on this topic has been growing exponentially. This new
technology has several benefits over the conventional method of concrete placement, including
quick construction of any freeform and customized components, with lower labor cost and
lower material waste. Additive manufacturing has been used in recent years for layer by layer
3D printing of concrete components; however, these efforts are still mostly conducted on a lab
scale and more research is needed to overcome barriers related to the design of printable
materials with acceptable mechanical properties and durability, precise geometry and shape of
printed objects, and optimized printing process [5-8].
While majority of 3D printing efforts to date have been focused on using portland cement-
based mixture, this research focused on 3D printing with almost cement-free binder, with
ultimate goal of potential construction in a deep space (beyond Moon). A mechanically viable,
one-part geopolymer mixture was designed and developed using metakaolin as aluminosilicate
precursor and anhydrous sodium metasilicate powder as solid activator. Fresh properties of the
binder were tailored to achieve a printable mixture. During the synthesis process of the binder,
a small proportion (up to 15% weight of total precursor) of calcium compound was added to
achieve desired strength gain without the need for external heat curing. Addition of low content
of calcium compound (i.e., 1.6% weight of portland cement) to geopolymer mixture resulted in
a faster setting time at ambient temperature and adequate strength and rheology of the mixture.
Printing was conducted using an ABB IRB6640 robotic arm programmed using G-code. It
allowed to 3D print a 150×300 mm cylinder, 100×200×650 mm beam, and dome structure 500
mm tall and 1500 mm in diameter (Figure 1). The compressive strength of the cylinder per
ASTM C39 and flexural load test of the printed beam per ASTM C78 were measured after 24
hours. The compressive strength of the cylinder was 2.9 MPa, the maximum load transferred
by the beam was 1039 kgf in four-point test, and the dome was capable of transferring a
maximum load of 792 kgf. The described material has been used and tested as part of the Phase
2 of the NASA 3D-printed Mars Habitat Challenge Competition, in which the authors’ team
won the second prize.
36
2. FIGURE
a) b)
c)
Figure 1. Robotic arm was used to print a) 150×300 mm cylinder, b) 100×200×650 mm beam,
and c) dome structure 500 mm tall and 1500 mm in diameter made out of one part geopolymer
mixture.
REFERENCES
[1]! Buswell, RA, Soar, RC, Gibb, AG, Thorpe, A, 2006, 'Freeform construction application research,
in: Advances in Engineering Structures’, Mechanics & Construction, pp. 773–780.
[2]! Lipson H, Kurman M, 2013, 'Fabricated: the new world of 3D printing,' John Wiley & Sons.
[3]! Singh R, 2010, 'Three dimensional printing for casting applications: a state of art review and future
perspectives,' Advanced Materials Research, vol. 83, pp. 342–9.
[4]! Lim, S, Le, T, Webster, J, Buswell, R, Austin, A, Gibb, A, 2009, 'Fabricating construction
components using layered manufacturing technology,’ in: Global Innovation in Construction,
Loughborough University, Leicestershire, UK.
[5]! Khoshnevis, B, 2004, 'Automated construction by contour crafting- related robotics and information
technologies,’ Automation in Construction. vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 5–19.
[6]! Feng, P, Meng, X, Chen, J, Ye, L, 2015, 'Mechanical properties of structures 3D printed with
cementitious powders,' Construction and Building Materials, vol. 93, pp. 486–497.
[7]! Nerella, V, Krause, M, Nather, M, Mechtcherine, V, 2016, 'Studying printability of fresh concrete
for formwork free concrete on-site 3D printing technology (CONPrint3D),' in: 25th Conference on
Rheology of Building Materials, Regensburg.
[8]! Wangler, T, Lloret, E, Reiter, L, Hack, N, Gramazio, F, Kohler, M, Flatt, R, (2016), Digital
concrete: opportunities and challenges. RILEM Technical Letters, 1, 67-75.
37
Optimizing)rheology)and)setting)properties)of)concrete)for)robot)driven)3D)printing)applications)
))
))
The)automation)of)fabrication)processes)in)construction)is)significant)for)the)competitiveness)
of) the) building) sector.) A) common) approach) to) reduce) workload) in) concrete) application) is)
automated) material) extrusion,) also) known) as) contour) crafting.) In) this) process) concrete) is)
extruded)selectively)layer)by)layer)using)gantries,)robots)or)rope)systems)to)fabricate)digitally)
planned)structures.)The)quality)and)detail)of)such)structures)and)the)extrusion)process)mainly)
depends)on)concrete)properties)in)fresh)state)such)as)the)rheology)and)the)workability)frame.)))
This) paper) shows) investigations) on) the) optimization) of) rheologic) and) setting) behavior) of)
concrete)using)additives)and)cement)paste)composition)for)3D)printing)applications.)Viscosity)
modifiers,)setting)accelerators)and)cement)paste)compositions)based)on)Portland)cement)and)
CSA) cements) are) investigated) to) improve) the) rheology) and) strength) development.) The)
viscosity)was)examined)using)a)viscosimeter)and)the)hydration)was)analyzed)using)isothermal)
calorimeter.) Optimized) material) compositions) were) printed) using) a) snail) concrete) extruder)
attached)to)a)6)axis)robot.)
)
38
THE EFFECT OF PRINT PARAMETERS ON THE

(MICRO)STRUCTURE OF 3D PRINTED CEMENTITIOUS MATERIAL
J. Van Der Putten* (1), K. Van Tittelboom (1) and G. De Schutter (1)
(1) Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium

1. INTRODUCTION
The main advantage of 3D concrete printing (3DP) is that it allows to manufacture
complex, non-standard geometries and details without a formwork. The possibility to build
without formwork is a major benefit in terms of production rate, architectural freedom and
cost reduction. Additionally, 3D printing is expected to lead also to more sustainable concrete
structures due to reduced waste generation and more efficient structural design placing
materials only where needed.
Notwithstanding the many advantages of 3DP, the result of this technique is a layered
structure which is likely to be anisotropic as voids can form between the filaments. These
voids will not only affect the (micro)structure but also the structural stability. In this research,
the influence of a changing print technology (e.g. the printing speed, time gap between the
different layers,..) on porosity and pore structure will be investigated. Mercury Intrusion
Porosimetry (MIP) analysis and X-ray microtomography (CT scan) will give more detailed
information about the influence of these parameters on the size and distribution of the pores.
The effect on the mechanical properties will be investigated by compressive and tensile
strength.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Materials and mix composition

In this study, a composition is adopted from [1] with an adjusted amount of
superplasticizer (0.70% by weight of binder). The composition was tested on extrudability,
buildability, open time and structural build-up before it was selected for this investigations.
The mix composition can be found in Table 1.
Table 1: Mix composition [1]

Material Sand CEM I 52,5 N Undensified Silica Fume Fly ash Water
[kg/m³] 1241 579 83 165 232
2.2. Print equipment

In order to simplify laboratory testing of various mixtures, a linear concrete printing
equipment was constructed. The developed system is capable of printing up to 0.6 m long
concrete layers. The machine is also able to print concrete at different linear speeds and
deposition rates. The nozzle of the print equipment has a cylindrical shape and the height of
every layer is equal to 1 cm. For the purpose of this study, linear printing speeds of 1 cm/s up
39
to 5 cm/s were selected. The different test specimens were produced with time gaps of either
1, 10 or 30 minutes.
2.3. Mechanical testing

Prism specimens (5x2x2 cm) were saw-cut from a printed element and used for the
mechanical characterization of the cementitious material. To investigate anisotropy, these
specimens were tested in two different loading cases: a) loading is perpendicular to layer-
interface plane and b) loading is parallel to the interface plane.
2.4. Porosity measurements

For printed concrete not only the pores inside the filaments but also the pores resulting
from possible gaps in between two juxta positioned filaments will be taken into account. A
volumetric analysis of the pore structure is obtained by a standardized saturation technique,
using Eq. (1). Within this formula m1 [g] is the dry weight, m2 [g] the weight of the samples
soaked in water, followed by rolling the four sides of the samples on a damp cloth measured
as m3 [g] [2]. These results are combined with MIP analysis and CT scans.
m$ − m& (1)
P= ∙ 100
m$ − m '
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The compressive and tensile strength of the 3D printable mortar was tested up to 28 days
and measured in different directions. These results demonstrate the anisotropic behaviour of
the material and show the influence of the print direction on the mechanical properties.
Regardless the changing print parameters, the highest mechanical strengths are measured in
the printing direction. The anisotropy affecting the hardened properties was supported by the
porosity measurements. Higher speeds will not only induce a higher amount of pores but also
pores with bigger dimensions, having a detrimental effect on the mechanical properties.
4. CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK

The results of this investigation showed that for every changing print parameter, the
mechanical properties were affected by anisotropy in the layered structure. Furthermore, it is
essential to keep the time gaps short to reduce the strength loss and to reduce the printing
speed in order to avoid pores with bigger dimensions. In a further study, to gain much clearer
insight into the microstructure of the printed elements and the effect on durability, more
detailed tests on strength, chloride diffusion and air/water permeability will be performed.
REFERENCES
1. Le, T.T., et al., Mix design and fresh properties for high-performance printing
concrete. Materials and Structures, 2012. 45(8): p. 1221-1232.
2. Shakor, P., et al., Modified 3D printed powder to cement-based material and
mechanical properties of cement scaffold used in 3D printing. Construction and
Building Materials, 2017. 138: p. 398-409.
The authors would like to acknowledge the support by EFRO for this C3PO-project.
40
PROTOTYPE OF A THIN, VAULTED CONCRETE FLOOR USING A

KNITTED STAY-IN-PLACE FORMWORK
M. Popescu*(1), C. Calvo Barentin (1), L. Reiter (2), M. Rippmann (1), T. Van Mele (1),
R. J. Flatt (2) and P. Block (1)
(1) ETH Zürich, Institute of Technology in Architecture, Block Research Group, Zurich,
Switzerland
(2) ETH Zürich, Chair of Physical Chemistry of Building Materials, Institute for Building
Materials, Switzerland
1. INTRODUCTION
Using structural principles and force flow as a driver for design enables the optimisation of
concrete structures, significantly reducing material use. This has been demonstrated with a
lightweight, “unreinforced” floor relying the structural principle of arching action for
compression and being stiffened by ribs, significantly lighter than comparable systems [1].
While these systems are more material efficient, the construction of their intricate geometries
is challenging, especially as bespoke concrete elements built with traditional methods require
single use double-sided moulds. Even if integration of functionality (e.g. insulation) is
conceivable with parts of mould material, the process remains labour intensive and wasteful.
Methods more recently developed and embracing additive manufacturing such as binder
jetting are used for moulds [2] or the structure itself [3], but are generally slow, materials are
generally weak and environmental impact of binders can be high [4]. Stay-in-place
lightweight formwork systems providing the same large design space can offer an alternative.
2. APPROACH AND PHYSICAL PROTOTYPE

The use of fabric as formwork has gained attention in recent years by proving to be a waste
reducing and efficient strategy. Moreover, the use of knit textiles offers the advantage of
lowering the cost of labour and manufacturing for complex parts as they allow for the
minimisation of seams, integration of features such as channels, openings, ribs and tailored
surface textures in a single CNC process. [5]
This paper investigates the feasibility of using a knit stay-in-place formwork for building
bespoke rib-stiffened slab. A rib-stiffened funicular slab prototype will be presented using a
knitted stay-in-place formwork. The formwork is knit as a single layered textile featuring ribs
with integrated channels.
A simple frame allows for the hanging of the textile to take the desired compression form.
Subsequently, it is rigidified using a cement-paste coating and used as formwork for
subsequently pouring the concrete.
41
The prototype is used to assess the feasibility of the building process, the accuracy of the
novel moulding approach, the possibility to create variable thicknesses and surface features
otherwise difficult to manufacture, and the overall quality of the moulding process.
Figure 1. Process steps of previous prototype. Left: tensioned knit textile; Mid: cement paste
coated textile; Right: finalized concrete structure.
References
[1]! Liew A., López López D., Van Mele T. and Block P. Design, “Fabrication and testing of
a prototype, thin-vaulted, unreinforced concrete floor”, Engineering Structures, 137: 323–
335, 2017.
[2]! Ruffray, N., Bernhard, M., Jipa, A., Aghaei-Meibodi, M., Taisne, N. M. d., Stutz, F.,
Wangler, T., Flatt R.J., Dillenburger B., “Complex architectural elements from HPFRC
and 3D printed sandstone.” Paper presented at the RILEM Symposium on Ultra-High
Performance Fibre-Reinforced Concrete, Montpellier, 2017.
[3]! Rippmann M., Liew A. and Block P. Design, fabrication and testing of discrete 3D sand-
printed floor prototypes, Material Today Communications, 2017, in review.
[4]! Wangler T., Lloret E., Reiter L., Hack N., Gramazio F., Kohler M., Bernhard M.,
Dillenburger B., Buchli J., Roussel N., and Flatt R., “Digital Concrete: Opportunities and
Challenges.” RILEM Technical Letters 1: 67–75, 2017
[5]! Popescu M., Rippmann M., Van Mele T. and Block P., “Automated generation of knit
patterns for non-developable surfaces”, Proceedings of the Design Modelling Symposium
2017, 271–284, Paris, 2017.
42
WEAK%BOND%STRENGTH%BETWEEN%SUCCESSIVE%LAYERS%IN%EXTRUSION6BASED%
ADDITIVE%MANUFACTURING:%MEASUREMENT%AND%PHYSICAL%ORIGIN%
!
Emmanuel(Keita,(Hela(Bessaies0Bey,(Wenqiang(Zuo,(Patrick(Belin,(Nicolas(Roussel((
!
Weak! bond! strength! is! often! reported! to! result! from! a! low! level! of! intermixing! between!
successive! layers.! It! is! often! concluded! that! there! seems! to! exist! an! upper! limit! either! on!
structuration!rate!or!on!resting!time!between!layers,!above!which!thixotropy!is!at!the!origin!
of!so=called!“cold!joints”.!!
In! parallel! to! intermixing! issues,! our! results! show! that! the! superficial! drying! of! the! resting!
layer!seems!to!also!contribute!to!weaker!interfaces!bonds.!We!plot!in!the!figure!below!the!
relative!interface!strength!measured!using!a!splitting!test!as!a!function!of! the!resting!time!
between!layers!for!an!interface!protected!from!drying!and!an!interface!exposed!to!drying.!
The! material! is! a! W/C! =! 0.2! thixotropic! mortar,! for! which! the! structuration! rate!!"#$% !was!
measured! to! be! above! 0.4Pa/s.! We! see! that,! even! after! 5! hours! rest! between! layers,! the!
interface!strength!is!still!higher!than!90%!of!the!reference!interface!strength!if!the!material!
is!protected!from!drying.!However,!if!exposed!to!drying,!the!interface!strength!drops!by!50%!
in!a!matter!of!a!couple!tens!of!minutes.!As!printable!materials!are!often!accelerated!in!order!
to! improve! their! ability! to! quickly! build! up! a! structure,! we! can! expect! some! increase! in!
temperature! resulting! from! this! increase! in! chemical! activity.! This! shall,! in! turn,! increase!
drying!
! rate! and! make! these! printable! materials! extremely! sensitive! to! the! external!
environment!(temperature!and!humidity)!or!to!the!so=called!printing!environment.!
43
protected from drying

Rela%ve 140%
interface exposed from drying
strength 120% reference
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
1 10 100 1000
(
Res%ng %me between layers (minutes)
(
Figure(1.(Relative(interface(strength(measured(using(a(splitting(test(as(a(function(of(the(resting(time(
!
between(layers(for(an(interface(protected(from(drying(and(an(interface(exposed(to(drying.
!
44
OPTIMIZING FRESH PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE FOR

EXTRUSION AND 3D PRINTING
A. Perrot (1)*, D. Rangeard (2), S. Amziane (3) and M. Sonebi (4)
(1) Université de Bretagne Sud, Lorient, France

(2) INSA de Rennes, Rennes, France
(3) Institut Pascal, Clermont-Ferrand, France
(4) Queen’s University, Belfast, UK
1. INTRODUCTION
Extrusion 3D printing of concrete is a complex multistep process that needs to be well

described and optimized (Figure 1). The fresh properties of cement-based materials have to be
optimized for both the extrusion and the additive manufacturing 3D printing processes.
Therefore, the materials have to exhibit some specific properties such as stability during
extrusion, shape stability when concrete flows from the orifice extruder, jointing between
layers and quick stiffening in order to sustain the weight of the subsequent layers [1, 2]. Those
specific process properties must be described in terms of intrinsic materials properties such as
permeability, viscosity, yield stress and structural build-up rate in order to capture the
underlying physics. For example, the structural build-up rate will be helpful in order to
minimize the time step between two consecutive superposed placements. This work aims to
describe the link between the intrinsic material characteristics and the extrusion 3D printing
technique in order to optimize the processing method.
Figure 1. 3D Printing by extrusion deposit: A multistep process
45
REFERENCES
[1] Wangler T, Lloret E, Reiter L, et al (2016) Digital Concrete: Opportunities and Challenges.
RILEM Tech. Lett. Vol 1 2016. DO - 1021809rilemtechlett201616
[2] Perrot A, Rangeard D, Pierre A (2015) Structural built-up of cement-based materials used for
3D-printing extrusion techniques. Mater Struct 1–8. doi: 10.1617/s11527-015-0571-0
46
Self-reinforced, strain-hardening cementitious composites for building-scale 3D printing
Daniel G. Soltana, Albert Shihb,c, Greg Keoleiand,e, and Victor C. Lia,e,f

a
Macromolecular Science and Engineering, University of Michigan
b
Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan
c
Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan
d
School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan
e
Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Michigan
f
Materials Science and Engineering, University of Michigan
A design scheme for self-reinforced cementitious composites to be used for building-scale 3D

printing processes is introduced. The design is based on that of engineered cementitious
composites (ECCs), which include a low volume fraction of dispersed, short polymer fibers to
generate robust tensile strain-hardening. The mechanical property profile of these printable ECC
materials is meant to eliminate the need for ancillary steel reinforcement in printed structures,
providing more processing freedom and efficiency in both design and processing for building-
scale 3D printing. Additionally, the tensile strain-hardening behavior and strain capacity allowed
by the ECC design scheme lend a degree of durability and resilience to cementitious
infrastructure unmatched by other forms of concrete, printable or not, contributing to
sustainability. The fresh state rheological properties of the ECCs developed herein have been
systematically manipulated to allow printability. Effects on fresh state workability of several
compositional ingredients and processing parameters are investigated. To maintain consistent
printing performance with a batch mixing approach, thixotropy in the fresh state is exploited to
temporarily decouple hardening behavior from the processing timeline. Minimal workability loss
under continued shear agitation is achieved, suggesting consistent printability over a period of
time. Mechanical properties of the printable materials are characterized, and the printability of
the materials is demonstrated. Implications and potential of a self-reinforced printable
cementitious material, realistic for full-scale construction applications and requiring no ancillary
reinforcement, are explored.
47
PROPERTIES OF 3D PRINTABLE AMBIENT TEMPERATURE CURED

ONE-PART GEOPOLYMER FOR CONSTRUCTION APPLICATIONS
Behzad Nematollahi* (1), Ming Xia (1) and Jay Sanjayan (1)
EXTENDED ABSTRACT
Implementation of additive manufacturing techniques in the construction industry such as
3D concrete printing (3DCP) opens many thresholds into the future of this industry. The 3DCP
process is an additive, layer-by-layer based, manufacturing technique to build complex
geometrical concrete components without the use of expensive formwork, which hugely
enhances geometrical freedom, while drastically reducing construction time.
In the recent years, different techniques have been developed to adopt 3DCP in construction
industry, one of which is extrusion-based 3DCP. This technique is analogous to the fused
deposition modelling (FDM) method which extrudes cementitious material from a nozzle
mounted on a gantry, crane or a robotic arm to print a concrete component layer by layer.
Examples of such technique are Contour Crafting developed by Khoshnevis et al. [1], and
Concrete Printing developed by Le et al. [2].
One of the main limitations of extrusion-based 3DCP is the limited scope of printable
concretes. Conventional concrete in its current form is not suitable for extrusion-based 3DCP.
Setting characteristics of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) limit its use for extrusion-based
3DCP. Therefore, researchers are trialling other types of cementitious materials such as sulphur
aluminate cement [3]. 3D printable high-performance fibre-reinforced cement composite
(HPFRCC) [2] and ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) [4] have also been explored.
Nevertheless, these may not be considered as environmentally friendly printable concretes, as
they both contain a considerable amount of high early strength cement [3,4]. It is well
established that OPC manufacturing is highly energy and emissions intensive. As such, it is
urgently needed to expand the current severely limited range of printable concretes.
To tackle this limitation, the researchers at Swinburne University of Technology, Australia
have been working to develop a novel 3D printable geopolymer for construction applications.
Geopolymer is a sustainable alternative to OPC. It is synthesized by alkali activation of fly ash
and slag, being industrial by-products which are rich in silica and alumina. Previous studies
reported that production of fly ash-based geopolymer has at least 80% less CO2 emissions as
compared to manufacture of OPC [5]. A 3D printable fly ash-based geopolymer has recently
been developed by the authors of this study [6]. However, the use of large quantities of user-
hostile liquid activators and necessity of heat curing are the two main obstacles for
commercialization and widespread application of the developed 3D printable fly ash-based
geopolymer.
This study is aimed to overcome the aforementioned obstacles by developing a 3D printable
ambient temperature cured one-part geopolymer. As can be seen in Figure 1, the developed 3D
printable geopolymer as a ‘dry mix + add water’ uses a small amount of solid activator and
48
eliminates the necessity for heat curing. The effect of several parameters including type and
amount of solid activator, water content and the amount of fly ash replacement by slag on the
workability, density, compressive and flexural strengths of the developed 3D printed
geopolymer were investigated. The results indicated that among those parameters investigated,
the type of solid activator and slag content were the most influential parameters. The optimum
3D printed geopolymer mix made by sodium metasilicate powder with a SiO2/Na2O ratio of 1.0
exhibited density, compressive and flexural strengths of 2100 kg/m3, 35.2 MPa and 7.2 MPa,
respectively.
Figure 1. (a) Schematic process of preparing 3D printable ambient temperature cured one-part
geopolymer; (b) schematic illustration of custom-made extrusion-based 3D concrete printer; (c)
45° nozzle with a 25 mm × 15 mm opening.
REFERENCES
[1]! Khoshnevis, B., et al. (2016). ‘Construction by Contour Crafting using sulphur concrete with
planetary applications’. Rapid Prototyping J, 22(5), 848-856.
[2]! Le, T.T., et al. (2012). ‘Mix design and fresh properties for high-performance printing concrete’.
Mater Struct, 45(8) 1221-1232.
[3]! Lin, X., et al. (2016). ‘Preparation, properties and application of cement-based building 3D printing
materials’. Concrete in Australia, 42(3), 59-67.
[4]! Gosselin, C., et al. (2016). ‘Large-scale 3D printing of ultra-high performance concrete – a new
processing route for architects and builders’. Mater Design, 100, 102-109.
[5]! Duxson, P., et al. (2007). ‘The role of inorganic polymer technology in the development of ‘green
concrete’’. Cem Concr Res, 37(12), 1590-1597.
[6]! Vijay, P., Nematollahi, B., Sanjayan, J., Xia, M., Nerella, V.N. and Mechtcherine, V., ‘Fresh and
hardened properties of extrusion-based 3D printed geopolymer concrete’. To be published in
Proceedings of 1st Asia-Pacific International Conference on Additive Manufacturing
(APICAM2017), Melbourne 2017.
49
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF 3D PRINTING BIO-BASED FIBRE

CEMENT-BASED MATERIALS
M. Sonebi* (1), M. Rubio (1), S. Amziane (2), A. Perrot (3)
(1) Queen’s University Belfast, School of Natural and Built Environment, Belfast, UK
(2) Université Blaise Pascal, Polytech Clermont-Ferrand, Clermont-Ferrand, France
(3) UBS Lorient, Lorient, France
The aim of this paper is to investigate the effect of different mix composition on
mechanical properties of a printable mortar such as silica fume (SF) and dosage of Flax fibres
(FL) as bio-based materials. New simple method of sampling cubes from fresh layers was
proposed and another test method to assess the cold joint between layers of 3D printing was
proposed. The mix compositions and the rheological properties were reported in ref. [1].
Results were reported in this paper and more will be in the full paper.
2. TEST METHODS
For compressive strength, standard cubes of 50 mm were prepared with two layers and
each layer was compacted with 10 strokes. Additionally, new method was proposed to test
3D printing mortar fabricated from extruded layers. Layered cubes are made with non-
compacted layers. For this purpose, 5 to 6 layers are printed with the gun and then are cut
with a cubic mould which is removed one minute after (Fig. 1 (a)) and the surface were caped
in order to tested cubes in perpendicular direction of layers.
Samples are 200 mm long and composed of two layers extruded with the gun were tested with
3 points loading (Fig. 1 (b). New test method was proposed to test the cold joint. The dumb
bell or tensile test consisted to determine the maximum tensile strength (bond between 2
layers). Moulds are filling in two steps, first the layer is extruded into the dumb bell mould.
Then the extremities of the mould are filled with extra mortar without changing the shape
(Fig. 1 (c)).
(a)! (b) (c)
Figure 1. (a) Cubes taken from 3D printed layers for compressive strength, (b) Testing 2
layers in flexural machine, (c) Tensile test of cold joint between 2 layers
3. RESULTS
Fig. 2 present the effect the dosage of flax and SF fume of compressive strength. It can be
seen that compressive strength of 3D printing were reduced approximately by 25 to 30%. The
50
increase in dosage of flax by 3 times didn’t affect the compressive strength. For any give
dosage of flax and superplasticiser, as expected, the addition of silica fume led to an
improvement of compressive strength of standard and 3D printing mortar.
Figure 2. (a) Effect of dosage of flax fibres and SF on compressive strength at 7d
From Fig. 3, it can be noticed that the increase in % of flax fibres caused a decrease in the
flexural strength for one printed layer by 20% and an increase in the direct tensile strength by
28%. An increase the dosage of fibres reduced the workability and might increased entrapped
air, surfaces defects and drainage phenomenon.
Figure 3. (a) Effect of dosage of flax fibres and SF on flexural strength at 7d
4. CONCLUSION
The compressive strength of layered cubes was lower than standard cubes of about 30%.
Indeed, layered cubes were less homogeneous as they weren't compacted compared to normal
ones. Increase too much of flax fibres reduced the flexural tensile, the results showed an
enhancement of tensile strength.
REFERENCES
[1]! Rubio M., Sonebi M., Amziane S. ‘Fresh and rheological properties of 3D printing bio-cement-
based materials’, Proceedings of 2nd ICBBM (PRO 119), Clermont-Ferrand, 2017 491-499.
51
THREE-DIMENSIONAL PRINTING SELF-CLEANING ENGINEERED

CEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITES FOR STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
Yi Bao, Mingfeng Xu, Daniel Soltan, and Victor C. Li*
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States

*corresponding author. Email: vcli@umich.edu
This research aims to develop an effective and efficient method to fabricate multifunctional
structural elements using a self-cleaning engineered cementitious composite (ECC) through
three-dimensional printing (3DP). Nanoparticles of titanium dioxide (nano-TiO2) are
incorporated in an ECC mixture to prepare photocatalytic ECC (PC-ECC) with the self-
cleaning and strain-hardening properties; 3DP is employed to fabricate structural elements
with improved self-cleaning performance and architectural appeal. To this end, 12 slabs
measuring 304.8 mm × 76.2 mm × 12.7 mm (length × width × thickness) are prepared
following three methods. The TiO2 content (mass replacement of binder) in the slabs is fixed
at 1%. The 1st method is to print a thin (~3 mm) filament of PC-ECC and a filament of ECC
through co-extrusion, forming a thin layer of PC-ECC on the surface of ECC. All of the TiO2
is concentrated in the surface layer of PC-ECC. The 2nd method is to add nano-TiO2 particles
to the ECC from an additional material feeding port on the extruder before the ECC is
extruded. When extruded, the nano-TiO2 particles intrude into the surface of the ECC filament
due to the extruding pressure and confinement of the extruder. The 3rd method is to disperse
the nano-TiO2 particles uniformly in the ECC when mixed in a mixer. Once cured, the slabs
are tested and compared in terms of the self-cleaning and mechanical properties. The self-
cleaning property is evaluated by monitoring the abatement of nitrous oxides under ultraviolet
light irradiation of the slab specimens. For each of the three fabrication methods, three slab
specimens are exposed to ultraviolet irradiation, and one slab is free of ultraviolet exposure
for reference. The concentration of nitrous oxides is measured in real time until it becomes
stabilized. Then, all specimens are tested to failure under four-point bending to evaluate their
flexural properties. Finally, economic and environmental analyses are carried out to evaluate
the effects of the self-cleaning 3DP ECC on the capital investment, embodied energy and
carbon footprint. The results show that 3DP is promising to fabricate multifunctional
structural elements with reduced materials cost and impacts to the environment.
2. FIGURE
Figure 1 depicts the specimens fabricated using the aforementioned three methods.
Figure 1. Illustration of the cross sections of specimens fabricated using the three methods.
52
WHY IS ON-SITE MANUFACTURED CONTINUOUS CONCRETE

PIPE AN IDEAL APPLICATION FOR AM TECHNOLOGY?
M. Ehsani
QuakeWrap, Inc., Tucson, AZ, U.S.A.
1. INTRODUCTION
There has been a growing interest in the use of Additive Manufacturing (AM) in concrete
construction in the last decade [1,2]. However, the technology is still in its infancy and many
researchers are placing significant effort on construction of structural elements such as beams,
columns, trusses, etc. The manufacturing of these elements poses major challenges in
placement of reinforcing materials and ensuring that the joints where the elements are
connected do not become the weak links in the system. These obstacles may delay the wide-
spread adoption of AM in construction industry. In contrast, the onsite manufacturing of pipes,
which is being pursued by the author, is a huge market that does not face the challenges cited
above [3,4].
2. PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION
The capital investment needs in construction of new pipelines in the U.S. alone exceed $63
billion [5]. Many pipeline projects worldwide use Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD) for
crossing under freeways, lakes or congested city blocks [6]. Few people realize that the repair
of existing pipes is an industry that requires an investment of an order of magnitude larger than
that for the visible infrastructure, e.g. bridges, buildings, etc. Current technology relies on short
segments of pipe that are built in a plant, shipped to the site and joined to make a long pipeline.
The leaking of the joints and the high cost of transporting large pipe segments from factory to
the jobsite are two major shortcomings that the AM technology shown in Fig. 1 overcomes.
Figure 1. Schematic of on-site manufactured continuous concrete pipe.
53
The process for manufacturing of GreenPipe™ that we are proposing requires boring a
tunnel underground; this is a well-established technology that is used in HDD projects
worldwide. The cementitious mix can be batched on site or at a plant and is delivered to the
site. In the most ideal conditions, it may even be possible to use some of the soil extrcated from
the tunnel in making the concrete mix. A layer of concrete is applied to the surface of the
tunnel. Reinforcing elements in the form of a coiled mesh can be taken inside the tunnel and
upon release, the elastic memory of the reinforcement forces it against the first layer of concrete.
Alternatively, a coil of reinforcing material can be taken into the tunnel and installed.
Additional layer of concrete can be similarly applied. This process is repeated as many times
as needed to build a pipe of desired thickness.
3. ADVANTAGES OF THE TECHNIQUE

The proposed technique offers significant advantages over current practices. The AM pipe
has fewer joints and leaks. It is much safer to build since no open trenches will be cut. The wall
thickness of the pipe can be smaller since the pipe will not undergo significant stresses during
transportation and handling; this results in a lower cost pipe. The above factors, plus elimination
of many trucks transporting the pipe segments from the factory to the jobsite reduce the overall
carbon footprint of the pipe significantly, resulting in a green and sustainable solution. Pipes
have no corners and their reinforcement can be easily installed; the elimination of these two
factors make pipeline construction an ideal application for AM techniques. The immediate
cost-savings recognized by the owners in the construction phase, and the ability to build
pipelines in congested urban areas (using HDD) without disruption of traffic promise this
technology to be readily embraced globally.
The challenges for design of the cementitious mortar and overhead placement of 20-30 mm
thick layers of concrete are relatively easy tasks that need to be addressed. We are currently
seeking funding through various U.S. government agencies to solve these problems. We
welcome collaboration with other academic and commercial entities that are interested in
addressing these concerns.
REFERENCES
[1]! Khoshnevis B. “Automated construction by contour crafting—related robotics and information
technologies,” Automation in Construction, 13(1), pp. 5-19, 2004.
[2]! Lim, S., Buswell, R., Le, T., Wackrow, R., Austin, S., Gibb, A., and Thorpe, T. “Development of a
viable concrete printing process,“ in Proceedings of the 28th International Symposium on
Automation and Robotics in Construction, (ISARC2011), Seoul, South Korea, 29th June-2nd July
2011, pp. 665-670
[3]! Ehsani, M. “How to Manufacture an Endless Pipe Onsite,” Proceedings, ASCE Pipeline
Conference, Baltimore, MD, August 2015.
[4]! Ehsani, M. “Continuous on-site manufactured concrete pipe,” Patent Application # 15730689, U.S.
Patent and Trademark Office, Alexandria, VA, October 2017.
[5]! Kavanaugh, K. “US Pipe Demand to Exceed $63 Billion”, Engineering News Record, August 8,
New York, 2014.
[6]! Carlin, M., S.T., Ariaratnam, B. Ma, and C. Zeng. “Record Setting Yangtze River HDD Crossing
of Three Parallel Pipelines over a Length of Nearly 3,300M”, Proceedings of No-Dig 2014,
Orlando, FL, April 13-17, 2014, Paper TA-T2-01.
54
CONTROLLING THE RHEOLOGY CONCRETE FOR DIGITAL

FABRICATION: SYNERGISTIC EFFECT OF ORGANIC
ADMIXTURES
H. Bessaies-Bey* (1), N. Ducoulombier (2) and N. Roussel (1)
(1) IFSTTAR, Paris, France

(2) ENPC, Paris, France
Concrete for digital fabrication needs to be fluid during mixing and pumping and have
sufficient cohesion upon deposition. To fulfill these rheological requirements, it is necessary
to control the hydration or flocculation of the cement paste. There exist a wide variety of
organic admixtures which allow for the tuning of cement rheological properties in the fresh
state and which could be fundamental ingredient for concrete digital fabrication. Plasticizer
type polymers, for instance, allow for a decrease in yield stress [1] during pumping whereas
when injected just before deposition, flocculants allow for an increase in yield stress [2] of the
casted material. A major source of difficulty in the simultaneous integration of various
admixtures in a cement paste lies in the compatibility between these molecules which could
be at the origin of synergistic effects or inhibit the intended behaviour. The ratio between the
yield stress of the cement paste containing both polymers (during deposition) and the one
containing the superplasticizer alone (during pumping) allows for a quantification of the blend
effectiveness. In this work, we study two blends of superplastcizer and flocculants. Our
results show that it is possible to increase a suspension yield stress by a factor around 50 by
adding a blend of a superplasticizer and flocculant (see figure below). Moroever, we observe
that for two flocculants having almost the same flocculating behaviour when alone in cement
paste, flocculant 1 is by far more effective than flocculant 2 in the presence of the same
superplasticizer. By means of adsorption measurements [3], we show that competitive
adsorption between these two admixtures is at the origin of the observed results. The control
of the cement paste rheology here is owed to a physical process without major impact on
hydration contrary to the incorporation of accelators, C-S-H seeds or complementary rapid
setting binder. These latter additions could be at the origin of an increase in cement
temperature and drying kinetics affecting adhesion between deposited layers [4].
55
The Relative yield stress (i.e. ratio between the yield stress of cement paste containing the
flocculant (alone or with the superplatsiciser) and the reference cement (without flocculant) )
for different polymers blends.
REFERENCES
[1] R.J. Flatt, Chap. 7 - Superplasticizers and the rheology of concrete, in: Underst. Rheol.
Concr., Edited by N. Roussel, Woodhead Publishing, 2012, pp. 144–208.
[2] H. Bessaies-Bey, R. Baumann, M. Schmitz, M. Radler, N. Roussel, Effect of
polyacrylamide on rheology of fresh cement pastes, Cem. Concr. Res. 76 (2015) 98–106.
[3] H. Bessaies-Bey, R. Baumann, M. Schmitz, M. Radler, N. Roussel, Organic admixtures
and cement particles: Competitive adsorption and its macroscopic rheological consequences,
Cem. Concr. Res. 80 (2016)!!
[4] E. Keita, H. Bessaies-Bey, W. Zuo, P. Belin, N. Roussel, Weak bond strength between
successive layers in extrusion-based additive manufacturing: measurement and physical origin
Submitted to Cem. Concr. Res
!
56
DESIGN AND 3D PRINTING OF TWO-PART GEOPOLYMER

MORTAR
M. Hojati (1), A. Radlinska* (1), S. Nazarian (1), J. Duarte (1), A. Memari (1), N.
Meisel(1), and S. Bilén (1)
(1) The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA

3D printing has been considered the drive of a ‘third industrial revolution’ by enabling
production of objects with complex design and geometry, including those within the building
industry. In this context, 3D printing of concrete can have a significant impact on the
construction in terms of time and cost. Studies regarding layer-by-layer printing of cementitious
material have been conducted in recent years [1-4]. An important area of research focus to date
has been adjusting the fresh properties of cementitious material to develop a printable mixture.
Several studies have been conducted in the area of printing of conventional concrete materials,
but less effort has been placed on the printing of cement-free binders, including geopolymers
[5-8]. This study concerns the design and development of a printable geopolymer. The material
considered in this study was alkali-activated metakaolin. To prepare the activator solutions, a
commercially available aqueous sodium silicate was mixed at different proportions with 8
molar sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution. The commercial aqueous sodium silicate consisted
of 18.4% mass Na2O, 28.4% SiO2, and 53.2% H2O, had pH of 13.7 and specific gravity of
1.60 at 20°C. Portland cement was added to the mixture at 1.5wt% to accelerate the chemical
reaction at room temperature. Additionally, a set of 4 heat guns were used during printing to
facilitate the setting time of the material (Figure 1). Printing was conducted using an ABB
IRB6640 robotic arm. A 15×30 cm cylinder and a 10×20×60 cm beam was printed, as shown
in Figure 2. After 48 hours of curing, the maximum compressive load applied to cylinder per
ASTM C39 was about 9317 kgf, while beam hold 1515 kgf flexural load per ASTM C78.
2. FIGURES
Figure 1. Diagram of a 3D printing process of a metakaolin-based geopolymer
57
Figure 2. Examples of cylinders and beams printed with geopolymer
REFERENCES
[1]! Buswell, RA, Soar, RC, Gibb, AG, Thorpe, A, 2006, 'Freeform construction application research,
in: Advances in Engineering Structures’, Mechanics & Construction, pp. 773–780.
[2]! Lipson H, Kurman M, 2013, 'Fabricated: the new world of 3D printing,' John Wiley & Sons.
[3]! Singh R, 2010, 'Three dimensional printing for casting applications: a state of art review and future
perspectives,' Advanced Materials Research, vol. 83, pp. 342–9.
[4]! Lim, S, Le, T, Webster, J, Buswell, R, Austin, A, Gibb, A, 2009, 'Fabricating construction
components using layered manufacturing technology,’ in: Global Innovation in Construction,
Loughborough University, Leicestershire, UK.
[5]! Khoshnevis, B, 2004, 'Automated construction by contour crafting- related robotics and information
technologies,’ Automation in Construction. vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 5–19.
[6]! Feng, P, Meng, X, Chen, J, Ye, L, 2015, 'Mechanical properties of structures 3D printed with
cementitious powders,' Construction and Building Materials, vol. 93, pp. 486–497.
[7]! Nerella, V, Krause, M, Nather, M, Mechtcherine, V, 2016, 'Studying printability of fresh concrete
for formwork free concrete on-site 3D printing technology (CONPrint3D),' in: 25th Conference on
Rheology of Building Materials, Regensburg.
[8]! Wangler, T, Lloret, E, Reiter, L, Hack, N, Gramazio, F, Kohler, M, Flatt, R, (2016), Digital
concrete: opportunities and challenges. RILEM Technical Letters, 1, 67-75.
58
METHOD OF ENHANCING INTERLAYER BOND STRENGTH IN 3D

CONCRETE PRINTING
T. Marchment* (1), J. Sanjayan (2)
Additive manufacturing is predicted to revolutionize the way in which we construct our cities
and structures. These technologies can create a big potential for freeform design whilst also
providing reductions in, cost, materials wastage and workplace injuries [1]. 3D concrete
printing (3DCP) is one technique that is being investigated as it exploits these many benefits.
Although the benefits exist there are many technological issues that have yet to be explored,
particularly that of the bonding strength in extrusion based 3DCP. Extrusion based 3DCP works
on a layer by layer deposition of a stiff cementitious mix, forming a material interface, and
essentially becomes a position of weakness [2]
Therefore in this paper experiments were carried out to analyse and enhance the bond at this
interface. The methodology employed focused on increasing mechanical anchorage of surface
pores at the interface between substrate and secondary layers. A cement paste was applied to
the top of an extruded substrate layer before the secondary layer was deposited 15 minutes
thereafter (Figure 1(a))
Figure 1. (a) Schematic of samples with applied cement paste, (b) 3D printer extruding substrate
layer, (c) The stacked column graph depicts the bonding strength after 7 days curing from direct
tensile test and correlating cement paste used at the interface.
59
The cement paste consisted of Ordinary Portland Cement and water cement ratio of 0.35,
consistent to the extruded layers creating uniformity. Additives to maintain flowability and
prevent setting of this paste were also used, referred to as Mix 1, 2 or 3. The sample was then
tested in direct tension perpendicular to the interface, measuring the bonding strength after 7
days curing, shown in Figure 2 (c).
The scatter of results that is common with direct tensile testing in concrete are hard to
quantify, though do create a trend amongst specimens [3]. It can be seen that the control
specimen with no paste yields the lowest bond strength, while applying a cement paste
increased bonding strength by approximately 60%. Furthermore samples utilising a paste with
an additive achieve more than a 120% higher bonding strength. This bond increase can be
attributed to the maintained workability of the paste after a 15 minute period, allowing a greater
surface area and anchorage into the surface pores [4]. These assumptions are further attained
through porosity and flowability testing at the bonded interface.
REFERENCES
[1]! Wangler, T., et al., ‘Digital Concrete: Opportunities and Challenges’, RILEM Technical Letters,
(2016) 67.
[2]! Nerella, V.N., S. Hempel, and V. Mechtcherine, ‘Micro-And Macroscopic investigations on the
interface between layers of 3d-Printed cementitious elements’, in the proceedings of an
International Conference, Chennai, 2017 (Advances in Construction Materials and System Chennai,
2017).
[3]! Beushausen, H. and M.G. Alexander, ‘Bond strength development between concretes of different
ages’, Magazine of Concrete Research. 60 (1) (2008) 65-74.
[4]! Beushausen, H., ‘The influence of concrete substrate preparation on overlay bond strength’,
Magazine of Concrete Research. 62 (11) (2010) 845-852.
60
SPAGHETTI AND MEATBALL CONCRETE OR THE ART OF

ENGINEERED JAMMING
L. Gebhard (1), R.J. Flatt (1) and N. Roussel (1, 2,*)
(1) ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

(2) IFSTTAR, Paris, France
This project represents a fundamental study of the jamming behavior of fiber reinforced
concrete. Specifically, it examines the question of how aggregates and fibers interact by
studying an inert suspension of limestone filler to which glass beads (“meatballs”) and fibers
(“spaghetti”) are added. A general probabilistic prediction model is shown to describe their
interaction.
The blocking of the flow of concrete between reinforcement bars is generally a
phenomenon one tries to avoid during the production of reinforced concrete elements.
However, for leaky formworks, like the wire mesh produced by the Mesh Mould robot
currently under development at the Institute of Technology in Architecture at ETH Zurich [1],
this phenomenon can be engineered to properly fill such formworks with concrete.
Figure 1. Meatballs and spaghetti. Glass beads with a diameter of 2mm and a smooth surface
on the left and the fibers with a length of 30mm and a diameter of 0.6mm on the right.
In order to analyze the filling behavior, molds with meshes on two sides are filled with the
model material consisting of limestone filler, glass beads and in a later stage fibers. The
“meatballs and spaghetti” ingredients are depicted in Figure 1. The glass beads diameter is
smaller than the mesh opening and the fiber length exceeds the opening. The volume
concentration of the glass beads varies between 20 and 50 vol% and the fiber content is below
1.6 vol%. The amount of material that flowed out is measured and the resulting residue inside
the mold is calculated.
61
For the prediction of blocking behavior of solely glass beads in different suspensions a
probabilistic model has previously been developed by Roussel et al. [2]. Based on that wok,
we show that the jamming enhancement of glass beads suspended in a limestone paste can be
predicted.
In a second step, fibers are added in order to increase the blocking further. It is shown that this
addition has a positive effect on the residue. This result can be explained by adding a
probabilistic approach to the previous model. For this, we assume that the fibers solely have
an influence on the mesh opening and that the lost material is the result of fibers being carried
to the mesh openings, reducing their size and eventually leading to full blockage.
Knowing the geometry of the fibers and their concentration, the amount of material necessary
to carry the fibers to the openings can be computed. By adding the overall amount of material
needed to block all the necessary holes, the expected residue can be calculated.
At a final step the resulting model is applied to the filling of an inclined form with concrete
containing fibers. The predicted residue and the measured residue are consistent at first order.
Since the model introduced in this project, as well as the previously developed model, rely
mainly on the given geometries, it is expected that our result is scalable.
REFERENCES
[1]! Hack, N., Wangler, T., Mata-Falcón, J., Dörfler, K., Kumar, N., Walzer, A.N., Graser, K., Reiter,
L., Richner, H., Buchli, J., Kaufmann, W., Flatt, R.J., Gramazio, F., Kohler, M., ‘Mesh Mould:
An on site, robotically fabricated, functional formwork’, Conference Paper (2017).
[2]! Roussel, N., Nguyen, T.L.H., Coussot P., ‘General Probabilistic Approach to the Filtration
Process’, Phys. Rev. Lett. 98 (2007) 114502.
62
ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN CUSTOMIZATION OF UHPFRC

FAÇADE COMPONENTS
J. Principe* (1) L. Ambrosini (1) Raphaël Fabbri (2) and M. F. Leone (1)
(1) Architecture Department DiARC, University Federico II, Naples, Italy

(2) MASSE « DETAIL STRUCTURE FACADE », Paris, France
ENSAPB (Ecole Nationale Supérieure d’Architecture de Paris-Belleville), Paris, France
The latest technological advantages of the Italian market have led to an improvement in the
design and production methods, both in terms of new instruments and digital know how.
Using digital platforms that are able to manage complex realities and systems, the research of
the productive material dimension is moving to a more virtual one in which the integration of
different knowledges enable the metadesign phase to become the “ideal space” in which it is
possible to experiment a creative use of “data” [1]. However, an artisan component, which has
always been a distinctive feature of the Made in Italy brand, is still evident [2]. Becoming
“digital”, the Italian craftsmanship background finds non-conventional applications in the area
of innovative materials like Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete, still in need
of experts able to manage and mediate the relation between design and production phases, as
well as the realization of complex manufactured objects, such as molds and full-size mock-
ups used for structural and performance evaluations. Moreover, in the last few years, the
Italian market has seen an important rise in investments in building requalification, partly due
to tax deductions provided for interventions focused on improving buildings energy
performances (2017 Budget Law). Such interventions are compatible with UHPFRC
applications for re-cladding or sunscreen elements, which have an added value compared with
existing systems in terms of durability, aesthetic quality, lightness, environmental and
structural performances.
During the international workshop of technological design with UHPFRC organized by
Naples Architecture Department (University Federico II - DiARC) and School of Architecture
Paris-Belleville (ENSA-PB), the experience gained pointed out the importance of introducing
UHPFRC environmental design input parameters, besides structural and productive ones.
UHPFRC characteristics are integrated in a form-finding process able to individuate an
organic form which can satisfy the end-users requirements coherently with the environmental
specification of the installation site. The materic and environmental aspects are analysed using
the same digital development setting, formed by McNeel Rhinoceros software and by its
plugin Grasshopper a visual programming language (VPL) platform [3].
The example below shows an algorithm that optimizes the openings of a UHPFRC façade
element according to the incidence of solar radiation [4] [5], also taking into account the
structural and productive constraints of the material with the objective of using the minimum
number of molds. The digital ecosystem allows to manage the optimization process of the
form and of the final design results through an algorithmic and computational approach. A
design operative methodology whose generative codes and informatic programming
languages are blended in the creative act which precedes production and fabrication [6].
63
Figure 1. Images from G. Nocerino’s master thesis. a: Openings optimization according to

solar radiation; b: Grasshopper definition (algorithm); c: Façade element example
REFERENCES
[1]! Mayer-Schönberger, V. and Cukier, K., 'Big data: a revolution that will transform how we live,
work, and think', (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Boston, 2013).
[2]! Micelli, S., 'Fare è innovare', (Il Mulino, Bologna, 2016).
[3]! Pugnale, A., '(Digital) Form-finding', in A. Tedeschi 'Algorithms-Aided Design. Parametric
strategies using Grasshopper', (Le Penseur, Potenza, 2014) pp. 353-359.
[4]! Roudsari, M.S., Pak, M. and Smith, A.+ Gordon Architecture Chicago 'Ladybug: a parametric
environmental plugin for Grasshopper to help designers create an environmentally-conscious
design', Proceedings of the 13th Conference of International Building Performance Simulation
Association, Chambéry, August 2013 (INES - CEA, University of Savoie, CNRS and CSTB - and
INSA Lyon) pp. 3128-3135
[5]! Anderson, K., 'Design energy simulation for architects', (Routledge, New York, 2014).
[6]! Menges, A. and Ahlquist S., 'Computational Design Thinking. AD Reader', (John Wiley and Sons
Inc., Hoboken, 2011).
64
MIXTURE DESIGN OF 3D PRINTABLE CONCRETE WITH

DIFFERENT BINDERS
A. V. Rahul*, Manu Santhanam, Lokesh Kumar and Hitesh Meena
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India

3D printing process is an additive manufacturing technique in which a structure is cast
layer by layer based on a predefined CAD model. The control of rheology is essential to
obtain a printable mixture, and this necessitates a systematic mixture design and production
process. This paper presents the results of experimental investigations for evaluating the effect
of binder type on the 3D printability of mixtures.
For the mixture design, a continuous packing model was used to achieve the best packing
density among the granular constituents. The superplasticizer dosage was then determined
based on the trails conducted on a laboratory scale prototype 3D printer, shown in Figure 1.
Two parameters (extrudability and shape stability) were used for evaluating the
superplasticizer dosage. The minimum flow value as obtained in the flow table test, for which
the mixture was extrudable though the nozzle of the printer was defined as the extrudability
limit. For each mixture, the superplasticizer dosage was increased until the extrudability limit
was reached. The ability to retain shape due to its own weight, as well as the weight of the
layers cast above it, is called shape stability. To assess the shape stability, photographs of the
bottom-most layer were taken, before and after the second and subsequent layers were cast
above it. Then, using image analysis software, the level difference due to compression of the
bottom most layer was determined. The amount of superplasticizer dosage was decreased
until there was zero compression in the bottom-most layer as subsequent layers were cast
above it. Finally, the workability retention was determined by conducting the flow table test at
different time intervals. The period for which the flow value remained above the extrudability
limit was considered as the workability retention period.
From the evaluation of different mixtures, it was found that the inclusion of silica fume
provided good cohesion and shape stability. But in such mixtures, a relatively high
superplasticizer dosage was required for achieving the minimum flow required for
extrudability. On the other hand, the inclusion of fly ash increased the flowability, but the
mixtures with fly ash had shape retention only at a relatively low superplasticizer dosage.
65
2. FIGURE
Figure 1. Casting of a square element using the laboratory scale prototype 3D printer
REFERENCES
[1]! Lim, S., Buswell, R.A., Le, T.T., Austin, S.A., Gibb, A.G. and Thorpe, T., 2012. Developments in
construction-scale additive manufacturing processes. Automation in construction, 21, pp.262-268.
[2]! Le, T.T., Austin, S.A., Lim, S., Buswell, R.A., Gibb, A.G. and Thorpe, T., 2012. Mix design and
fresh properties for high-performance printing concrete. Materials and structures, 45(8), pp.1221-
1232.
[3]! Nerella, V.N., Krause, M., Näther, M. and Mechtcherine, V., 2016, June. Studying printability of
fresh concrete for formwork free Concrete on-site 3D Printing technology (CONPrint3D). In
RheologischeMessungenanBaustoffen 2016: Tagungsbandzum 25. Workshop und Kolloquium, 2.
und 3. Märzan der OTH Regensburg. tredition.
[4]! Kazemian, A., Yuan, X., Cochran, E. and Khoshnevis, B., 2017. Cementitious materials for
construction-scale 3D printing: Laboratory testing of fresh printing mixture. Construction and
Building Materials, 145, pp.639-647.
!
66
FRESH AND RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF 3D PRINTING BASED

CEMENT MATERIALS USING NATURAL FIBRES
M. Bohuchval (1), M. Sonebi* (1), S. Amziane (2), A. Perrot (3)
(1) Queen’s University Belfast, School of Natural and Built Environment, Belfast, UK
(2) Université Blaise Pascal, Polytech Clermont-Ferrand, Clermont-Ferrand, France
(3) Université Bretagne du Sud, France
The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of different mix composition on fresh and
rheological properties of printable mortar. Different binders were tested such as limestone
filler (LS), and fly ash (FA). The water/binder ratio of 0.50 was used. Then, superplasticizer
(SP) and natural flax fibres (FL) were used in the investigation at different percentage.
Adding flax fibres led to a greater yield stress, higher cohesiveness of the mix. Increase SP
led to an increase in slump flow and penetration values which can affect the stability of the
shape of printed layers. More results will be presented in full paper.
2. TEST METHODS
In order to describe the fresh and rheological properties, a penetrometer, the cylindrical slump
test and slump flow table have been employed (Fig. 1). The slump cone were of 100 x 70x 60
mm was used with jolting table. After filling with mortar in two layers, the cone was gently
lifted 15 times and the spread is measured. The extruded layers were done by using pressure
gun.
Figure 1. (a) Penetrometer test, (b) Flow table, (c) Cylindrical slump test
3. RESULTS
It has been noticed that the substitution of cement by LS, at same SP dosage, led to an
increase in flow table spread and the penetration values. The estimated yield stress was also
reduced from 1718 to 1243 Pa (Fig. 2).
67
Figure 2. Effect of limestone powder (LS) on the slump flow, penetration and yield
stress
In this case of replacement of cement by FA, Two compositions of mortars were analysed to
evaluate FA impact on fresh and rheological properties: the first one corresponded to the
reference (100% of binder was cement) and the second binder was made of 24% of FA and
76% of cement. Fig. 3 indicated a reduction in the flow table spread when FA is used from
and an increase in the estimated yield stress (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Influence of combination of FA on flow table spread and estimated yield stress
As expected, the flow table spread, penetration increased when SP is increased and
conversely, the estimated yield stress is reduced (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4 - Effect of SP on the slump flow, penetration
4. CONCLUSION
The variables mix composition such as the dosage of flax fibres, limestone powder, FA and
dosage of SP affected significantly the workability, the rheological properties, the penetration
and the extrudability of 3D printing mortar. It also demonstrated more stable structure of
layers which allowed to not collapse under layer own weight and other successive layers.
With the incorporation of fibres the time gap is reduced. Furthermore, positive effect of fibres
can be reversed when the dosage in fibres is too high (difficulties to extrude and drainage
phenomenon which led to a stiffening of the mix).
REFERENCES
[1]! Rubio M., Sonebi M., Amziane S. ‘Fresh and rheological properties of 3D printing bio-cement-
based materials’, Proceedings of 2nd ICBBM (PRO 119), 2017, 491-499.
[2]! Rubio M., Sonebi M., Amziane S. ‘3D printing of fibre cement-based materials: fresh and
rheological performances’, Proceedings of 2nd ICBBM (PRO 119), 2017, 284-291.
68
PARAMETRIC BIM-DESIGN OF PRINTED CONCRETE WALLS

R. García-Alvarado* (1), A. Salinas-Arriagada (2) and A. Martínez-Rocamora (3)
(1) Department of Architecture, University of Bío-Bío, Concepción, Chile

(2) DGNL Studio, Concepción, Chile
(3) Department of Construction Sciences, University of Bío-Bío, Concepción, Chile
*corresponding author. e-mail: rgarcia@ubiobio.cl, tel.: +56 413111375
1. INTRODUCTION
Printed construction is a novel technology in the building industry that is becoming a
research field of great interest in the latest years. The evolution of the machinery for these
purposes has triggered the appearance of diverse research initiatives focused on finding the
appropriate method for the elaboration and deposition of printable materials in order to build at
human scale [1]. However, little attention has been paid to a long-term vision. Once the
appropriate materials and systems have been developed, will it be more profitable to use this
technology than traditional methods? What design alternatives can be done? How to evaluate
building alternatives? This work sets a strategy to generate and to asses design possibilities to
print concrete walls through BIM-based parametric programming.
2. BUILDING FRAMEWORK
The building framework, understood as the maximum printable volume of the construction,
depends on three main aspects aside from the characteristics of the deposition procedure and
material. These are the speed of deposition, translation and rotation of the nozzle (controlled by
a robotic arm or rails), the maximum length and height of movement of the machinery, and the
size of the system’s storage capacity for printing material [2].
The working volume for a single system would be a rectangular polyhedron in rail-based
systems, and a complex spheroid when working with a robotic arm. In both cases, usually a
buffer space must be regarded (for connection or finishing). Besides, the machine volume must
be taken into account, and therefore its location and a transport space become part of the
equation, although some temporary arrangements can be used for its movement.
Given this approach, an architectural shape, in particular those components to be executed
using the printing system, must be divided in several working volumes (without buffer spaces),
with free space for the same amount of machine volumes (with buffer spaces) and the
corresponding trajectory. Through BIM-based parametric programming, the positioning
sequence can be defined according to distances and/or time of execution, as well as the
distribution of working volumes and machine trajectory. Diverse alternatives for printing a same
basic architectural form can also be assessed.
3. PARAMETRIC BIM-BASED DESIGN

BIM-based platforms allow to implement parametric programming of architectural
components, both through programming languages and visual programming environments. For
example, a sequence of curved walls can be programmed and they will become visible in the
69
BIM platform. Therefore, if this programming is linked to the features of a printing machine
(whether a rail-based or robotic arm system), design alternatives for a same architectural form
can be generated, for example to solve a same rectangle of walls (see Figure 1).
The execution of walls with curves also allows a structural optimization [3] in order to reduce
their width (and amount of material) while getting similar stability than a linear wall, although
with more length and time of production. This particular design programming is planned for a
robotic arm and/or gantry system with a working volume of 6 m length, 2 m width, and 3 m
height in order to do self-supported walls with three-axis translation. The design also allows
horizontal displacement with orthogonal or curved trajectories. For this assessment in a BIM-
platform, a reduction of 1 cm. of width by .01 of curvature (proportion between lateral
displacement to length) with a limit of .3 and height range has been considered (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Study of possible variations of printed walls with curved structural optimisation
generated through programming with Dynamo in Revit to solve a rectangular arrangement.
4. RESULTS
This procedure allows, given a defined shape for a space, to assess different solutions joining
its vertices with linear or curved walls through parametric BIM-based design. By establishing
a defined ratio for the relation between a wall’s width and its lateral stability and the time for
repositioning a printed construction system, these solutions can be compared in terms of the
volume of material and the time necessary to build them through schedule and phasing
procedures in BIM platforms, thereby allowing to find the appropriate printing path to solve a
defined arrangement.
REFERENCES
[1]! Bos, F., Wolfs, R., Ahmed, Z. and Salet, T., ‘Additive manufacturing of concrete in construction:
potentials and challenges of 3D concrete printing’, Virtual Phys Prototyp 11 (3) (2016) 209-225.
[2]! Hager, I., Golonka, A. and Putanowicz, R., ‘3D printing of buildings and building components as
the future of sustainable construction?’, Procedia Eng, 151 (2016) 292–299.
[3]! Bendsøe, M. P. and Sigmund, O., ' Topology Optimization. Theory, Methods and Applications ',
2nd Edn (Springer Verlag, Berlin, 2003).
70
A FLUENT METHOD FOR THE REAL-TIME ROBOTIC DEPOSITION

OF COMPLEX CONCRETE FORMWORK
Maryam Houda (1) and Dr Dagmar Reinhardt (2)
(1) The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia

(2) The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
This research presents a novel system for the rapid deployment of complex concrete formwork,
using two-part expanded polyurethane foam (PU foam) a cheap, lightweight and highly
expandable material to achieve bespoke continuous concrete geometries. The proposed project
‘Foamwork’ involves the robotic deposition of a 3-dimensional additive weaving technique,
interweaving as a continuous loop into an intended geometry, defining the form as well as being
permanent formwork to minimise concrete volume, provide thermal insulation and significantly
relieving hypostatic pressure. Decades of conventional material application of concrete has
been shaped by traditional formwork systems, casting repeated, linear elements despite the fact
that the fluidity of concrete can take any form and has the ability to constantly develop and
adapt with technological advancements1. This research identifies this issue as the constraint to
the fabrication of complex concrete geometries due to preference of standardised stock for
concrete formwork and the reliance of the drawing as a failing translation of bespoke designs,
unable to notate non-standard complex geometries.
Although prior art exists around the robotic deposition of PU foam, the approach and technique
proposed in Foamwork is novel in its application. Unlike the method used in Print-in-place
(PiP), a layer-by-layer deposition of PU foam parallel to Contour Crafting2, the result is a mould
with significant amount of concrete infill and a separate system of linear metal rebars inserted
during the deposition stage3. Rather than two systems of structural support, Foamwork uses the
one technique of the lopped weave to simultaneously reinforce as well as define concrete forms
using one material. The novel technique proposed in this research is beneficial than the prior
art as concrete is poured and deposited within pockets of densely woven formwork as opposed
to a thick, homogenous pour in PiP, reducing material use and cost while still capable of
fabricating complex geometries. Research in robotic deposition of PU foam is also evident in
Closeness4, although the project is less concerned with precise material fabrication but rather
interested in sensor precision using real-time feedback loops, autonomously self-correcting and
self-stabilising4. Other primitive prior art studies include TLP Creative Design Studio, testing
PU foam’s volatility due to its expanding and fluctuating deposition stages, as a case study
for a larger project of swarm based robotics in architecture5.
This research focuses on presenting a material approach that aims to deposit continuous, non-
linear, complex formwork with PU foam, a volatile material that expands rapidly upon
application, has low material handling and is recyclable. The material is able to expand three
times its initial volume and begins to cure in 30 seconds. The project aims to exploit the high
expansion rate of PU foam to make use of the expanding print space area to achieve long
spanning architectural geometries rather than elements that require a part-to-part assembly as
seen in Mesh Mould6, Fabric Forms7 and FreeFAB8. Although these projects extend the
71
boundary around current conventional formwork methods for concrete, the pre-fabricated
modular geometry is limited to constraints of flat-packed transportation/manual assembly to
ease the challenge involved in assembling complex forms on-site9.
A specific rule set for the weaving technique is developed and applied to global geometries
modelled in Grasshopper10.Vertical contours of the intended geometry are extracted from the
exterior surfaces and the looped weave is applied to each individual set of contours for the
deposition of PU foam formwork:
1.! Each set of contours are divided into 4 cross sections, for the interpolating of two curves
through the endpoints of each section to form a weave, for a denser network of formwork
for the pocketing of concrete.
2.! No toolpath curves are to intersect and offset from each other at x mm, the expanded
thickness of PU Foam, a variable dependent on deposition speed. Weaves are adjacent to
each other, but never collide preventing deformation in the woven pattern and geometry.
3.! Vertical ascension of each layer-by-layer deposition of PU foam is contoured at y mm,
shorter than x mm, due to downward gravity.
Figure 1: Digital to Fabrication Workflow.
For the real time deposition of the proposed formwork system, a Kuka KR6-10 R1100 robotic
arm is equipped with a custom-made end-effector, where a pneumatic actuator allows for
continuous deposition of PU foam, enabling accuracy and precision as opposed to manual
deposition. Travel paths are generated in Kuka PRC11 to automate PU foam deposition at a
specific speed, controlling expansion rate for iterative prototyping and analysis. The research
intends to retain traditional concrete application and consists of a low water-cement ratio of
0.4:1 to achieve optimal strength in the post curing state12. A compression and pull and tear test
is conducted after 28 days to determine the success of the system and post processing will
include an application of shotcrete to smoothen for a high quality finish.
This research aims to achieve a customised, non-sacrificial, looped weaving technique,

structurally more effective than traditional concrete formwork systems that function as a
separate component to the geometry. ‘Foamwork’ aims to resolve hypostatic pressure in vertical
concrete application. By implementing the weave that starts as the intended geometry and
continues as an internal looping formwork, it becomes self-supportive and proposes to reduce
concrete-to-formwork ratio to minimise hypostatic pressure, removing the need for falsework.
By challenging standard concrete production via a digital workflow coupled with robotic
deposition of a novel material system, the prospects of this research seeks to extend digital
design to digital fabrication to physically realise non-standard concrete geometries.
72
REFERENCES
[1]! Forty, A., 'Concrete and Culture: A Material History', (Reaktion, London, 2012).
[2]! Castaneda, E. et al., 'Free-form architectural envelopes: Digital processes opportunities of industrial
production at a reasonable price', Journal of Façade Design and Engineering. 3 (1) (2015): 1-13.
[3]! Keating, S.J. Leland, J.C. Cai, L. and Oxman, N., 'Toward Site-Specific and Self-Sufficient Robotic
Fabrication on Architectural Scales', Science Robotics. 2 (5) (26 April 2017).
[4]! Snooks, R. and Jahn, G., 'Closeness: On the relationship of Multi-agent Algorithms and Robotic
Fabrication', in 'Robotic Fabrication in Architecture, Art and Design 2016', Proceedings of an
International Conference, Sydney, March, 2016. (Springer, Cham, 2016) 219-229.
[5]! Petrov, T., '2 Large Robot Arm Deposit', https://vimeo.com/211695568 (TLP Creative Design
Studio) [Accessed 19 August 2017]
[6]! Norman, H. Lauer, W. Gramazio, F. and Kohler, M., 'Mesh Mould: Robotically Fabricated Metal
Meshes as Concrete Formwork and Reinforcement', in '11th International Symposium on
Ferrocement and 3rd ICTRC International Conference on Textile Reinforced
Concrete', Proceedings of an International Conference, Aachen, June, 2015 (RILEM Publications
SARL, 2015) 347-359.
[7]! Culver, R. Koerner, J. and Sarafian, J., 'Fabric Forms, The Robotic Positioning of Fabric
Formwork', in 'Robotic Fabrication in Architecture, Art and Design 2016', Proceedings of an
International Conference, Sydney, March, 2016. (Springer, Cham, 2016) 106-121.
[8]! Gardiner, J.B. Janssen, S. and Kirchner, N., 'A Realisation of a Construction Scale Robotic System
for 3D Printing of Complex Formwork', in '33rd International Symposium on Automation and
Robotics in Construction', Proceedings of an International Conference, Auburn, July, 2016
(Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, 2016) 515-521.
[9]! Gibb, A., 'Off-site Fabrication: Prefabrication, Pre-assembly and Modularisation', (John Wiley &
Sons, Indiana, 1999).
[10]!Rutten, D., 'Grasshopper' http://www.grasshopper3d.com (2017)
[11]!Brell-Cokcan, S. Johannes Braumann., 'KUKA PRC', http://www.robotsinarchitecture.org/kuka-

prc. (2010)
[12]!Chalisgaonkar, R., 'Computer Aided Concrete Mix Design', (Allied Publishers PVT Limited, New
Delhi, 2003).
73
A 3D PRINTING CEMENT MORTAR FOR POWDER-BED (D-SHAPE)

MACHINE
L. Prasittisopin* (1), K. Pongpaisanseree (1), C. Snguanyat (1), and E. Dini (2)
(1) Siam Research and Innovation Company, SCG – Cement and Building Material, Thailand
(2) Dini Engineering, Pisa, Italy
Research and development on a large-scale 3D printing technology has been widely

investigated within a few decades. One of the promising large-scale 3D printing technologies
with powder-bed system is a D-shape technology. The D-shape machine is successfully
developed with the printing volume as large as 2.5 x 4.8 x 0.9 m and has been commercialized
to many countries. The ink or material used for the machine in a traditional way is
magnesium-based material. This is because at the early stage of machine development, Dini
Engineering is unable to develop proper portland cement formula for sufficient strength.
However, the magnesium-based materials are more promising to achieve sufficient strength as
high as 15 MPa. However, regarding their nature of chemical reactions, when the
magnesium-based materials react with water and this can result in a high volume expansion.
These materials are not exposable to water or any high moisture environment. Therefore, the
materials are not suitable for using in an outdoor purpose. To mitigate this issue, this work aims
to present a development of a new 3D printing portland cement mortar for the D-shape machine.
The study program begins from determining a theoretical knowledge in cement and aggregate
technologies towards laboratory testing, and application testing. Results indicate that the
cement mortar developed in this work can be well printed with the D-shape machine and has a
high compressive strength in 7 days for more than 15 MPa without curing. The cement mortar
can be used for structural purposes and can be also exposed under high moisture condition. The
advanced development in 3D printing cement mortar in this work offers an alternative solution
to the use of traditional material.
Keyword: Cement mortar; 3D printing; Powder-bed, Performance characteristics
74
BOND STRENGTH MEASUREMENT IN ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

OF GEOPOLYMER MORTAR
Biranchi Panda* (1), Ming Jen Tan (1)
(1) Singapore Centre for 3D Printing, School of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering
Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798
1. INTRODUCTION
Interlayer bond strength can be a critical issue in additive manufacturing of concrete where
wet concrete (usually mortar) is deposited in layer-by-layer manner as described in the digital
model. Literature reveals [1], thixotropic behaviour is necessary for such applications where
previously deposited material must recover its original viscosity prior to deposition of
subsequent layers. In this regard, increase in structural build up at rest of printable material
can result in lift lines and loss in interlayer bond strength. Delay in the printing time can further
reduce bond strength.
The aim of our current study is to investigate the effect of structural build up at rest and
printing time gap on the tensile bond strength of 3D printed geopolymer mortar. A novel
geopolymer mortar was developed and printed using 4-Axis gantry system with different
printing time gap intervals such as 1, 5,10, 20, 30 mins at constant pump flow and printing
speed. Structural build up at rest was measured by calculating Athix according to [2],
Athix = τ0i + Athix. trest (1)
where trest is the resting time in minutes, τ0i is the yield stress just after mixing, in Pa, and
Athix is the structural build up rate, in Pa/minute. As a result, the resting time of the material
must always be considered when measuring its yield stress.

Class F grade fly ash (FA) was used in this research with blast furnace slag (GGBS) and
micro silica fume (SF) as principal binder for geopolymer formulation. Liquid potassium
silicate with molar ratio 2.0 was then added in to above FA-GGBS-SF dry mix and mixed
slowly for few minutes. In order to, make geopolymer mortar, we used fine river sand (max.
particle size less than 2 mm) as aggregates according to mix design shown in Table 1. At the
end, slight addition of water and thixotropic filler were allowed for printability of the mix and
mixed homogenously for 30 seconds with high speed shear mixer.
Table 1: Mix design (by wt. percentage) of printable geopolymer mortar
Fly ash Slag Silica Sand Additives Potassium Water

(FA) (GGBS) Fume (SF) Silicate
22.20 4.40 4.40 52.88 0.44 11.11 4.44
75
Fresh geopolymer mortar was directly transferred to a screw pump that is connected to 4-
Axis gantry system (concrete printer). Two layers were printed with five different printing time
gaps and three Athix values for the evaluation of bond strength after 28 days of ambient curing
process.
3. RESULTS AND CONCLUDING REMARKS

Figure 1 shows the bond strength variation with respect to different printing time gap
intervals. It is clear that, with increase in time gap, bond strength decreases and it’s probably
due to loss of moisture on the contact surface as described in [3]. Depending on the material
structural built up rate, the contact surface loses the moisture content and as a result, bond
strength further goes down causing weaker interfacial joint.
Figure 1. Effect of time gap on bond strength for Athix = 0.5
Good bond is a key factor for providing monolithic action in additive manufacturing of
concrete. Therefore, in this research, we attempted to investigate the bond strength by varying
time gap and built up rate. Three different built up rates with five-time gap intervals will be
studied and a statistical relationship will also be established for bond strength prediction.
REFERENCES
[1]! Panda, Biranchi, Suvash Chandra Paul, Lim Jian Hui, Yi Wei Daniel Tay, and Ming Jen Tan.
"Additive manufacturing of geopolymer for sustainable built environment." Journal of Cleaner
Production 167 (2017) 281-288.
[2]! Roussel, Nicolas. "A thixotropy model for fresh fluid concretes: theory, validation and
applications." Cement and Concrete Research 36(10) (2006)1797-1806.
[3]! Le, Thanh T., Simon A. Austin, Sungwoo Lim, Richard A. Buswell, R. Law, Alistair GF Gibb, and
Tony Thorpe. "Hardened properties of high-performance printing concrete." Cement and Concrete
Research 42(3) (2012)558-566.
76
CONCRETE FORM[ING]WORK: DIGITAL PATTERNING AND

SIMULATION OF FABRIC FORMWORK
A. L. Scherer (1)
(1) KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
1. INTRODUCTION
Concrete Form[ing]work explores the simulation and fabrication of programmable textile

patterns to formally differentiate fabric formwork for concrete elements. This research builds
upon computationally designed folding patterns to program double curvature from flat sheet
material. These parametric patterning techniques are abstracted and applied to fabric in the
form of smocking, a method of gathering fabric to manipulate elasticity. Smocking, a sewing
technique used since the middle ages, can be accurately designed and simulated in order to
open new possibilities of using formwork for bespoke concrete moulds.
1.1 BACKGROUND
Traditionally, in the realm of computational design and digital fabrication, the final form is
envisioned, and then a material is chosen to best suit its construction needs. Concrete has been
used for decades in conventional construction projects, often with laborious and costly
formwork. With the rise of computational design and bespoke architectural elements,
architects, engineers, and designers have begun to rethink these conventional practices and
work with flexible formwork in order to use the rheology and hydrostatic forces of concrete as
design drivers, rather than constraining the material’s inherent qualities. Notable projects by
Mark West and Alan Chandler explore concrete’s materiality with fabric formwork [1] [2].
Despite this research, there exists a relatively unexplored territory of more complex tailoring
of fabric for cast architectural elements. Reflecting on Arthur Mamou-Mani’s Magic Garden
project for Karen Millen, the technique of smocking has great potential to be utilized to
precisely tailor expressive geometries and complex curvature and use fabrication to inform
design. By specifying tucks in a fabric pattern, smocking can articulate both surficial
aesthetics and global form of the final cast geometry. Concrete Form[ing]work adds a level of
complexity to flexible formwork, merging smocking and simulation with established flexible
formwork techniques of West and Chandler.
1.2 METHOD AND EXPERIMENT
When working with smocked fabric and concrete, it is crucial to visualize more intricate
tucking and pinching patterns, and understand the stretch of the fabric in response to the
rheology and weight of the material. These tools can be used to accurately predict the final
cast form and also as evaluation criteria for accuracy and reliability of duplication. Material
testing and probes must be developed simultaneously with digital models. Data from physical
77
testing is used to inform the digital tools and in turn, the digital models help develop an
understanding of material behaviors and structures not achievable by prototypes [3]. Even
after fabrication is complete, reflection on the validity and precision of the digital model is
critical. The simulation tools developed for this research project allow the ability to:
•! Visualize complex smocking patterns

•! Inform size and shape of the fabric to be used to achieve a specific pattern
•! Visualize stretch variation between knit and woven fabrics
•! Visualize hydrostatic pressure and weight of the concrete
•! Serve as evaluation between simulation and cast element
1.3 CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER RESEARCH
Through these design explorations and considerations, Concrete Form[ing] work aims to
evaluate existing casting techniques and re-envision these in the context of smocking. This
technique offers more complex differentiation of both local and global aesthetics and
geometry. One can extrapolate that these patterning techniques can be linked in the future to
CNC-knitted production in order to apply these techniques to large-scale fabrication.
Contextualizing this fabrication method in an industrial setting further addresses issues of
repeatability, scale, and economy. The simultaneous development of digital and physical
models adds tools designers to broaden their material understanding and design, and face the
challenges of innovation in non-planar formwork. The coupling of smocking, materially-
driven formwork, and simulation exposes myriad possibilities for informing design, where
architectural tectonics become a reflection of the link between material, form, and design.
2. FIGURE
Figure 1. Smocked fabric and comparison of cast column with simulation
78
REFERENCES
[1]! West, M. “The Fabric Formwork Book.” Routledge: London, 2017.
[2]! Chandler, A. & Pedreschi, R. Fabric Formwork. London: Riba Publishing, 2007.
[3]! Manelius, A.M. “Fabric Formwork: Investigations into Formwork Tectonics and Stereogeneity in
Architectural Constructions.” Danish Royal Academy. CINARK, 2012.
79
COMPLIANCE, STRESS-BASED AND MULTI-PHYSICS TOPOLOGY

OPTIMIZATION FOR 3D PRINTED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
G. Vantyghem* (1), V. Boel (1), W. De Corte (1) and M. Steeman (2)
(1) Department of Structural Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium

(2) Department of Arch. and Urban Planning, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
1. INTRODUCTION
Recent advancements in additive manufacturing (AM) technologies have pushed the limits
of manufacturability and have encouraged the design of products with increased complexity.
Topology optimization (TO) algorithms, on the other hand, have provided engineers with a tool
for intelligently exploiting this design freedom by efficiently optimizing the shape of
engineering structures. Both AM and TO technologies are in active development and have been
increasingly growing towards each other, resolving the limitations of one another. For example,
in many 3D printing techniques, the maximum overhang angle of the successive layers is
limited. In response, algorithms were developed that were capable of taking this into account.
Another example – that was easily solved by including advanced material properties – is the
orientation and layer-induced anisotropy of printed elements. 3D printing of concrete elements
still has a great number of such limitations and can therefore largely benefit from the
developments made in topology optimization. In this paper, three important developments are
discussed.
In a first example, classical topology optimization techniques, such as the well-known
minimum compliance problem, can help to determine the optimal printing path and the location
of the steel reinforcements. A reference is made to the automated generation of optimal strut-
and-tie models using topology optimization techniques. An optimal design is subdivided in
compression and tensile zones. High-performance concrete could be placed in the compression
zones, and steel reinforcement in the tensile zones.
(a) (b)
Figure 1. Design domain and optimal truss and continuum topology from [1] (a),
a simulation of a 6-axis robotic arm used as a concrete printer (b).
80
Secondly, it is considered how stress-based topology optimization can enhance this

structural design when no reinforcement is used. Today, most concrete 3D printers use fast-
hardening concrete or mortar species with small aggregates that have a low tensile strength.
This causes strength asymmetry that weakens the traditionally-optimized design. The optimized
structures are oversized in the compression zones and would collapse or crack rather easily in
the tensile zones. Adding organic or steel fibers to the mixture can improve this tensile strength,
but cannot eliminate this asymmetry. By introducing stress constraints in the topology
optimization algorithms, optimal shapes can be generated that take this problem into account.
The optimal topology is then influenced by the difference in tensile and compressive strength
by using appropriate yield functions. In Fig. 2, a small concrete specimen was optimized using
the Drucker-Präger yield criterion. The resulting topology resembles a combination of an arch
bridge with a truss structure, and the cross-section of the tensile region was enlarged
accordingly. Additionally, the beam weighs roughly 10 N and can resist to a load of up to 10
kN while no fibers or any other type of tensile reinforcement was used.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2. Stress-based topology optimization using the Drucker-Präger yield criterion (a) of a
concrete specimen with a weight of 10N (b) resisting to a load of 10kN (c).
In a third and last example, traditional structural topology optimization techniques are
extended to include multi-physics requirements. This way, an optimal design can be found
which not only meets structural requirements, but also, for example, where the thermal heat
transfer characteristics of a structure are optimized. In the case that is presented here, the weight
of a large-scale dome structure is minimized, subjected to stress constraints, gravity and surface
loads, and for which the maximum thermal transmittance through the dome wall is restricted to
0.24 W/m2K. In addition, the topology optimization algorithm can determine which type of
concrete should be used at what location. Strong where it needs to be strong, less strong where
it is allowed, thermally insulating where it is required and less insulating where it can be.
REFERENCES
[1]! Gaynor A, Guest J, and Moen C. 'Reinforced Concrete Force Visualization and Design Using
Bilinear Truss-Continuum Topology Optimization', Journal of Structural Engineering. 139(4)
(2013) 607-618.
81
ON SOME CHALLENGES TO DESIGN PRINTED FORMWORK

S. Amziane (1)*, and M. Sonebi (2) A. Perrot (3)
(1) Institut Pascal, Clermont-Ferrand, France

(2) Queen’s University, Belfast, UK
(3) Université de Bretagne Sud, Lorient, France
Up to 75% of the price of a cast concrete structure is linked to formwork (initial cost,
installation, maintaining, …). The concrete digital construction offers solutions to delete this
cost by providing the ability to build without any formwork.
Among digital construction methods, one of the most common and promising applications of
concrete 3D printing consists in building a integrated formwork that is filled with
conventional reinforced concrete or reinforced SCC (especially in case of complex
structures). Such solution enables to build freeform vertical elements and gives to architects
an effective tool to open their possibilities.
Conventional precast formworks are commonly been used in construction site and their
structural design depends on the pressure exerted by the concrete that is filled inside. The
filled concrete creates a pressure gradient that depends on both the material rheology and the
casting rate. It is also well known that high pressure and critical situations, close to the
hydrostatic one, can be encountered when using highly flowable or self-compacting concrete,
especially for fast casting (Figure 1). Then, it is possible to predict the solicitation acting on
the formwork using model developed in the literature [1–3].

Vertical
position
Casting rate R1

Interfacial
Hy d
weaknesses
ros
t at

ic p
res

ur e s
R2< R1
pro

fi le

Integrated printed Casting rate

formwork R2 Pressure profile
Figure 1: Pressure profiles acting on Figure 2: Assesment of the tensile and shears
anisotropic printed structures used as strengths of the printed material in different
integrated formwork. directions to evaluate the anisotropy.
82
When dealing with the structural design of the panels of precast formwork, standards and
codes dedicated for reinforced conventional concrete can be used. This is not the case for
printed concrete fabricated by additive manufacturing presents an anisotropic behavior due to
the interfacial joints between successive layers [4,(5]. Such mechanical weakness makes the
structural analysis different and requires a precise description of the tensile and shear
strengths of the hardened printed concrete.
In this work, we propose to measure the tensile and shears strengths of the printed material in
different directions to evaluate the anisotropy induced by the multilayers processing. This
description allows for both 1/ the structural design of the integrated formwork (i.e. wall
thickness, single layer height) and for the prescription of a maximum casting rate (inducing a
given pressure profile) knowing the printed integrated formwork geometry.
REFERENCES
[1]! Tchamba JC, Amziane S, Ovarlez G, Roussel N (2008) Lateral stress exerted by fresh cement
paste on formwork: Laboratory experiments. Cem Concr Res 38:459–466. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2007.11.013
[2]! Ovarlez G, Roussel N (2006) A Physical Model for the Prediction of Lateral Stress Exerted by
Self-Compacting Concrete on Formwork. Mater Struct 39:269–279. doi: 10.1617/s11527-005-
9052-1
[3]! Perrot A, Amziane S, Ovarlez G, Roussel N (2009) {SCC} formwork pressure: Influence of steel
rebars. Cem Concr Res 39:524–528. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2009.03.002
[4]! Perrot A, Rangeard D, Pierre A (2016) Structural built-up of cement-based materials used for 3D-
printing extrusion techniques. Mater Struct 49:1213–1220. doi: 10.1617/s11527-015-0571-0
[5]! Wangler T, Lloret E, Reiter L, et al (2016) Digital Concrete: Opportunities and Challenges.
RILEM Tech. Lett. Vol 1 2016DO - 1021809rilemtechlett201616
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ROTOCRETE
O. Tessmann* (1), S. Mehdizadeh (2)
(1) Technische Universität Darmstadt, Digital Design Unit (DDU), Darmstadt, Germany
(2) Technische Universität Darmstadt, Digital Design Unit (DDU), Darmstadt, Germany
1. INTRODUCTION
RotoCrete aims at designing and fabricating customized concrete objects that consume less
formwork material, allow for geometric differentiation and site-specific constructions.
We seek to achieve this goal by developing lightweight and flexible formwork systems and
combine them with rotational moulding, a well-known technology for thermoplastic
materials: A mould is filled with a liquid material and is then slowly rotated, causing the
material to disperse and stick to the mould surface. The process yields hollow objects that
reduce material consumption and hydrostatic pressure during fabrication. Hence, lightweight
formwork materials can be used. The resulting objects can subsequently be used as permanent
formwork, filled with reinforcement and concrete to become solids or as lightweight hollow
elements (Figure 1).
Figure 1. A lightweight hollow concrete object, rotomoulded in a pre-tensioned latex balloon.
2. METHODOLOGY
With computational design we can design highly differentiated objects. A mould, however,
is used to cast a series of similar objects. This conceptual mismatch has previously been
addressed by treating formwork as a one-off object [1] or through the development of
complex flexible formwork systems [2]. RotoCrete migrates rotomoulding into the realm of
concrete casting to reduce hydrostatic pressure. Hence, formwork can be made from
84
lightweight materials such as latex, a natural material that weighs just a few grams. Latex can
be pre-tensioned into multiple forms without prior tailoring [3]. It withstands the hydrostatic
pressure as well as the chemical impacts of the concrete. We use Ultra High Performance
Concrete (UHPC); its viscosity allows for an even material distribution and the material cures
while being slowly rotated.
Within the research project we integrated the fabrication process into a larger material
system that includes the modelling and simulation of pre-tensioning latex through a particle-
spring model and the robotic fabrication (Figure 2). First fabrication test have been conducted
with a conventional rotomoulding machine. However, using an industrial six-axis robot
allows for a detailed movement control and a direct link to the deign environment.
Figure 2. Simulation and physical test of the formwork and the robotic fabrication
3. CONCLUSION
Latex films can be pre-tensioned into various wrinkle-free forms with uniform stress
distribution. They withstand the hydrostatic pressure of a small amount of concrete that
disperses and cures under slow movement. As with every form finding process the geometric
repertoire of forms is limited. Particle-spring models help to design and simulate the
behaviour of the formwork material under tension and visualize the expected outcome of the
rotomoulding. Formwork costs and material consumptions have been dramatically reduced
compared to other procedures such as CNC milling foam or wax while providing elegant and
efficient shapes. Stripping formwork from fragile hollow objects has been simplified as the
latex can be peeled off easily. Next steps of the research include the development of
connection details and the rigorous exploration the geometric repertoire constrained by the
formwork material and the hydrostatic pressure.
REFERENCES
[1]! Larsen, N. M., Pedersen, O. E., & Pigram, D., ‘Realisation of complex precast concrete structures
through the integration of algorithmic design and novel fabrication techniques’ in ‘Advances in
Architectural Geometry 2012’ (pp. 161-174). Springer Publishing Company. 201
[2]! Schipper, H. R.; Janssen, Bas. Manufacturing double-curved elements in precast concrete using a
flexible mould: First experimental results. In: Proceedings FIB Symposium, Concrete engineering
for excellence and efficiency, Prague, 8-10 June, 2011. Czech Concrete Society and fib
International Federation for Structural Concrete, 2011.
[3]! Vailly, T., Line 02: The creative factory, http://www.vailly.com, accessed 15.10.2017
85
ICE FORMWORK FOR UHPC: TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF USE OF

ICE IN FABRICATION OF NON-STANDARD PRECAST ELEMENTS
V. Sitnikov* (1)
(1) KTH School of Architecture, Stockholm, Sweden

1. CONTEXT
This paper is a part of ongoing architectural technology research that examines an
alternative design and fabrication strategy for precast concrete fabrication. Aspiring to
improve financial, environmental, and structural performance while increasing formal
complexity of concrete construction, the research investigates a technological configuration
that combines efficient use of UHPC and a formwork system that functions according to the
principal of ‘closed loop recycling’.
Based on the research objectives, the decision was made to investigate a possibility of
using regular ice as the main material of the formwork. The opportunity to cast concrete at
negative temperatures today has become possible due to the extremely low water–cement
ratio possessed by some types of UHPC. The results of our laboratory tests on subfreezing
cement hydration have indicated that this concrete hardens at negative temperatures in
absence of heat produced in the hydration of cement. These conditions allow moulding
concrete directly in ice formworks. The main advantage to consider is that it can provide an
ultimately clean fabrication process: the formwork turns to water at the stage of demoulding
without any manual labour involved.
This article will examine the technological nuances of fabricating concrete precast
constructions at subfreezing temperature, the opportunities for design and automation of this
process. Additionally, economy and environmental aspects will be evaluated by a comparison
to existing modes of precast production.
2. DESIGNING THE TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESS

The method of ice formwork is meant to contribute to the design tendency towards mass
customization. Since ice formwork is lost on the stage of demoulding, it needs to be produced
individually for each element, and thereof it should be seen merely as an ecological solution
for concrete industry to expand the variety of producible geometry, and as a way to reduce
material waste caused by the fabrication of single-use moulds.
To be implemented on a large scale one needs to establish a supply chain for this mode of
fabrication. However, one will find that the raw materials, namely water, concrete and
electricity, are already present on concrete factories, and the only thing needed to be resolved
is the machinery, that are refrigerating units to generate ice and maintain required temperature
throughout the process of fabrication, plus the actual machinery to impose geometry. In the
first case, the equipment can be adopted from the industry of refrigerated cargo. The cold
chain supplies show a rapid growth and development both in sectors of cold storage and
mobile units and therefore can provide ready solutions. In the second case, we have found that
ice can be very easily and rapidly machined using CNC milling, or other standard equipment
adjusted to operate at a low temperature.
86
Figure 1. Surface of a prototype of a concrete panel produced with ice formwork

(dimensions 40cm*60cm)
3. EVALUATING SUSTAINABILITY OF THE PROCESS

The contemporary precast industry shows a dynamic tendency towards automation of the
fabrication of standardized, mainly orthogonal elements. This, however, doesn’t account for
the fabrication of more complex curvilinear geometry that is often demanded by architectural
and structural projects. The only conventional methods of fabricating non-standard elements
are still based on manual assembly of timber formworks or CNC execution of Styrofoam
moulds. These methods are either expensive or harmful to the environment.
The proposed technology of ice formwork has several advantages that can improve this
fabrication process. First, the fabrication of ice formwork can be done without excessive
manual labour and without consumption of material such as wood or plastic. Second, this
technology relies on the use of UHPC. Since this material is more than 3 times more durable
than regular concrete, a constructive element can be 3 times lighter. This results in reduced
costs and carbon footprint of element’s transportation to the construction site, expanding the
operational area of such a factory.
Finally, the energy consumed by refrigeration system on the precast site can be efficiently
integrated within the circuits of renewable energy generators, hence produce no impact on the
environment. Obviously, the local climate conditions would require using more or less energy
for the process of fabrication. Though, in northern regions it can turn out to be more economic
to maintain the temperature of -10C then +20C on the production site around the year.
87
ICE FORMWORK FOR UHPC: A SIMULATION-BASED DESIGN

TOOL INFORMED WITH THE PROCESS OF FABRICATION
V. Sitnikov* (1)
(1) KTH School of Architecture, Stockholm, Sweden

1. CONTEXT
This architectural technology research examines an alternative design and fabrication
method for precast concrete elements. Aspiring to improve financial, environmental, and
structural performance while increasing formal complexity of concrete construction, the
research investigates a technological configuration that combines efficient use of UHPC and a
formwork system that function according to the principal of ‘closed loop recycling’.
Based on the research objectives we have decided to investigate the opportunities of using
regular ice as the main material of the formwork. The possibility to cast concrete at negative
temperatures today has become possible due to the extremely low water–cement ratio
possessed by some types of UHPC. The results of our laboratory tests on subfreezing cement
hydration with use of custom-made antifreeze admixture have indicated that this concrete
hardens at negative temperatures in absence of heat produced in hydration of cement. These
conditions allow moulding concrete directly in ice formworks. The main advantage to
consider is that it can provide an ultimately clean fabrication process: the formwork turns in
water at the stage of demoulding without any manual labour involved.
2. EROSION MORPHOLOGY FOR DESIGN AND FABRICATION

The main subject of this paper is to reveal the design opportunities conditioned by the use
of ice as the formwork material. Several case studies provided that a regular CNC router
adjusted to operate at subfreezing temperatures can facilitate a very easy and rapid milling of
ice geometry. However, since the method of ice formwork is being developed to meet the
design tendency towards mass customization, for economic reasons the execution of ice
should be done in the simplest and the fastest possible way. Due to these objectives we got
interested in the phenomenon of melting, or more precisely, the erosion of ice, aspiring to
exploit this natural process for the purpose of fabrication of complex doubly curved geometry.
We’ve examined a case of erosion that occurs in the interface of a saturated saline solution
and a body of ice. Since the freezing point of a saline can be as low as -30C, the erosion can
occur even in absence of thermal melting. Physical tests have provided that this closed system
has a linear behaviour, meaning that deformation of the interface occurs at the same rate
throughout the process. These conditions provide a convenient case for digital simulation.
This simulation can then be used in bridging design and fabrication thinking. In the first
case, by changing the initial geometry of an ice template designer will be given geometry of
its gradual deformations. And since this geometry was derived through the simulation, it will
then be easy to fabricate it using actual erosion. In a reverse way, if the complex geometry
was generated elsehow, the simulation can be used to retrieve the simplest orthogonal
preconditions that in the process of erosion will develop into the desirable shape.
88
Figure 1. Section of a hollow-core prototype and the principle stages of its fabrication
process.
3. A CASE STUDY: HOLLOW-CORE PROTOTYPE

Figure 1 shows a prototype made through a combination of a very simple orthogonal
pattern of vertical grooves produced with a CNC-mill (fig.1a) and followed by two discrete
phases of erosion (fig.1, b-c and fig. 1, d-e) with varying levels of saline-ice interface, and
hence various regions of errosion. Notice, that it’s not possible to fabricate the geometry of
these I-beam profiles of vertical partitions solely through CNC-milling, since these machines
don’t produce deep reliefs and undercuts. Neither it’s possible to reuse a formwork after
casting an element of such a geometry.
This example presents not only a functional design (a hollow-core slab with such partitions
has a better performance than one with simple rectangular ones), but a topology that is easy to
fabricate through a natural, yet predictable process of gradual replacement of material.
89
3D-PRINTABLE CEMENTITIOUS BINDERS: MICROSTRUCTURAL PACKING

AND RHEOLOGY CONSIDERATIONS
Soorajkumar A.O. Nair (1), Hussam Alghamdi (2), Aashay Arora (3), Narayanan
Neithalath* (4)
(1), (2), (3), (4) Arizona State University, Tempe AZ 85248, USA
*
Corresponding Author
1. SUMMARY
Additive manufacturing (digital fabrication or 3D printing) is gaining attention because of its
advantages in shape optimization of structures as well as in the development of multi-
functional, monolithic structures/components. This nascent technology, especially when it
comes to cement-based materials, is highly reliant on the early-age response of the material
including the rheology of the paste phase and early stiffening to ensure printability and shape
stability. This study evaluates the efficiency of extrusion-based printing of cementitious pastes
using a combination of microstructural packing and rheological parameters. Virtual
microstructures of the early age cementitious mixtures are generated based on the particle size
distribution and proportion of the component powders, to analyze different aspects of particle
packing that are important in influencing the flow of the pastes [1]. A microstructural stochastic
packing model with periodic boundary conditions developed in MATLAB® to create virtual
3D microstructures is used. The algorithm digitally packs spherical particles one-by-one,
largest particles first, in a 3D RVE (representative volume element, chosen here as 1000 x 1000
x 1000 µm3) until the desired solid volume fraction is achieved. A representative 3D
microstructure and 2D slices from the simulated 3D microstructure are shown in Figure 1.
(a)
(b) (c) (d)
Figure 1. (a) Representative volume element (RVE) for a quaternary OPC-fly ash-
metakaolin-limestone system. 2-D slices from different simulated 3D microstructures are
shown in (b), (c), and (d) OPC is indicated in white, fly ash in blue, metakaolin in red, and
limestone in green.
The digital microstructures allow the extraction of several features that are influential in early-
and later age paste response. The mean centroidal distance (MCD), coordination number (CN),
and the number density (Nd) are the key parameters that are chosen in this study.! The
coordination number as well as the number density indicates the interparticle contacts in the
90
microstructure and thus can be related to the yield stress of the paste and its degree of hydration
at early ages. Moreover, plastic viscosity has been stated to be dependent heavily on the solid
volume fraction (and thus the surface contacts) in the paste, thereby relating to the above
mentioned parameters. These microstructural parameters can therefore be considered to
influence the rheology of cementitious materials.
Relationships between these parameters, the rheological properties of interest (yield stress and
plastic viscosity – obtained using parallel plate experiments, see Figure 2 [2]), and the
printability of the mixtures are developed. The experimental matrix is refined to a few
ternary/quaternary cement pastes containing limestone and silica fume, metakaolin, or fly ash
based on the procedure described above. The printability is also quantified using shape stability
(and its time-dependence) of the printed mixtures, extracted using 3D laser scanning and point
cloud analysis.
Figure 2. The influence of particle number density on the rheological properties of binary and
ternary cement pastes
[1].!Arora, M. Aguayo, H. Hansen, C. Castro, E. Federspiel, B. Mobasher, N. Neithalath,

Microstructural packing- and rheology-based binder selection and characterization for
ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC), accepted for publication in Cement and Concrete
Research
[2].!K. Vance, A. Kumar, G. Sant, N. Neithalath, The rheological properties of ternary binders
containing Portland cement, limestone, and metakaolin or fly ash, Cem. Concr. Res. 52
(2013) 196–207. doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2013.07.007.
91
!
DISCRETE ELEMENT SIMULATIONS OF RHEOLOGICAL RESPONSE OF
CEMENTITIOUS BINDERS AS APPLIED TO EXTRUSION-BASED 3D PRINTING
Pu Yang (1), Sooraj Kumar A.O. Nair (2), Narayanan Neithalath* (3)
(1), (2), (3) Arizona State University, Tempe AZ 85248, USA
*
Corresponding Author
1. SUMMARY
Extrusion based digital manufacturing (3D printing) of cementitious materials is being studied
with a lot of interest, as a potential means of creating optimized shapes and structural elements
with special properties [1]. Rheological properties of cement-based materials are extremely
important in 3D printing since they dictate the efficiency of the printing process, the homogeneity
of the printed material, and eventually, the attainment of desired later-age properties. While
experimental rheology provides accurate descriptors of the bulk-scale response of the cement paste,
the fundamental particle-scale interactions that are influential towards the bulk response are often
masked. Discrete element method (DEM)-based simulations are used in this study to understand
the influence of rheological properties on the extrusion process of cement pastes [2]. From a
modeling viewpoint, the cement(itious) particles and sand are considered to be spherical (Fig. 1a).
Clumped particles as shown in Fig. 1b are used, when necessary, to simulate the hydration products
when time-dependence in rheological studies are considered. This is necessary in accounting for
printing times. A simulation geometry (with both particles and fibers) is shown in Figure 1c.
(a)
(c)
(b)
Figure 1. (a) Individual particles in the paste, (b) clumped particle representing a partly hydrated
structure, and (c) a simulation volume with particles and fibers
A variant of the Burger’s model, and a cohesive frictional contact model are used to describe the
contact behavior of particles in suspension. 3D DEM models are used to simulate parallel plate
rheological experiments in an attempt to calibrate the particle-scale model parameters. Figure 2(a)
shows the geometry of a square nozzle (die) filled with paste (or mortar) for DEM simulations.
Extrusion pressure is applied as a velocity to a fictitious top plate. For a cohesive frictional contact
model, Figures 2 (b) and (c) demonstrate the cases with two different degrees of cohesion between
particles – the former indicative of a mixture that demonstrates shape instability while printing,
and the latter is a cohesive mixture that retains its shape during and after printing.
92
!
(c)
(a) (b)
Figure 2. (a) Simulated particles in the nozzle of the printer, (b) and (c) flow simulations of less
cohesive and more cohesive particles
Parametric studies are used to study the effect of particle size distribution (PSD), number and type
of particles in the simulation volume, and the input parameters of the contact law. Relationships
between the micro-scale parameters and the macro-scale response can be used to optimize the
material design for extrusion of cement-based materials.
2. REFERENCES
[1].! C. Gosselin, R. Duballet, P. Roux, N. Gaudillière, J. Dirrenberger, P. Morel, Large-scale 3D
printing of ultra-high performance concrete – a new processing route for architects and
builders, Mater. Des. 100 (2016) 102–109. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2016.03.097.
[2].! V. Mechtcherine, S. Shyshko, Simulating the behaviour of fresh concrete with the Distinct
Element Method–Deriving model parameters related to the yield stress, Cem. Concr. Compos.
55 (2015) 81–90.
93
SYNCLASTIC DOMES IN PRECAST UHPFRC WITHOUT SHORING

ABSTRACT
Raphaël FABBRI* (1), Beatrice GHENO (2)
(1) ENSAPB (Ecole Nationale Supérieure d’Architecture de Paris-Belleville), Paris, France

MASSE « DETAIL STRUCTURE FACADE », Paris, France
(2) ENSAPB (Ecole Nationale Supérieure d’Architecture de Paris-Belleville), Paris, France
1. ABSTRACT
Since roman times, the “dome” is one of the most fascinating architectural elements.
Historically made of masonry (first brick then stone), the domes are now made of reinforced
concrete, cast on site (like the CNIT of La Défense, France), or composed with precast elements
(like the Jubilee Church in Rome, Italy).
The aim of this paper is to find design rules for synclastic domes in precast UHPFRC (Ultra-
High Fibre-reinforced Concrete), that could be implemented without shoring/buttresses. This
last criterion saves time and money such a way that the construction with precast elements is
more efficient than with concrete or masonry. The compressive strength (ca. 150MPa) of the
UHPFRC is between ten and fifteen times greater than its tensile strength (ca. 10MPa). So this
material is fully efficient as implemented in compressed structures, like domes. Thanks to its
low porosity, to its durability and to its shape possibilities, the UHPFRC can be used in relevant
way for the building of domes
This research is a synthesis of geometrical and technical constraints. Specially it takes in
consideration:
- The geometry of the dome and its tessallation into smaller components
- The static scheme and the structural equilibrium (mass repartition, cross-sections,
openings …)
- The implementation without shoring/buttresses
- The casting process and the formworks design adapted to UHPFRC
The theoretical conclusions are checked physically first with scaled 3D printings and then
with precast mock-up.
Figure 1. Example of precast UHPFRC with flexible molds

(ENSA-PB Workshop. Teacher: R. Fabbri)
94
Figure 2. Research on the tessellation and the equilibrium (R. Fabbri & B. Gheno)
95
SCAFFOLDLESS, 3D-PRINTED FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE SHELLS

Andrei Jipa (1)*, Matthias Rippmann (2), Mania Aghaei Meibodi (1), Benjamin
Dillenburger (1), Philippe Block (2)
(1) ETH Zurich, Institute of Technology in Architecture, Digital Building Technologies,
Zurich, Switzerland
(2) ETH Zurich, Institute of Technology in Architecture, Block Research Group, Zurich,
Switzerland
1. INTRODUCTION
This research investigates the design and fabrication of bespoke concrete structures using
discrete, self-supported formwork assemblies. It develops new construction strategies for
complex concrete shells and volumetric forms which rely on stay-in-place formworks made of
3D printed components.
Conventional formwork systems for geometrically complex structures require extensive

scaffolding and shuttering, resulting in large amounts of waste material and high costs.
Developed in the 1950s, prefabricated, concrete shell structures provide a partial solution to
this problem [1]. Typically, prefabricated compression shells were built from the outer supports
towards the centre, ensuring structural/static stability at every step of the construction sequence.
To stiffen these compression-only structures and to guarantee their stability for load cases other
than the design loads, they were usually made out of hollow elements which were filled with
cast-in-place concrete after installation. Besides saving material and labour because of the
absence of scaffolding, the great advantages of this technique are, firstly, the short installation
period and, secondly, the unobstructed space underneath the structure during construction. With
the casting technology available in the 1960s, an economical use of precast elements was highly
dependent on maximizing the number of elements produced with a single mould. Therefore,
this method could not be applied for more complex or bespoke geometries beyond symmetrical
domes and barrel vaults.
To produce geometrically complex architectural forms, 3D printing processes have been tested
successfully-in particular, binder jetting (BJ), which is typically used in the metal casting
industry to produce bespoke moulds. In architecture, BJ has been used to produce complex,
one-of-a-kind architectural parts with highly detailed surfaces [2] as well as moulds for complex
thin-shell concrete elements [3]. In these precedents, BJ facilitated a great freedom in
fabrication, with almost no geometric limitations, no added cost for customization and high
resolution (~0.2mm) available in large scale (up to 8 m3). Furthermore, BJ-produced parts are
strong enough to withstand the compressive forces (design strength: ~2.35 MPa) that are
required to guarantee the stability for shell structures standing in compression. These
characteristics make BJ suitable for producing self-supporting formwork assemblies. However,
beyond simple shell forms, design routines for such assemblies are not obvious and require the
development of new computational form-finding methods, structurally informed discretisation
techniques and the extension of existing optimisation techniques to identify stable patches for
96
scaffolding-free erection [ref Rippmann, Deus]. Moreover, automating the processing of

numerous unique parts for the integration of specific geometric features required for production
and assembly poses interesting challenges given the large amount data involved.
2. APPROACH
In this paper, a new formwork system is proposed, which combines new digital design
approaches for self-supporting assemblies with the digital fabrication of bespoke structural
modules available through BJ. The research focuses on developing self-supported, stay-in-place
formworks from discrete 3D-printed components. These components are computationally
generated using custom, structurally informed discretization methods and rigid block
equilibrium analysis to find feasible solutions to local stability problems. These methods
generate non-standard discrete components which need to satisfy topological requirements for
the overall continuity of the envelope, as well as for the interdependence of interfaces between
adjacent elements. Moreover, the components have to ensure the smoothness of formwork
channels and/or spatial networks to comply with the rheologic requirements of subsequent
concrete casting, while at the same time integrate openings for natural lighting and ventilation,
as well as voids providing enclosures for building services. To facilitate the compliance with
these complex geometric conditions, new polygon mesh modelling and analysis methods are
developed.
The abovementioned methods and techniques are tested through multiple small-scale
prototypes and a 16-m demonstrator, showcasing the scaffolding-free mould assembly and
2
casting process for a complex shell structure.
Figure 1. (a) Sample fibre-reinforced concrete part cast in stay-in-place 3D printed formwork;
(b) Scaffoldless assembly of a portion of a small-scale shell prototype composed of 38 unique
3D-printed modules.
REFERENCES
[1] Rippmann, M. (2016). Funicular Shell Design: Geometric Approaches to Form Finding and
Fabrication of Discrete Funicular Structures. Zurich: ETH Zurich, Department of Architecture.
[2] Dillenburger, B., & Hansmeyer, M. (2013). The resolution of architecture in the digital age. Paper
presented at the International Conference on Computer-Aided Architectural Design Futures.
[3] Dillenburger, B. (2016). «Incidental Space» im Schweizer Pavillon. TEC21 Nr. 23, 3rd June 2016.
97
3D-PRINTING CHALLENGE WITH CEMENTITIOUS MATERIAL

K. Kinomura* (1), S. Murata (1), Y. Morita (1), S. Haramaki (2) and T. Maruya (1)
(1) Taisei Corporation Technology Center, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan

(2) National Institute of Technology Ariake College, Omuta, Fukuoka, Japan
1. INTRODUCTION
Japan is facing an unprecedented aging population with declining birth rate. It leads to
serious work-force shortage, resulting in the possibility of more than one million retirement
solely in construction industry in a decade[1]. Whereas the productivity related to concrete
casting has still stagnated for 30 years, its enhancement is a fatal concern against the maturity.
3D-printing with cementitious materials (CMs) is an innovative technology to be being
tackled and progressed all over the world[2]. The revolutionized feature is expected to
improve greatly a whole productivity, including high speed manufacturing, reduction of
labour cost and less material waste, in addition to high accuracy placement with freeform.
Taisei began to study on suitable CMs mixture for 3D-printing in 2015. The mixture
achieves high-fluidity, extrudability, buildability and unity after hardening. Furthermore, a
primary printing system by layered extrusion on a small scale has been developed. Hexagonal
twisted prism with 40 layers can be accurately piled within 5 minutes without interruption.
2. MIXTURE PROPERTY
The developed mixture contains OPC, supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) with
early hardening capability, fine sands and retarder. Figure 1 shows basic fresh properties of
the mixture. The fluidity seems to keep high for 60 minutes in this case, but the relevant time
can be easily adjusted by dosage of retarder. The intact compressive strength shows about
40MPa at 1day and 60MPa at 3days respectively under ordinary room condition (i.e. without
curing). The mixture can be also selectively combined with some kinds of short-length fibers.
200
Beating(mortar(flow( mm
180
160
140
120
100
0 30 60 90 120
Elapsed(time((min)
Figure 1. Basic fresh properties of the developed mixture (Left: Mortar flow while beating a
base table 15 times[3], Right: Initial and final setting time by means of the penetration test[4])
98
3. PRIMARY PRINTING SYSTEM

The primary printing system mainly consists of a hopper for ready-mixed mortar, a
squeezing pump, gantry system movable along x, y and z axes, a newly-developed extruder
with an attachable nozzle which can select exit-diameter and a lap-top computer for whole
system control. The extruder equipped with the gantry system incorporates a temporal storage
tank and a screwed rotational axis. It enables the extruder to arrange unstable mortal volume
supplied by a squeezing pump and keep its extrusion volume constant. It provides accuracy of
every layer placement, easy cutting of adhesive mortal extrusion from the nozzle and higher
formation of multi-layers. The maximum size which can be produced by this primary printing
system is approximately 30cm(length)*30cm(width)*60cm(height).
System parameters were defined by trial-and-error based explorations. Such parameters
imply variable gantry speed, feeding mortal rate, inner filling rate and so on. Although it is
ideal to adjust such parameters by reflecting time-dependent rheology and environmental
condition on time, these ones have been considered as constant so far.
4. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK

As an achievement, hexagonal twisted prism with 40 layers, which is equivalent to 20cm
tall, can be accurately piled as shown in Picture 1. The multi-layer production is completed
within 5 minutes without interruption. It suggests that 3D-printing has a great potential to
change conventional construction of concrete drastically in the coming years, in case of well
understanding between material design for printability and proper printing system including
parameter settings. We have a successive plan to enlarge such a system for industrialization.
Picture 1. A work example produced by our primary 3D-printing system without interruption.
REFERENCES
[1]! Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism of Japan, 'Social environment and
movement surrounding construction industry (in Japanese) ', (2016).
[2]! Wangler, T., Lloret, E., and Reiter, L., et. al., ‘Digital Concrete: Opportunities and Challenges’,
RILEM Technical Letters (2016)1: 67-75
[3]! Japan Industrial Standards Committee, ‘Physical testing methods for cement’, JIS R 5201(1997)
[4]! Japan Industrial Standards Committee, ‘Method of test for time of setting of concrete mixtutres by
penetration resistance’, JIS A 1147(2007)
99
GRAPHENE AND OTHER 2D MATERIALS AS NANO-INCLUSIONS

FOR EFFECTIVE DIGITAL FABRICATION
A. Kanellopoulos* (1), S. Michalopoulos (1) and A. Chrysanthou (1)
(1) University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK

1. INTRODUCTION
One of the major challenges when it comes to digital fabrication of cement-based
components is the inability of cement matrices to withstand tensile forces. As with traditional
reinforced concrete structures reinforcement has to be employed. Nonetheless, the use of steel
or other reinforcement when it comes to 3D printing of cement-based matrices is a major issue.
Although, compressive strength does not appear to be a problem in this type of manufacturing
in order to make it more effective and widespread the issue of reinforcement needs to be tackled.
This paper will aim to discuss the potential of graphene and other 2D materials as nano-
inclusions that will significantly improve the stiffness of digitally fabricated cement based
composites.
2. THE IMPORTANCE OF GRAPHENE AS NANO-REINFORCEMENT

The electronic properties of graphene have initially caught the interest of scientists and
engineers but extensive research showed that graphene has other important properties as well
such as improved stiffness and strength, thermal conductivity, impermeability to liquid and
gaseous molecules. In the recent years, the properties of graphene have been exploited for
applications that do not necessarily require the use of monolayers on substrates. The
incorporation of large quantities of graphene in bulk materials such as polymers has revealed a
sea of new applications [1].
Nano-optimisation of concrete usually involves the use of either nanocomponents (e.g.
CNTs) or the utilisation of nanofillers that act as building blocks (nano-silica, nano-clays etc.).
Graphene has several advantages over the common nanomaterials used in concrete technology.
Unlike CNTs, graphene can be produced in large scale without the need of high temperatures
and metal catalysts. Therefore, its bulk production is cheaper enabling easier use for large scale
applications [2]. The constellation of graphene’s properties makes it a unique addition as it can
tackle simultaneously many issues e.g. improve the stiffness of the composite while at the same
time acting as a barrier for gases and liquids that have detrimental effect on concrete. While
some of these properties are common to CNTs, or even other nano-materials, the two-
dimensional geometry of graphene alongside with its atomic thickness and edge atoms gives
graphene the advantage when it comes to 3D applications where it can be passed through high
pressure nozzles yielding a composite that will have adequate stiffness to can stand alone as an
individual structural element. Similarly, other 2D materials such metal chalcogenides have to
potential to act as nano-anchors within a cementitious matrix improving its overall stiffness.
100
3. THE EFFECT ON RHEOLOGY

It is apparent that for effective 3D printing of cement-based composites that contain
graphene or other 2D materials, the control over their rheological properties is imperative. At
the moment there are not many studies reporting on this issue as shown in Table 1 below. Part
of our research work is to highlight how the inclusion of 2D materials affect the rheology of
pastes intended for 3D printing and how issues related to rheology can be overcome without
altering the homogenous distribution of particles in the cementitious matrix.
Table 1: Example of construction of a table
Matrix Addition % Addition Maximum Differences Ref.

Mortar GO 0.02% and 0.04% -25% in spread for 0.04% [3]
Paste RGO 0.02% -13% in spread [4]
-70% in spread for 0.05%
(Paste)
+1800% in viscosity for 0.05%
Paste/Mortar GO 0.01% to 0.05% [5]
(Paste)
(Mortar)
Mortar GO 0.011% to 0.066% +27% in spread (0.066%) [6]
Paste GO 0.01% to 0.05% [7]
+317% in viscosity for 0.05%
Mortar GO 0.02% and 0.04% -6% in slump for 2.5% [8]
Min-slump increases from
GNPs /
Mortar 0.025% to 12.8% ~0mm up to 25mm depending [9]
GONPs
on w/b and SP%
REFERENCES
[1] A.C. Ferrari, F. Bonaccorso, V. Falko, K.S. Novoselov, S. Roche, P. Bøggild, S. Borini,
F. Koppens, V. Palermo, N. Pugno, J. a. Garrido, R. Sordan, A. Bianco, L. Ballerini, M.
Prato, E. Lidorikis, J. Kivioja, C. Marinelli, T. Ryhänen, A. Morpurgo, J.N. Coleman, V.
Nicolosi, L. Colombo, A. Fert, M. Garcia-Hernandez, A. Bachtold, G.F. Schneider, F.
Guinea, C. Dekker, M. Barbone, C. Galiotis, A. Grigorenko, G. Konstantatos, A. Kis,
M. Katsnelson, C.W.J. Beenakker, L. Vandersypen, A. Loiseau, V. Morandi, D.
Neumaier, E. Treossi, V. Pellegrini, M. Polini, A. Tredicucci, G.M. Williams, B.H.
Hong, J.H. Ahn, J.M. Kim, H. Zirath, B.J. van Wees, H. van der Zant, L. Occhipinti, A.
Di Matteo, I. a. Kinloch, T. Seyller, E. Quesnel, X. Feng, K. Teo, N. Rupesinghe, P.
Hakonen, S.R.T. Neil, Q. Tannock, T. Löfwander, J. Kinaret, Science and technology
roadmap for graphene, related two-dimensional crystals, and hybrid systems, Nanoscale.
7 (2014) 4598–4810. doi:10.1039/C4NR01600A.
101
[2] V. Palermo, Not a molecule, not a polymer, not a substrate... the many faces of graphene
as a chemical platform, Chem. Commun. 49 (2013) 2848–2857.
doi:10.1039/C3CC37474B.
[3] X. Li, C. Li, Y. Liu, S.J. Chen, C.M. Wang, J.G. Sanjayan, W.H. Duan, Improvement of
mechanical properties by incorporating graphene oxide into cement mortar, Mech. Adv.
Mater. Struct. Accepted M (2016). doi:10.1016/j.gca.2010.02.001.
[4] M. Murugan, M. Santhanam, S. Sen Gupta, T. Pradeep, S.P. Shah, Influence of 2D rGO
nanosheets on the properties of OPC paste, Cem. Concr. Compos. 70 (2016) 48–59.
doi:10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2016.03.005.
[5] Q. Wang, J. Wang, C.-X. Lu, B.-W. Liu, K. Zhang, C.-Z. Li, Influence of graphene oxide
additions on the microstructure and mechanical strength of cement, New Carbon Mater.
30 (2015) 349–356. doi:10.1016/S1872-5805(15)60194-9.
[6] L. Zhao, X. Guo, C. Ge, Q. Li, L. Guo, X. Shu, J. Liu, Mechanical behavior and
toughening mechanism of polycarboxylate superplasticizer modified graphene oxide
reinforced cement composites, Compos. Part B Eng. 113 (2017) 308–316.
doi:10.1016/j.compositesb.2017.01.056.
[7] Q. Wang, J. Wang, C. Lv, X. Cui, S. Li, X. Wang, Rheological behavior of fresh cement
pastes with a graphene oxide additive, New Carbon Mater. 31 (2016) 574–584.
doi:10.1016/S1872-5805(16)60033-1.
[8] H. Du, H.J. Gao, S.D. Pang, Improvement in concrete resistance against water and
chloride ingress by adding graphene nanoplatelet, Cem. Concr. Res. 83 (2016) 114–123.
doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2016.02.005.
[9] Q. Liu, Q. Xu, Q. Yu, R. Gao, T. Tong, Experimental investigation on mechanical and
piezoresistive properties of cementitious materials containing graphene and graphene
oxide nanoplatelets, Constr. Build. Mater. 127 (2016) 565–576.
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.10.024.
102
DIGITAL CLAY PROCESSING FOR BRICKWORK

D. de Witte* (1), K.B. Mulder (2) and U. Knaack (1)
(1) Technische Universität Darmstadt, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Sciences, Institute for Structural Mechanics and Design, Façade Structures, Darmstadt,
Germany
(2) Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment,
Architectural Engineering and Technology, Design of Construction, Delft, The Netherlands
1. INTRODUCTION
In the built environment a large spectrum of materials is used. From wood, steel and
ceramics, till composites as concrete and GFRP. Most materials can be processed in different
ways. Milling, casting and extrusion processes are widely used in construction, but less often
utilised are processes as hydroforming and infiltration. Those are just used in order to produce
complex forms. The production processes influence the costs of those building components.
Since brickwork is considered as an economical building material, there are mainly two
production processes used for the processing of the clay. Extrusion is the most widely used
processes, next to the mechanical process with formwork to make hand throwing bricks.
Still brickwork allows for freedom in design and appearance of a façade, because of the
small dimensions of a single brick in comparison to the complete structure made out of it.
Patterns and slight curvature are examples of this. Nevertheless more individualised bricks
allow for more possibilities. If these bricks can be produced by hand, they will not be that
economical, due to their small batch sizes. Because of that these special brickwork building
parts often have to compete with other more expensive building products.
2. DIGITAL FABRICATION OF BRICKWORK

Products specifications are general influenced by the production process, the material and
the building regulations. Between those boundaries the products are standardised and
applicated in the built environment. Special forms and integrated functions beyond insulating
are not embedded in modern brickwork.
However most building components themselves are either made by standardised and
industrialised production processes, or by manual labour intensive processes, to cope with the
wide variety of individualised façade products, digital fabrication has been used in the built
environment [1].
In this paper there is looked at the possibilities for individualised clay processing by use of
digital fabrication and automation of the shaping process. The modern production
technologies to process clay into building products are analysed and new ideas are presented.
These processes can be subdivided in those that complement existing technologies [2] and
those that replace the shaping process of the complete production process in a disruptive way
[3,4]. Examples of complementary technologies are those that customise standard extruded
products by performing an additional shaping step. Examples of disruptive process are 3D
103
printing processes. The advantageous and disadvantageous properties of those processes are
illustrated and discussed.
Figure 1. Example of additive manufactured corner bricks combined with standard brickwork.
3. CONCLUSIONS
The different enhanced production technologies showed potential to be embedded in
existing production processes, although not all shaping processes could be used for large
volumes. The main challenge is how digital fabrication can be utilised in a beneficial way, for
both; structural and as cladding components. Additive manufacturing is a production
technology that can be utilised for small batch sizes or products that cannot be made
otherwise. Examples are internal closed voids, 3 dimensional inner structures, or openings.
Respectively to facilitate a higher stability in insulated brickwork and to embed parts of the
climatization. Simpler repeating forms can be made with extrusion processes combined with
an additional subtractive production step, to cut parts away, or by engraving the green bodies,
before being dried and fired. The study also showed that additional surface differentiations
would be possible by experimenting with a flexible die utilised in an extrusion process.
REFERENCES
[1]! Knaack, U., Klein, T., Bilow, M., & Auer, T. ‘Principles of Construction’, second and revised ed .
(Bikhäuser, Basel, 2014).
[2]! Mulder, K. ‘Het zinderend oppervlak’ (Koen Mulder, Delft, 2016).
[3]! Knaack, U., de Witte, D., Mohsen, A., Tessmann, O., & Bilow, M. ‘Imagine 10 - Rapids 2.0’
(nai010 publishers, Rotterdam, 2016).
[4]! Cruz, P.J.S., Knaack, U., Figueiredo, B., de Witte, D. (2017) ‘Ceramic 3D printing – The future of
brick architecture’, Proceedings of the IASS Hamburg conference, September, 2017 (The
International Association for shell and spatial structures, 2017).
104
ENHANCING PRINTABLE CONCRETE THIXOTROPY BY HIGH

SHEAR MIXING
A. Vandenberg (1), Kay Wille (1), H. Bessaies-Bey (2), and N. Roussel* (2)
(1) University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA

(2) IFSTTAR, Marne-la-Vallee, France
With the advent of concrete digital fabrication paving new ways of construction [1],
controlling cement paste thixotropy is crucial to ensuring the desired final state of the material
is achieved. Each digitally fabricated concrete layer has to evolve from a fluid suspension
during mixing and pumping to a cohesive material after deposition that maintains a strong
interface with, and mechanical resistance to, the next deposited layer [2]. Consequently,
thixotropy is very important for concrete digital fabrication as it enhances the structuration of
cement paste.
From a practical view, thixotropy is mainly affected by CSH nucleation [2]. Thus, a very
thixotropic concrete can be created by increasing the rate of nucleation of hydration products
in the mixture. One way to increase this rate is by increasing the energy input of mixing [3,4].
Henceforth, in this work we focus on how mixing could enhance thixotropy.
Our results show that the storage elastic modulus as a function of time increases at a higher
rate for the cement paste mixed at higher versus lower mixing intensity (i.e. approximately
four times higher after 2 hours). Hence, higher mixing appears to be enhancing thixotropy.
By analyzing the nanoparticles present in the suspending fluid of the cement paste [5], we
show, in accordance with literature [3], that an appropriate combination of mixing energy and
super-plasticizer dosage promotes hydration by scratching hydrates from the surface of
cement particles, stabilizing them in the suspending fluid and hence generating additional
nucleation surfaces.
These results open the door for the design of printing heads including high-shear micro
mixers allowing for a faster liquid-to-solid transition of the printable material.
105
4,0E+05
5 8403rpm 28003rpm
3,5E+05 G'(2800rpm)/G'(840rpm)3 4
3,0E+05 2
1
Elastic3Modulus3G'3[Pa]
2,5E+05 0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Time3(s)
2,0E+05
1,5E+05
1,0E+05
5,0E+04
0,0E+00
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
Time3[s]
Figure 1. Effect of mixing intensity on the elastic storage modulus of cement paste samples
prepared with w/c ratio of 0.30 and 0.4% of polycarboxylate ether by solid content.
REFERENCES
[1]! E. Lloret, A.R. Shahab, M. Linus, R.J. Flatt, F. Gramazio, M. Kohler, S. Langenberg, 'Complex
concrete structures: Merging existing casting techniques with digital fabrication', Computer-Aided
Design. 60 (C) (2015) 40-49.
[2]! N. Roussel, G. Ovarlez, S. Garrault, C. Brumaud, 'The origins of thixotropy of fresh cement
pastes', Cem. Concr. Res. 42 (1) (2012) 148-157.
[3]! P. Juilland, A. Kumar, E. Gallucci, R.J. Flatt, K.L. Scrivener, 'Effect of mixing on the early
hydration of alite and OPC systems', Cem. Concr. Res. 42 (9) (2012) 1175-1188.
[4]! D. Han, R.D. Ferron, 'Influence of high mixing intensity on rheology, hydration, and
microstructure of fresh state cement paste', Cem. Concr. Res. 84 (4) (2016) 95-106.
[5]! F. Caruso, S. Mantellato, M. Palacios, R.J. Flatt, 'ICP-OES method for the characterization of
cement pore solutions and their modification by polycarboxylate-based superplasticizers', Cem.
Concr. Res. 91 (1) (2017) 52-60.
106
IMPACT OF 3D PRINTING DIRECTION ON TENSILE

PERFORMANCE OF STRAIN-HARDENING CEMENTITIOUS
COMPOSITES
Jing Yu* (1) and Christopher K. Y. Leung (2)
(1) Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science
and Technology, Hong Kong SAR, China; Email: jyuad@connect.ust.hk
(2) Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science
and Technology, Hong Kong SAR, China
ABSTRACT
The construction industry is anticipated to have a big revolution since construction
automation is expected to intensely change traditional technologies [1]. As an advanced
manufacturing technology, 3D printing (also known as additive manufacturing) has been
widely applied in many industries today. A recent application of this technology in
construction industry shows the potential of advancing our traditional building technologies
while reducing construction time, cost and manpower [2, 3]. A major challenge of 3D-printed
concrete structures is the low tensile strength and ductility of concrete. However,
automatically adding or even printing steel reinforcements is not so straight forward for the
moment [3].
Fiber reinforcement, an effective way to control the cracking and introduce ductility into
concrete, has led to the development of Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC) since 1960’s. As a
special kind of FRC with short random fiber reinforcements, Strain-Hardening Cementitious
Composites (SHCCs) are potential materials for 3D-printed concrete structures where no steel
reinforcements are required. For SHCCs, at the ultimate state under uniaxial tension, the
strain can reach 3-7% [4], which is about 300 to 700 times the tensile strain capacity of
ordinary concrete. In addition, the tensile strength of SHCCs can reach 10-20 MPa, and the
compressive strength ranges from 20 MPa to 95 MPa depending on matrix proportion [4].
With these characteristics, SHCCs have clear advantages over normal concrete for 3-D
printing construction.
One of the main disadvantages of 3D-printed structures is that they are anisotropic [3].
Specifically, the printing directions can significantly affect the fiber distributions (Figure 1a),
and then the tensile performance of SHCC materials when loaded in different directions. This
study aims to evaluate the impact of 3D printing directions on tensile performance of SHCCs.
A series of SHCC specimens with the same mix proportion but different printing directions
(Figure 1) were prepared and tested under uniaxial tension. The findings of this study can
support the future design and manufacturing of 3D-printed FRC structures.
107
Figure 1. Different printing directions for a SHCC plate under tensile loading.
REFERENCES
[1] Bock, T., 'The future of construction automation: Technological disruption and the upcoming
ubiquity of robotics', Automation in Construction. 59 (2015) 113-21.
[2] Wu, P., Wang, J., Wang, X., 'A critical review of the use of 3-D printing in the construction
industry', Automation in Construction. 68 (2016) 21-31.
[3] Tay, Y.W.D., Panda, B., Paul, S.C., Noor Mohamed, N.A., Tan, M.J., Leong, K.F., '3D printing
trends in building and construction industry: a review', Virtual and Physical Prototyping. 12(3)
(2017) 261-76.
[4] Li, V.C., 'Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC) - material, structural, and durability
performance', in 'Concrete Construction Engineering Handbook'. (Boca Raton, Florida, 2008).
108
DEVELOPMENT OF A SPRAYED CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY FOR

ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING OF FREEFORM CONCRETE
STRUCTURES
R. Gerbers (1)*, H. Lindemann (2), E. Herrmann (2), F. Dietrich (1), K. Dröder (1), H.
Kloft (2)
(1) IWF, Technical University Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany

(2) ITE, Technical University Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
1. INTRODUCTION
In 2016 the Universities of Braunschweig, Clausthal and Hannover started an
interdisciplinary research project on additive manufacturing with sprayed concrete. Six
different institutes are working on the realization of a hybrid machine concept the “Digital
Building Fabrication Laboratory” (DBFL) [1] for additive and subtractive manufacturing of
reinforced freeform concrete structures. The DBFL consists of two 3-axis portals (Figure 1,
right). One portal is equipped with a 6-axis robotic arm and the second portal has been designed
for low tolerance milling operations. The 5-axis milling head can process high-density materials
like concrete or even granite and Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC). Both manipulators
can be operated individually or in a synchronised mode. By combining additive and subtractive
manufacturing technologies the efficiently production of complex building elements is possible
at high accuracy.
2. CAPABILITIES OF ROBOTIC SPRAYED CONCRETE

Compared to the established extrusion-based application processes [2], spraying concrete
offers several different advantages. It is possible to orientate the nozzle freely in space and to
print on existing structures at angles up to 90°. Due to the high compacting power of concrete
spraying, high material strength can be reached and it is even possible to produce large
overhangs. In addition, it allows to improve the surface quality, as layers can be smoothed by
spraying on the side. Furthermore, this process offers the possibility to directly print on
prefabricated semi-finished products. As a result, it is no longer necessary to use additive
manufacturing to produce the complete part and components can be produced very productive
and cost-effectively. In addition, this method allows, to integrate textile or steel reinforcement
into the production process, since it is possible to place them during the printing process.
3. TECHNICAL CHALLANGES FOR SPRAYED CONRETE APPLICATION

The application of sprayed concrete for additive manufacturing of concrete components is a
major challenge, as a large number of process parameters have to be kept in a constant ratio in
order to achieve a homogeneous concrete application and therefore an acceptable part accuracy.
The accuracy depends on parameters such as the concrete volume flow rate, the delivery
pressure, the air volume flow rate, the air pressure, the concrete accelerator dosage and
parameters related to the pathplanning such as the nozzle distance, velocities, layer spacing,
109
application angle or times between layer applications. The variation of these parameters has a
great influence on the associated target values, such as early strength, layer thickness, concrete
quality (e.g. compressive strength, tensile strength) and rebound. In particular, the early strength
and the layer thickness pose a major challenge for additive production. The early strength
results in a limited time window in which a next layer of concrete can be applied. If this time
window is missed, the concrete is either too soft or already too hard. In the first case, material
displacement occurs due to the high air pressure from the nozzle. In the second case, the
concrete quality suffers from a lack of adhesion between the layers. A constant width of the
application layers is also important for additive manufacturing, so that the planned paths lead
to the desired component. Due to various disturbances such as uneven concrete mixtures,
fluctuating pressures in the supply hoses or suboptimal path parameters a good accuracy of the
component cannot be guaranteed. Therefore, many components are unusable after direct
production and the path parameters have to be adjusted manually in a complex iterative process.
4. CONTROL APPROACH FOR INCREASED PRODUCTION ACCURACY

In this paper, we present a closed-loop control concept to overcome the challenges of
additive production with sprayed concrete for increased accuracy of the manufacturing process.
The concept is based on a cascaded control in which an internal control loop controls the
concrete application parameters (e.g. volume flows/pressures) and an outer control loop ensures
the component geometry. For online measurement of the component geometry during the
manufacturing process, laser triangulation is compared with time-of-flight measuring. The
prototypical implementation of the control concept is presented and results from preliminary
tests are shown.
5. MAIN OBJECTIVES AND OUTLOOK

The main objective of the research presented in this paper is to manufacture a two-
dimensional curved wall with sprayed concrete. This demonstrates the capability of free
forming concrete without using a formwork. In cooperation of additive and subtractive
machining as well as the free angle of the sprayed concrete application, the possibility is
demonstrated to enhance the surface of the build-up wall. Further research will investigate the
capabilities of this concrete application method to build up material in horizontal directions.
Further research activities include the build-up of a wall around a mesh and other kinds of
reinforcement to build load-bearing structures.
Figure 1. Robotic concrete spraying (left), both portals (right)
110
REFERENCES
[1] Neudecker S., Bruns C., Gerbers, R., Heyn, J., Dietrich, F., Dröder, K., Raatz, A., Kloft,
H., ‘A new robotic spray technology for generative manufacturing of complex concrete
structures without formwork’, Procedia CIRP 43 (2016) 333-338.
[2] Hwang, D., Khoshnevis B.: An Innovative Construction Process-Contour Crafting (CC).
International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction 2005
111
6-AXIS ROBOTIC ARM SYSTEM FOR 3D PRINTING CONCRETE OF

COMPLEX FORMS
A. GAO Yuan, XU Weiguo* (1), B. CHENG Yufei, SUN Shixuan, ZHENG Hao(2)
(1) Tsinghua University (School of Architecture), Beijing, China

1. INTRODUCTION
The paper presented introduced a system based on 6-axis robotic arm designed to print
complex forms of concrete, and three representative concrete printing methods using this
system. Since the first obscure concept of 3D printing concrete was raised in mid 1990s [1],
different methods have been invented and practiced to print concrete forms, but most of them
is based on deposition modelling methods, which restrains the possibility and complexity of
forms. Therefore, our system and printing methods subject to this system are designed to
maximum the flexibility of 6-axis robotic arms and made new complex forms of printing
products possible.
1.1. System Framework

The system is composed with three subsystems: the material supplement system, the
molding system and the movement system. Each of them is designed to maximum the high
degree of freedom of robotic arm and increase the possibility of complexity of final products.
For example, a special multi-function printing head was designed to scan the base, extrude
concrete and control the section of the extruded concrete, meeting corresponding print
methods.
2. THREE 3D PRINTING METHODS SUBJECT TO OUR SYSTEM

Three representative methods are introduced to show the features of our system.
2.1. Modified deposition modelling method with controlled section

In this case, a device was designed within the extrusion head to control the section of
concrete. In this way, the section of each layer printed can be controlled and alternated. As
shown in Figure.1, a component was printed with normal printing section, but with varied
sections, its variations can be more intricate.
112
Figure 1. Example of deposition modelling printing made by robotic arm
2.2. Spatial surfaces’ printing

In this case, a glass fabric base was made into a surface. With the printing head’s function
of scanning and feedback in our system, the form of actual spatial surface can be mapped and
projected to digital models, which makes printing along the surface’s normal directions
possible. By this method, we can print spatial surfaces like shells with more homogeneous
structures.
Figure 2. Diagram of printing a spatial surface shell
2.3. Printing of composite material

In this case, one or more materials in the shapes of pipes are weaved with printed concrete
strips. Similar to 2.2., the function of scanning was used to project actual pipes into digital
models, then the robotic arm prints concrete in designed direction, wrapping and weaving the
other materials.
3. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
[1]! Yi Wei Daniel Tay, Biranchi Panda, Suvash Chandra Paul, Nisar Ahamed Noor Mohamed, Ming
Jen Tan, Kah Fai Leong. (2017) 3D printing trends in building and construction industry: a
review. Virtual and Physical Prototyping 12:3, pages 261-276.
113
EFFECT OF VISCOSITY-ENHANCING ADMIXTURE ON THE

STRUCTURATION RATE OF EXTRUDABLE CONCRETES
Rubin, A. P. (1), Hasse, J. A. (1), Quintanilha, L. C. and Repette, W. L.* (1)
(1)!Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil

*wellington.repette@gmail.com
1. INTRODUCTION
In the additive manufacturing process, the challenge of stacking layers firmly adhered to
each other remains. If the overlapping of the layers is made in short time intervals, they may
not have enough load capacity to avoid the deformations resulting from the successive
deposition of new layers. On the other hand, if the optimal waiting time between the depositions
is exceeded, there will be loss of adherence with the next layer and formation of cold joint,
which compromises the final performance of the structure [1, 2].
The stability of the printed structure depends upon two different factors: the vertical stress
that acts on the first set layer, and the material’s yield strength. Both of those being time
dependent, the first one relates to the construction rate, that means, the speed in which every
new layer is set after the previous one, while the second relates to the structuration of the used
concrete at rest [1, 2].
The structuration rate increases when fine powder is added to the mixture [3]. Silica fume
(SF) has been largely used in extrudable concretes, providing adequate stiffness and water
retention necessary for extrusion. However, larger amounts of silica fume compromise open
time and adds to the cost of the printable concretes. Replacing SF with a viscosity enhancing
admixture (VEA) could result in economic and technical advantages, provided that the resulting
mixtures show appropriate structuration time and yield strength.
In this context, the present work aims to analyze the effect of a viscosity-enhancing
admixture in extrudable mixtures and its influence on the structuration rate (Athix) of the material
over time in order to estimate the minimum layering time without undesired deformation.
2. METHODOLOGY
Extrudable mixtures composed of fixed quantities of fine sand, cement and superplasticizer
admixture and different silica fume contents (0, 5.6 and 11.2% of the mass of cement) and a
biopolymer based viscosity enhancing admixture (ranging from 0 to 1.0%, with 0.2%
increments) were investigated. The yield stress of each mixture was obtained after 5, 10, 20,
40, 60 and 90min of resting time, by Vane Test according to NGUYEN and BOGER (1985),
in a Thermo Scientific HAAKE MARS III rheometer. The collected data was used to calculate
the structuration rates from Equation 1 [3], which allows for the estimation of the minimum
time necessary for the deposition of new layers [2].
Athix = (τ0(t) - τ00 )/ t (1)
where: Athix = structuration rate (Pa/s); τ0(t) = yield stress after a period of time (Pa); τ00 = initial
yield stress (Pa); t = time (s).
114

Figure 1 shows the time evolution curves of the yield stresses determined for three of the
investigated mixes at four different resting times, using VEA and SF as the main agents for
providing structuration. Although the mix with higher amount of SF and without VEA showed
higher yield stress for all measured times, the structuration rates up to 40min of the three mixes
were very similar. The structuration rates after 20min were higher for the blends with VEA.
This seems to indicate that for later ages the effect of the VEA would be more pronounced,
whereas SF would promote structuration in earlier ages. If the behavior is confirmed, this effect
could become interesting for the extrusion process, since more layers could be deposited over
time without compromising the stability of the structure. Combined amounts of silica fume and
VEA appears to result in better extrudable concretes.
Figure 1. Yield stress evolution over time on different mix proportions.
REFERENCES
1.! Toutou, Z.; Roussel, N.; Lanos, C.; The squeezing test: a tool to identify firm cement-based
material’s rheological behaviour and evaluate their extrusion ability. Cement and Concrete
Research 35. 1891– 1899. 2005.
2.! Wangler, T.; Lloret, E.; Reiter, L.; Hack, N.; Gramazio, F.; Kohler, M.; Bernhard, M.;
Dillenburger, B.; Buchli, J.; Roussel, N.; Flatt, R. Digital Concrete: Opportunities and
Challenges. RILEM Technical Letters, v.1, p: 67 – 75. 2016.
3.! Roussel N., Cussigh F., Distinct-layer casting of SCC: The mechanical consequences of
thixotropy. Cement and Concrete Research 38. 624-632. 2008.
4.! Nguyen Q. D., Boger D. V., Direct yield stress measurement with the vane method. Journal
of Rheology 29. 335–347. 1985.
115
RHIZOMATIC CONCRETISED FABRIC MESH

N. Kozikoglu* (1), O. Beydagi (2) and G. Elbasdi (1)
(1) Urban Atolye, Istanbul, Turkey

(2) Studio Per Se, Istanbul, Turkey
1. INTRODUCTION
The goal of this paper is to externalize the design research on fabrication methodology for a
tubular network structure, namely alveOsis conceptualized, prototyped and designed by Urban
Atolye and produced in large scale at the Fibrobeton premises. AlveOsis denotes the process or
“state of” in this case of becoming hollow and tubular.
The digital and manual methodology can be summarized as the computational process of
patterns for equal-strain distributed digital mesh, the transfer of digital information to the tensile
mesh structure and its suspension, the concretization and load bearing. This methodology ena-
bled a minimal continuous surface that starts out as a non-gravitational point cloud and ends as
a mesh that is suspended in a metal framework and conforms with gravitation when concretized
in layers.
The structural analysis have shown the process for point cloud Voronoi partitioning as a
powerful meshing strategy to that provides equal strain distribution. Suspension cables lengths
and strengths play an important role in the concretization and the transference of the computed
capacity to real performance whichever orientation of the structure as is placed in the frame-
work. The structural model shows layer thicknesses and zones that require extra padding. Al-
veosis is a morphological process, where results of the process are reflexive. Materiality and
tensions are minimized, continuity and porosity are maximized.
1.1. Computational Stage

In line with the “nature” of alveOsis, its computational generation process is dynamic, start-
ing from particle information to cellular data, and eventually the bone structure. The initial
input for the animation derives from a point cloud network, that respond to site and interior
forces like shade, air flow and as well spatiality and porosity it creates. Points create a network
with multiple geometric variations which confer dimensionality.
This initial computational process excludes gravity, other global push and pull forces, but
rather defines a system in abstract space per se, allowing the network to grow freely. Mathe-
matician Wolfram in search for the constituents of space rather than only seeing it as a backdrop
for the entire universe, and suggests solution to the mainframe of space-time, comes up as net-
works, with a bunch of nodes and connections in the Planck scales. As such alveOsis holds the
main nodes and connections data in memory and forms the rest of the structure around this
information. In the end, it makes up a network in space, which space itself can also be consid-
ered as.
During Alveosis as the point data is generated, optimized cells are also created. The edges
of these cells with an offset are merged and relaxed to create the main structural mesh lattice.
Thus final form is mesh geometry that is continuous where every edge is connecting to the
116
other. This allows estimating the possible unrolled surfaces for the manufacturing process. It
takes off the faces that later become the surfaces of the formwork.
1.2. Digital-Analogue Translation Stage and Concretization

Since the code-generated complex 3D geometry comprises of non-developable surfaces, this
‘bone-like’ structure is manufactured in full size using fabric formwork: patterning, tailoring,
and stitching. The lattice mesh allows two layers of information: (1) the pattern for fabric form-
work and (2) the coordinates and trajectories of the tensile stretcher ropes. Patterns are cut,
tailored and stitched on the edges from linen, to avoid slacking.
The textile formwork is suspended inside 3x3x5m metal framework by individual ropes
which support the tensile mesh geometry in multiple directions. Locations and thicknesses of
stretcher ropes are checked structurally with the digital model tested according to the defined
orientation for gravity. Once stretched the fabric mesh is stuffed with dry sawdust that ensured
curvilinearity. Infill for the formwork is adjusted to the elasticity of fabric construct.
The pre-stressed form-active structure is kept taut during concretization. 3cm glass fibre-
reinforced concrete (GFRC) is sprayed in layers, compacted and smoothed by hand, extra pad-
ding at kinks, double-curved, and overstrained zones to protect formwork topology.
Figure 1. Digital process (top). Suspension, concretization and analysis (bottom)
1.4. Structural Analysis

SAP2000 and FEM analysis are performed with shell elements using the concrete thick-
nesses as realized in the trials. Principal stress checks are made as per two global support con-
ditions. One, the piece as rested on the floor on its own extrusions and crushing/bearing strength
of concrete rims of the extrusions were checked along with the deflections and deformations of
cantilevered arms. In the second support condition, the final exhibit posture of the piece was
considered as hung from and tensioned with cables. Analysis results showed that the support
rims along the tension ropes needed to be min. 4cm thick concrete to safely carry the piece
under all filling and self-loading, while the average thickness is 2cm everywhere else. The
117
higher strength GFRC material’s tension carrying capabilities made it possible to suspend the
piece with the fillings inside.
REFERENCES / BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.! What is Space Time, Really? 2015, viewed 28 July 2017, <http://blog.stephenwolf-
ram.com/2015/12/what-is-spacetime-really>.
2.! Sakamoto, T. and Ferré, A., 'From control to design : parametric/algorithmic architecture’, Actar-
D, Barcelona, New York, 2008.
118
MATERIAL RESOLUTIONS OF CONCRETE
H. Westerlind
KTH School of Architecture, Stockholm, Sweden
1.! ABSTRACT
This paper will report on a material study that investigates controlled deposition of functionally
graded concrete composites. The study is concerned with how additive manufacturing can
counteract the growing environmental impact of concrete by optimising the cement ratio in
concrete construction. For this purpose, “material resolution” is introduced as a concept for how
material properties can be adopted to match local performance requirements by customising the
composition of the used concrete, i.e. different performance concrete mixtures.
Figure 1. Material samples.
Existing practices of casting concrete offers limited opportunities for locally varying the
composition of the concrete used throughout the application process. Instead, one concrete mix
is generally specified to match overall maximum performance requirements in terms of
strength, durability, surface finish etc. As a result the dependence of concrete upon formwork
has resulted in, not only, an overuse of cement within the built environment, but also,
contributed to the widespread notion of concrete as a monolithic and homogenous material. A
historical perspective reveals that this was not always so. A more precise approach to concrete
119
construction has precedence as far back as antiquity, as shown by the varied composition of
cement mortar and aggregate in the Pantheon dome. Already two millennia ago the Romans
realised the economy and potential involved in customising the properties of concrete
depending on structural requirements by varying the density and type of aggregate used.
The process of placing concrete by deposition signifies a fundamental departure from

conventional casting techniques. The formalisation of concrete-flow no longer is determined
by the restraint and control provided by a predefined formwork, but by the self-supporting
capacity of the material itself coupled to the path of deposition. One of the advantages of this
emerging mode of fabrication, commonly referred to as 3D-printing, is the possibility to place
the material in a precise manner to minimise material and formwork waste. However, the
aperture of the extrusion head severely restricts the size of the aggregate and the concrete used
generally exhibit a very high cement content for necessary consistency and predictability.
Furthermore, the possibilities for adapting the paths of deposition according to different
material behaviours remain largely unexplored. This research aims at expanding the material
library of this novel mode of construction by testing different grades of concrete mixes with
different cement ratios and aggregate contents. A specifically designed test path is used in order
to evaluate the synthesis between rheological and mechanical properties in relation to
performence
deposition strategies. requirements
(fresh)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
10
20 80
70
30
60
40 50
50 40
30
60
20
6-60 min 70
10
(Open printable time) 80 0
0-6 min 60 min - 7 h
MIXING HANDLING 5-60 min PLACING INITIAL STIFFENING
0-5 min 60min-7h 7h- 28 days
MIX HANDLING PLACING INITIAL STIFFENING INITIAL CURING

1. High 1. High pumpability 1.High consistency 1. High builability
mixability (low yield stress) (low slump) (stackability)
2. High consistensy 2. High extrudability 2. High builability
(no segreegation) 3. High builability (minmimal shrinking)
(thixotropic/fast initial) stiffening)
4. High buildability
(Good adhesion)
PLACEABILITY_ BUILDABILITY_ PLACEABILITY_ PLACEABILITY_ BUILDABILITY_ PLACEABILITY_

horizontal extrusion stacking horizontal, no support vertical extrusion offset corner, curved
(slump) (yield stresss) (yield stress) (yield stress) (yield stress) (shrinkage)
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of articulated test path.
120
ADAPTING SDC TO THIN FOLDED GEOMETRIES

Anna Szabo* (1), Lex Reiter (2), Ena Lloret-Fritschi (1, 2), Fabio Gramazio (1), Matthias
Kohler (1) and Robert J. Flatt (2)
(1) Gramazio Kohler Research, NCCR Digital Fabrication, ETH Zurich, Switzerland.
(2) Institute for Building Materials, NCCR Digital Fabrication, ETH Zurich, Switzerland.
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper focuses on the challenges concerning concrete that have been exposed when the
Smart Dynamic Casting (SDC) digital fabrication method has been used to produce thin folded
concrete members. SDC is a robotic slip-forming process in which a formwork significantly
smaller than the built elements is moved along a digital trajectory shaping concrete in a delicate
time window when it changes from soft to hard. SDC has previously proved its potential to
produce columns with various non-standard geometries [1]. In addition, a thin folded prototype
has provided the starting point for a new chapter of investigation to study the potential of SDC
for efficiently producing non-standard thin folded members for architectural applications.
However, the initial experiments revealed that adapting the SDC fabrication method for this
different geometrical system of thin folded forms is not exclusively a scaling issue.
In SDC, the possible geometries are determined by the complex interrelation between the
formwork, its actuation, the digital input for the slipping trajectory and the control over the
properties of concrete. This paper focuses on the last element of this relation. In SDC, the setting
time of concrete is controlled by the combination of a retarder and an accelerator. Additionally,
the retarded material has to be pumpable and the accelerated material has to be fluid enough to
fill the formwork where it has to harden at a known rate [2].
When producing thin folded geometries with SDC, the hardening rate needs to be controlled
more precisely than before due to the large surface to volume ratio in the formwork resulting in
increased friction and reduced process opportunity window [3]. Additionally, the longer the
material stays within this window with a yield stress range that is suitable for slipping and local
shaping, the bigger the geometrical solution space of the process is.

The evolution of strength of different mortars containing a set accelerator has been studied
with offline penetrometer tests. This testing method is particularly useful to measure structural
build-up of concrete after placing. During testing, a cylindrical penetrometer head (d=19mm,
h=4mm) is immersed at a constant speed of 1mm/s into accelerated concrete specimens. The
resistance experienced by the penetration needle is recorded as a function of depth. The
fluctuations of the measurements are reduced using a moving average. The first peak is then
related to a yield stress [2].
To model the production process with SDC, a retarded batch of concrete has been mixed
from which small fractions have been accelerated 1,2,3,4 and 5 hours after water addition.
Firstly, the mixture ‘NEST’ has been tested. This mix was previously developed for robust
121
production of facade elements in a demonstration building and it has been used for the first thin
folded SDC prototypes as well. Subsequently, the mixture Folded_Structures and its variants
have been analysed which are based on a previously used SDC material with adjusted
proportions of constituents to meet the requirements for thin folded members.
3. DISCUSSION
The NEST Mix has shown non-uniform strength evolution over the timeframe of the
experiment (Figure 1, Red series). This behaviour requires adjusting the slipping speed to those
different rates over the course of production. Furthermore, the rapid hardening of the
accelerated batches leaves only a minor time window for slipping thus making the production
difficult with thin folded formworks.
Figure 1. Strength evolution of NEST_Mix and Folded_Structures_Mix.
Therefore, a new mix design, the Folded Structures Mix, is proposed to improve the
predictability of the yield strength evolution of the concrete in thin folded formworks due to the
more uniform hardening rate over the course of the experiment. This uniformity is maintained
by the dynamic acceleration strategy: linearly increased accelerator addition over time to
compensate for the otherwise decreasing hardening rate. In addition, the slower yield strength
evolution provides wider time window for slipping and the fluidity is increased compared to
the NEST mix. As a next step, the acceleration of the material with the calculated composition
will be analysed on the SDC process equipment with in-line penetrometer measurements. Thus
exploring the full potential of the mix in SDC to result in a broader range of non-standard thin
members for architectural applications. Results outline a material science approach to operate
SDC within a less sensitive timeframe, making it more robust to changes in material properties.
REFERENCES
[1]! Lloret Fritschi, E. “Smart Dynamic Casting A digital fabrication method for non-standard concrete
structures.” PhD diss., ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland (2016).
[2]! Lloret, E., Mettler, L.K., Shahab, A.R., Gramazio, F., Kohler, M., Flatt, R. J. “Smart Dynamic
Casting: A robotic fabrication system for complex structures.” In Proceedings of 1st Concrete
Innovation Conference, Oslo, Norway (2014)
[3]! Reiter, L., Wangler, T., Roussel, N., Flatt, R. J., “Early age structural build-up”, to be submitted.
122
SUSTAINABLE 3D-PRINTABLE BIO-BASED SUPPORT MATERIAL

FOR DIGITAL CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGIES
J. Kohl*(1), V. N. Nerella (2), J. Kaufhold (1), P. Blankenstein (1), C. Schröfl (2), V.

Mechtcherine (2)
(1) Institut für Holztechnologie Dresden gemeinnützige GmbH, Dresden, Germany

(2) Institute of Construction Materials, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
1.! ABSTRACT AND INTRUDUCTION

Digital construction (DC) technologies open possibilities for a faster and less labor intense
way to build structures while adding high flexibility in terms of structure geometry. The reduc-
tion, if not elimination, of formwork usage not only lowers the overall construction time but
also reduces total concrete construction costs [1,2]. So far, there are no technologically feasible
solutions available for 3D printing of inclined, overhanging or cantilevered structures and struc-
tures with openings (windows, doors, etc.). One promising approach to address this challenge
is to use support material analogues to fused deposition modelling technique used for 3D print-
ing of plastics. The authors have developed a recyclable bio-based support material for integra-
tion in large-scale on-site digital construction, see Figure 1a. This article reports on the feasi-
bility of such technology. Specifically, drying behaviour of the support material, which is de-
cisive for its support capacity, will be addressed based on experimental investigations. The total
time needed for curing the support material has direct influence on the printing rate of main
structures.
support
structural Layer thick-
material 1
concrete 5 ness [mm]
1 2
2 6 Temperature 0 min 0 0
0.6 difference [°C] 1 min 0.5 3.8
between top 2 min 1 11.1
and bottom 3 min 1.5 15.9
s/v 3 7 layer after
60 4 min 2.5 19.8
5 min 3.3 23.1
4 8 Tc [°C]
0.3 20
65 Tm [°C] 85
a) b) c)
Figure 1: a) Support material installation in DC of a building; b) design of experiments (s/v is

surface-to-volume ratio, Tm !and Tc are mixing and curing temperatures, respectively, and c)
temperature distribution among extruded 10 and 20 mm-thick layers.
2.! MATERIAL
The developed support material is based on a mixture of gelatinized starch, wood particles
and additives to ensure its environmental sustainability. The fact that natural starch is soluble
in water allows the reusability for this material. Target mechanical properties of support mate-
rial were specified considering expected applications (cf. Figure 1a) and properties of applied
3D-printable concretes. For this purpose, a loading case of a residential structure was taken as
example having a door opening with freshly printed concrete above it. Both hydrostatic pres-
sure (which is a function of printing rate) and transient static yield stress of fresh concrete were
123
taken into consideration in conjunction with von Mises yield criterion, broadly following [1].
In addition to the resistance (shape stability) against self-weight and vertical loads of concrete
above the opening, the support material must have suitable rheological properties to be trans-
portable to the printhead of a 3D-printer and well extrudable.
3.! METHODICAL APPROACH

In the first step, different material compositions were developed by varying type of starch
(corn and potato), wood additive and water content. A suitable combination of the investigated
constituents was identified (70 % water, 20 % corn starch, 10 % wood particles) meeting re-
quired load-bearing capacity. The main part of the research presented here focuses on the drying
behaviour of printed support material. Influencing parameters including volume-to-surface ra-
tio of printed specimens, mixing temperature of the materials and drying temperature were var-
ied, see Figure 1b. In addition, different drying methods (infra-red and convection) and varying
material thicknesses were investigated. Rheological measurements were also carried out along
with compressive tests on completely dried support material specimens.
4.! RESULTS AND OUTLOOK

The results of the investigations show that high surface-to-volume ratios, mixing tempera-
tures just above the starch gelatinization temperature and a preferably high curing temperature
lead to quicker drying of the support material. The time for complete drying of a 10 mm-thick
specimen was identified to take more than 3 hours using furnace drying. While using infra-red
drying, significant temperature gradients across the layer were measured if layer thickness was
more than 10 mm, see Figure 1c. These findings suggest a limitation of the thickness of a single
support material layer to approximately 10 mm, which means a relatively low construction rate
placing a question mark with respect to the economic viability of this approach. With respect
to influence of type of starch, no particular influence on rheological properties was noticed
when all other parameters were kept constant. However, compressive strengths of specimens
with corn starch are higher than those of potato starch. Nevertheless, support material, when
purposefully designed, composed of both types of starches fulfilled the requirements of vertical
loads acting due to extruded concrete layers. This confirms feasibility of developed technology.
Further investigations are aimed on optimizing the material composition and designing a
support material that meets the specified compressive strength requirements even if only par-
tially dried. Increasing thickness of the printed support material layer much above 10 mm with
assured homogenous drying is an immediate priority. In addition, reusability of the material
and concrete/support material interactions and topological optimizations for accelerated drying
with material minimization are under investigation.
REFERENCES
[1] T.T. Le, S. a. Austin, S. Lim, R. a. Buswell, a. G.F. Gibb, T. Thorpe, Mix design and fresh proper-
ties for high-performance printing concrete, Mater. Struct. 45 (2012) 1221–1232.
doi:10.1617/s11527-012-9828-z.
[2] V.N. Nerella, V. Mechtcherine, M. Krause, M. Näther, 3D-Printing Technology for on-site Con-
struction, Concr. Plant Int. (2016) 36–41.
[3] Wangler, T., Lloret, E., Reiter, L., Hack, N., Gramazio, F., Kohler, M., Bernhard, M., Dillenburger,
B., Buchli, J., Roussel, N. and Flatt, R., ‘Digital Concrete: Opportunities and Challenges’, RILEM
Tech. Lett. 1(0) (2016) 67-75.
124
EVALUATION OF CONCRETE MIX APPLICABILITY FOR 3D

PRINTING
M. Kaszyńska (1), S. Skibicki* (1), M. Techman (1), A. Zieliński (1), N. Olczyk (1),
T. Wróblewski (1) and M. Hoffmann (1)
(1) West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Poland

In the recent years scientists all over the world have shown an increased interest in 3D
concrete printing [1–6]. The evaluation of properties determining the feasibility of the mix is
the biggest obstacle in the 3D printing technology. The article presents test results of
properties of concrete mixes and their applicability for 3D concrete printing. The tests were
performed on several mixes with different composition. The mineral additives such silica
fume, fly ash, metakaolin, kaolin, lime powder and quartz powder were used in the mixes.
Tests included determination of compressive and tensile strength on standard samples (in
accordance with European Standards) and samples acquired from printed linear elements. The
rheological properties of chosen mixes were determined. Visual stability and surface texture
were also evaluated in accordance with other studies [2,3].
The tensile and compressive strength of concretes were determined after 1, 3 and 28 days.
Several test linear pint-outs were created as seen in Figure 2, which were later cut into
samples for other tests. Cut test samples were compressed after 1, 3 and 28 days, in three
different directions to determine the influence of printing on the strength properties and to
compare to standard samples. Early-age mechanical properties of the mixes were determined
using methods found in other studies [5].
The elements were printed using three-dimensional robot of own design (Fig. 1) connected
to pumping module.
Figure 1. Three-dimensional robot for 3D concrete printing used in investigations.
125
Figure 2. Preparation of the samples from printed linear elements for compressive strength
test.
REFERENCES
[1] Gosselin, C., Duballet, R., Roux, P., Gaudillière, N., Dirrenberger, J., Morel, P., 'Large-scale 3D
printing of ultra-high performance concrete – a new processing route for architects and builders,'
Materials & Design, 100, (2016), 102–9.
[2] Le, T. T., Austin, S. A., Lim, S., Buswell, R. A., Gibb, A. G. F., Thorpe, T., 'Mix design and
fresh properties for high-performance,' Materials and Structures, 45, (2012), 1221–32.
[3] Kazemian, A., Yuan, X., Cochran, E., Khoshnevis, B., 'Cementitious materials for construction-
scale 3D printing: Laboratory testing of fresh printing mixture,' Construction and Building
Materials, 145, (2017), 639–47.
[4] Khoshnevis, B., Hwang, D., 'Contour Crafting," In: Kamrani A, Nasr EA, editors. Rapid
Prototyping: Theory and Practice. Boston, MA: Springer US, p. 221–251, 2006.
[5] Perrot, A., Rangeard, D., Pierre, A., 'Structural built-up of cement-based materials used for 3D-
printing extrusion techniques,' Mater Struct, 49 (4), (2016), 1213–20.
[6] Wangler, T., Lloret, E., Reiter, L., Hack, N., Gramazio, F., Kohler, M., Bernhard, M.,
Dillenburger, B., Buchli, J., Roussel, N., Flatt, R., 'Digital Concrete: Opportunities and
Challenges,' RILEM Letters, 1, (2016), 67–75.
126
DIGITAL FABRICATION AS CHANCE FOR A “NEW STANDARD” IN

CONCRETE DESIGN
H. Kloft* (1), E. Herrmann (1), L. Ledderose (1), H. Lindemann (1), J. Mainka (1),
F. Wirth (1)
(1) ITE - Institute of Structural Design, Technical University of Braunschweig,

Braunschweig, Germany
1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years concrete has been developed continuously to a high-performance material.
Today we have about know-how and technologies to produce self-compacting concrete or
ultra-high performance concrete with compressive strengths close to the same as steel. On the
other side we use in the field of digital planning powerful 3D-programs which are able to
deliver data for digital fabrication. Despite these enormous developments in material
technologies and digital environment, concrete design is still driven by the standard of
industrial production of past decades. The standardized formworks as well as the detailing are
designed in terms of simple geometries and jointing principles driven by the rules of cost-
efficiency. Therefore, concrete constructions are based on structural components which are
predominantly bending-stressed and mass-intensive (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Standard design in prefabricated concrete construction (Photos: H. Kloft)
Research at ITE (Institute of Structural Design) aims to match advanced material

technologies with the potential of digital fabrication to define a “new standard” in structural
design driven by principles of resource-efficiency. Concrete is ideal for new design strategies,
because the material is cast in place on site and is not semi-finished like steel profiles or
wooden elements. The presented research projects focus on innovative formwork for complex
geometries, new principles of detailing of dry –jointed concrete elements and advanced
methods for additive fabrication. Basis of research at ITE is the DBFL – Digital Building
Fabrication Laboratory (Figure 2). The DBFL consists of two 3-axis portals. One portal is
equipped with a 6-axis robotic arm and the second portal is carrying a 5-axis milling head and
has been designed for low tolerance milling operations. Both manipulators can be operated
127
individually or in a synchronised mode. By combining additive and subtractive manufacturing

technologies the efficiently production of complex building elements is possible at high
accuracy.
Figure 2. The DBFL at ITE : A 6-axis robot arm combined with a 5-axis milling head
(Photo: ITE)
2. NON-WASTE WAX FORMWORK

Concrete as a cold-cast is basically simple to get in shape, but the effort is in formwork
construction. In free-formed concrete components the shuttering costs rise up to 60% of the
component costs in total, whereas in regular geometries this value ranges around 35%. In the
DFG-SPP 1542 program of the “Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft” a novel method for free-
form formwork was developed at ITE in close cooperation with the IWF. Under the title:
“Non-Waste Wax-Formwork” a production technology of formwork was developed by
subtractive CNC milling of wax blocks. This method allows the precise fabrication of
geometrically complex bodies with small radii of curvature. The research encloses
investigations on various technical waxes in terms of their physical-technical properties
(Compressive, tensile, creep strength and elasticity etc. in temperature dependence), their
fitness as well as the optimal tool parameters for CNC milling and 3D mold stability.
The aim is, to develop a non-waste formwork technology with that concrete components,
in particular made of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC), can be produced economical
and in almost everyone shape.
Figure 3. Production process of an wax formwork to cast a free-formed column
128
3. NEW TECHNIQUES FOR HIGHLY EFFICIENT DRY-JOINTS

In a DFG-SPP 1542 research project innovative joining principles are developed to take
into account the force flow locally and moreover rationally producible and practical to
assemble. The research is done in close corporation with the iBMB. The development chain
of each joint principle includes besides the phase of design finding also checking the
performance using FEM calculations and subsequent validation of the calculation results
based on component tests (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Dry-jointed connections for beam and plate elements (images : ITE)
4. ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING OF CONCRETE ELEMENTS

Most of the recent additive manufacturing techniques (AM) in building are based on
mono-functional printing processes. The focus in research of AM at ITE lies in the
development of combined processes. Final goal is to control with the potential of the DBFL
different process chains simultaneously and cooperatively. The AM-technology is based on a
concrete spraying technology with high pressure. In different to the common lay-down
printing processes with weak composite behavior between the layers, the so-called “high-
pressures-praying” (HPS) technology promises high composite behavior with excellent
material properties. A first research project was initiated by the ITE and is carried out in
cooperation with six institutes from the fields of construction, mechanical engineering and
computer sciences from the three Lower Saxony Universities of Braunschweig, Clausthal and
Hannover. The paper will present first results as well as on-going developments in the “HPS-
Technology” (Figure 5).
Figure 5. First printed objects with the HPS-Technology (photos : ITE)
129
ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING AND PERFORMANCE OF

ARCHITECTURED CEMENT-BASED MATERIALS
M. Moini* (1), J. Olek (1), P. Zavattieri (1), J. Youngblood (2), and B. Magee (3)
(1) Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA
(2) School of Materials Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA
(3) Built Environment Research Institute, Ulster University, Newtownabbey, BT37 0QB, UK
1. ABSTRACT
There is growing interest in using additive manufacturing (AM) techniques to fabricate a
variety of architectured materials, often with multi-functional performance [1,2]. The ability to
achieve complex spatial patterning of solid and cellular structures through AM processes
enables creation of materials with controlled mechanical responses via characteristics ranging
from gradient microstructures to hybrid composites [3-5]. The focus of this paper is to explore
the performance of prisms and helicoidal (Bouligand) structures fabricated from brittle cement-
based materials via 3D printing and, in particular, impacts of printed filament alignment.
Potential benefits of controlling the architecture of such elements and structures at the
macroscale (mm) includes the ability to achieve novel functional performance characteristics.
Weak interfaces are commonly considered defects in cementitious materials and are avoided.
This research demonstrates that within the prisms and helicoidal structures assessed, the
presence of interfaces is not necessarily detrimental to overall performance. In contrary, these
interfaces provide mechanisms leading to novel (i.e. not typically observed in the brittle
materials) mechanical responses (e.g. quasi-brittle load-displacement behavior) and an
increased work of fracture. Specifically, this study demonstrates that the characteristics of
interfaces in 3D printed materials play a significant role in controlling the development and
propagation of micro-cracking and resulting in toughening mechanisms. As represented in
Figure 1.a, the mechanical response of Bouligand structures with helicoidal alignment of
filaments, ! = 45° demonstrate higher degrees of deflection versus conventional cast control
discs. Moreover, Figure 1.b clearly demonstrates this Buligand structure exhibit higher work of
fracture versus cast discs when tested in ball-on-three-ball (B3B) test.
2. REPRESENTATIVE MECHANICAL PERFORMANCE OF 3D-PRINTED

BOULIGAND STRUCTURES
130
Figure 1. a) The Bouligand structure with helicoidal alignment of filaments, " = 45° with 60%
infill, fabricated from brittle cement-based materials via 3D printing; b) Load-displacement
response for printed Bouligand structures with#" = 45° versus conventional cast control disc in
B3B test; c) Work of fracture for Bouligand structure with " = 45° versus cast control disc.
REFERENCES
[1]! Duoss, Eric B., et al. "Three! dimensional printing of elastomeric, cellular architectures with
negative stiffness." Advanced Functional Materials 24.31 (2014): 4905-4913.
[2]! Lewicki, James P., et al. "3D-Printing of Meso-structurally Ordered Carbon Fiber/Polymer
Composites with Unprecedented Orthotropic Physical Properties." Scientific Reports 7 (2017):
43401.
[3]! Compton, Brett G., and Jennifer A. Lewis. "3D! printing of lightweight cellular
composites." Advanced materials 26, no. 34 (2014): 5930-5935.
[4]! Sullivan, Kyle T., et al. "Controlling material reactivity using architecture." Advanced
Materials 28.10 (2016): 1934-1939.
[5]! Gosselin, Clément, et al. "Large-scale 3D printing of ultra-high performance concrete–a new
processing route for architects and builders." Materials & Design 100 (2016): 102-109.
131
POTENTIAL OF STEEL FIBRES FOR MESH MOULD ELEMENTS

P. Pfändler* (1), T. Wangler (1), J. Mata-Falcón (2), R.J. Flatt (1) and W. Kaufmann (2)
(1) Institute of Building Materials, Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatic

Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
(2) Institute of Structural Engineering, Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatic
Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
1. INTRODUCTION
The Mesh Mould system unifies reinforcement and formwork to build free-shaped double
curved reinforcement concrete walls without conventional moulds. The project started in 2012 at
ETH Zurich with a customized tool-head to build a polymer network, later updated to the current
tool-head that builds free form welded meshes with conventional steel reinforcement of 4.5 and
6.0 mm diameter respectively in each direction. The maximum reinforcement content is
constrained by the automatic bending, cutting and welding processes [1] and, while it provides
full bearing capacity for thin applications, it is very limited in the horizontal direction.
The use of steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) to infill the mesh has great potential for
Mesh Mould structures to (i) increase the reinforcement content, especially in the horizontal
direction, and (ii) reduce the leakage of concrete during the filling process thanks to jamming
caused by the fibres. Moreover, the mechanical performance provided by SFRC in conventional
structures could be enhanced due to the existing close and very thin cracks in Mesh Mould ele-
ments [2] caused by shear deformations of the welded mesh (Figure 1 (b)). This paper presents
an experimental study analysing the use of SFRC for thin Mesh Mould structures.
2. MATERIALS AND METHOD

A total of 10 specimens with 540×210×80 mm dimensions were tested in a displacement con-
trolled symmetric 4-point bending test with 400 mm span and 200 mm distance between loads.
The following configurations were analysed: (i) unreinforced concrete (uC), (ii) SFRC, (iii) uC
unreinforced with a welded mesh (uC+M) and (iv) SFRC in combination the mesh (SRFC+M).
The concrete mix is an adaptation of [3] with a 1.2 % volumetric content of metallic fibres
(OL 13/.16 by Baekert) or without any fibres for the unreinforced concrete. The compressive
strength with and without fibres was around 120 MPa. The mean bending capacity of the samples
without meshes was 1.00 kN·m (fct,fl 4.0 MPa) for uC and 1.95 kN·m for SFRC (Figure 1 (a)).
The welded reinforcement mesh is composed of (i) 6 mm rebars (B500B) with 30 mm spacing
in the direction transversal to bending and (ii) 5 mm diameter (B500A) welded segments with a
60 mm spacing for the direction of tension. Hence, the element contains 3 to 4 rebars of 5 mm
depending on the section (Figure 1 (b)). A company produced the meshes, that resulted in an
average weld strength of 2.9 kN, much weaker than the meshes produced by the Mesh Mould
tool head which yield a weld strength of about 7.5 kN. The bending strength of the configuration
uC+M is predicted to 0.70 kN·m based on the measured welding capacity, the concrete
compressive strength and the specimen geometry.
132

The bending strength of uC+M did not fulfil the requirements for minimum reinforcement in
bending for the 80 mm depth elements due to the weak weld capacity of the meshes used in this
study. Hence, the uC+M samples showed a brittle failure after cracking with strain localisation in
a single crack. A post-peak plateau around 0.70 kN·m was observed as predicted.
The configuration SFRC+M (i) reached the desired deflection hardening; (ii) generated dis-
tributed cracking and (iii) increased the bending strength significantly respect to uC+M, resulting
in a higher capacity than the sum of the independent strength of SFRC and uC+M samples. The
insufficient weld strength did not allow developing one crack at every transversal rebar as desired,
but the sample showing the highest number of cracks reached a significantly higher (around 20%)
capacity than the other samples, proving the benefit of distributed cracking on the behaviour of
SFRC in combination with the welded reinforcement mesh.
(a) (b)
Concrete
cracking
Mesh bending strength
Figure 1. (a) results of the 4-point bending test of the welded mesh with an unreinforced
concrete and a SFRC (b) assumed shear deformation in a part of the welded reinforcement mesh
The usage of steel fibre shows a significant increase in strength and ductility without requiring
any adaptation in the robot’s tool-head. The use of Mesh Mould meshes with a higher weld
strength would allow taking fully advantage of the observed benefit of distributed cracking on the
behaviour of SFRC, leading to a better performance than the observed in this study.
REFERENCES
[1] Hack, N., Lauer, W. V., Gramazio, F., & Kohler, M, “Mesh Mould: Robotically Fabricated Metal
Meshes as Concrete Formwork and Reinforcement.” Proceedings of the 11th International Sympo-
sium on Ferrocement and 3rd ICTRC International Conference on Textile Reinforced Concrete
(2015): 347–359.
[2] J. Mata-Falcón, "Mesh Mould structural tests" Report, 2016. (unpublished)
[3] Ruffray, J., Bernhard, M., Jipa, A., Meibodi, M., Montague de Taisne, N., Stutz, F., Wanglert, T.,
Flatt, R.J. and Dillenburger, B., ‘Complex architectural elements from HPFRC and 3D printed sand-
stone’, in Int. Symposium on Ultra-High Performance Fibre-Reinforced Concrete UHPFRC 2017,
Montpellier, 2017
133
WATER RETENTION CAPACITY AND RHEOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR

OF CEMENT-BASED 3D PRINTING MATERIALS
A. Siwei Ma (1), B. Shiho Kawashima* (1)
(1) Columbia University, New York, USA

ABSTRACT The resultant freeform components of 3D concrete printing exhibit relatively
large exposed surface areas, which make them more vulnerable to rapid water loss due to
evaporation. Therefore the water retention capacity of the printed material is important to
consider. Viscosity modifying admixtures (VMAs) exhibit potential to tailor the rheology of
fresh cement-based systems for 3D concrete printing. In this study, the effects of four
different VMAs on water transport properties were evaluated.
1. INTRODUCTION
Cement-based 3D printing eliminates the need for formwork, which can reduce material
use, labor, and time, as formwork construction can make up 35 – 60% of the overall cost of
concrete construction [1]. However, for layer-based, additive manufacturing, the printed
components exhibit relatively large exposed surface areas, which are susceptible to rapid
water loss. This can hinder hydration and induce plastic shrinkage, and ultimately impair the
strength and durability of the printed structure. Thus, water transport behavior plays an
important role in 3D concrete printing applications.
To achieve the desirable rheological properties during 3D concrete printing, VMAs can be
used. VMAs can be classified as organic VMAs, such as polysaccharides and
polyacrylamides, and inorganic VMAs, such as clays. Polysaccharides improve water
retention capacity [2]. However, the effect of polyacrylamides on plastic shrinkage is not
conclusive [3]. And compared to organic VMAs, few papers have been published on the
impact of clays on water retention capacity.
Here we compare the effect of four VMAs on the water retention capacity of cement paste:
diutan gum, polyacrylamide-based superabsorbent polymer (SAP), attapulgite nanoclay and
bentonite clay. Results for SAP and bentonite results are pending.
2. METHODS
2.1. Water transport

A modified version of the filter paper method (DIN 18 555-7) was used to measure the
water retention capacity of fresh pastes. Rate of evaporation was measured by continuously
recording the mass of fresh paste samples (d = 63 mm. h = 47.5 mm) subjected to air flow.
2.2. Rheological measurements of interstitial solution

The interstitial solution was extracted from paste samples through a centrifugal method.
Then, an increasing shear rate ramp from 1 s− 1 to 100 s− 1 was applied over 1000 s and the
apparent viscosity evolution was recorded.
134
3. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
3.1. Water retention

The results of water retention are presented in Fig 1. Diutan gum was found to have a
negligible effect on water retention at small dosages, while above a critical concentration
(0.75%) it was improved. And although nanoclay was expected to bind free water due to its
hydrophilic nature, it had no measurable effect on water retention at additions up to 0.5%.
90% 90%
85% 85%
Water retention (%)
Water retention (%)

80% 80%
75% 75%
70% 70%
65% 65%
0 2 4 6 8 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Diutan gum dosage (%) Nanoclay dosage (%)
Figure 1. Water retention as a function of diutan gum (left) and nanoclays dosage (right).
Table 1: Apparent viscosity at 100 1/s of interstitial solution extracted from cement pastes.
Diutan gum dosage (%) 0 0.75 1.5 2.5 4 6.5
Apparent viscosity (Pa-s) 0.0013 0.0013 0.0022 0.0022 0.0041 0.0077
3.2. Water loss due to evaporation

Diutan gum was found to reduce the evaporation of surface water under air flow while
nanoclay had no measurable effect. To add, the samples with nanoclay exhibited plastic
shrinkage cracking while those with gum did not.
3.3. Rheological properties

To partially explain the water transport results, the viscosity of the interstitial solution was
measured. For diutan gum, beyond a critical concentration (0.75%) a significant increase in
apparent viscosity with dosage was observed. And nanoclay had no measurable effect. These
results agree well with those of the water retention and water loss tests.
REFERENCES
[1] E. Lloret, A. R. Shahab, M. Linus, R. J. Flatt, F. Gramazio, M. Kohler, and S.
Langenberg, “Complex concrete structures: Merging existing casting techniques with
digital fabrication,” CAD Comput. Aided Des., vol. 60, pp. 40–49, Mar. 2015.
[2] C. Marliere, E. Mabrouk, M. Lamblet, and P. Coussot, “How water retention in porous
media with cellulose ethers works,” Cem. Concr. Res., vol. 42, no. 11, pp. 1501–1512,
Nov. 2012.
[3] V. Mechtcherine and L. Dudziak, “Effects of Superabsorbent Polymers on Shrinkage of
Concrete: Plastic, Autogenous, Drying,” in Application of Super Absorbent Polymers
(SAP) in Concrete Construction, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2012, pp. 63–98.
135
CHARACTERISING BOND BETWEEN CONCRETE LAYERS

RESULTING OF EXTRUSION-BASED DIGITAL CONSTRUCTION
V. N. Nerella*, V. Markin, S. Hempel and V. Mechtcherine
Institute of Construction Materials, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany

1. SPECIFICS OF THE LAYER-WISE DIGITAL CONSTRUCITON
In the recent years, various techniques of digital construction (DC), usually called 3D
concrete printing, have been developed [1]. The inherent characteristic distinction of such DC
in comparison to conventional construction (CC) is the layered nature of the former as opposed
to monolithic nature of the later. The inter-layer bond strength (referred to also as layer bond)
is of crucial significance for successful implementation of digital construction [2]. Weak layer
bond or cold-joints are mission critical for extrusion-based DC and must be avoided.
2. FACTORS INFLUENCING COLD-JOINTS IN DIGITAL CONSTRUCTION
Layer bond is influenced primary by concrete composition and time interval between layers
(TI) [3]. The effect of concrete composition is twofold: a) through rheological properties of
fresh concrete, and b) through physical characteristics of layers. Occurrence of cold-joints
depends on the static yield stress of material at rest (extruded layer) and the rheological
properties of material leaving nozzle (layer being extruded). Static yield stress !" #$%&'
exponentially increases after a characteristic critical resting time tc due to structuration effects
(thixotropy) and hydration. Relying on Roussel et al.’s [4] work on SCC, to avoid occurrence
of cold-joints in extruded concrete layers, in a commendable research paper, Wangler et al. [1]
proposed an analytical link between maximum TI and rheological properties, see Eq. 1.
012 3 367 8 3
5
43 2
t ),+,- = / (1)
9:2;<
where #=,>?@ /is maximum allowed TI, AB and/F are plastic viscosity and velocity of concrete
being extruded and G'=H@ is structuration rate. TI influences layer bond through the transient
nature of concrete rheology and process depended aspects such as free water evaporation,
carbonation or shrinkage cracks. Roughness of extruded layer also has a pronounced influence
on the layer bond which usually varies with paste content and shape and size of aggregates.
3. APPROACHES FOR INVESTIGATING INTER-LAYER BOND STRENGTH
Inter-layer bond strength can be investigated both experimentally and microscopically [3].
Shear, flexural and uniaxial tension tests are widely used to assess the concrete layer bond.
Validity and sensitivity of these common approaches in quantitative characterization of layer
bond resulting from digital concrete construction are so far not investigated systematically.
4. EXPERIMENTAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL INVESTIGATONS
Two high-strength fine-grained printable concretes having various binder compositions were
investigated. Mixture A had 390 kg/m³ Portland cement along with 217 kg/m³ fly ash and 108.5
kg/m³ micro-silica, while in Mixture B Portland only cement (633 kg/m³) was used as binder.
136
Flexural, uniaxial tension and compression tests were conducted. Fracture surfaces of selected
specimens were investigated on the micro-level by means of ESEM.
Case 1 Monolithic bond
a)
Case 2 Case 3
a) a) b) c)
Figure 1. a) Cases in testing layer bond with flexural test setup; only Case 1 is appropriate,
b) fracture surface of interface layer for TI of 24 hours showing lack of bond on the top edge
(carbonation is observed here as well), and c) influence of TI on flexural strength.
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (COUP D'OEIL)
Among investigated approaches uniaxial tension test is clearly the appropriate approach for
investigating layer bond, while validity of the flexural tests is still ambiguous. Weakened edges
at layers’ interface result in three cases as presented in Figure 1 (well bonded or unbounded
edge at bottom or on top). If such partial cold-joint is on top-side of the specimen (Case 3)
measured flexural strengths will not reflect it. Since such artefacts can seldom be identified by
naked eye, microscopic investigations are necessary. For both mixtures (A and B), tensile
strength of layer bond decreased with increasing TI, affirming presence of a preferential TI to
be followed. Flexural strength of Mixture B at an age of 86 days was lower than that at 28 days.
This could be explained by excessive Ettringite formation as observed in ESEM and resulted
of high cement content and cold-joints which accelerated the ingress of harmful substances.
Experimental results indicate a need for re-formulation and extension of the model presented
by Eq. 1, which relies on the condition of ‘intermixing’ between existing (bottom) and newly
‘casted’ (upper) layers. Unlike in case of SCC, the upper layer of printed concrete dose not flow
IJ7 K I
after deposition. Thus the term in Eq. 1 tends to zero. Due to the absence of ‘flow’,
)
model for layer bond may not be based on intermixing. Absorption rate and depth of pore
solutions by the bottom layer as well as the condition of its surface (roughness, effect of
carbonation, etc.) are decisive parameters for the prospective model.
REFERENCES
[1] T. Wangler, E. Lloret, L. Reiter, N. Hack, F. Gramazio, M. Kohler, M. Bernhard et al., Digital
Concrete: Opportunities and Challenges, RILEM Tech. Lett. 1 (2016) 67.
[2] T.T. Le, S.A. Austin, S. Lim, R.A. Buswell, R. Law, A.G.F. Gibb, T. Thorpe, Hardened
properties of high-performance printing concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 42 (2012) 558–566.
[3] V.N. Nerella, S. Hempel, V. Mechtcherine, Micro- and macroscopic investigations on interface
between layers of 3d-printed cementitious elements, in: ICACMS Chennai, 2017: 557–565.
[4] N. Roussel, F. Cussigh, Distinct-layer casting of SCC": the mechanical consequences of
thixotropy, Cem. Concr. Res. 38 (2008) 624–632.
137
ROBOT-AIDED MAGNETIC ARRANGEMENT OF STEEL FIBERS IN

UHPFRC: FROM PRELIMINARY TESTS TO NOVEL APPLICATIONS
L. Ledderose* (1), H. Kloft (2)
(1) TU Braunschweig, Institute of Structural Design (ITE), Braunschweig, Germany

1. INTRODUCTION
The undirected distribution of steel fibers in pre-fabricate concrete elements is of substantial
nature. The influence of magnetic fields can significantly improve mechanical properties of
concrete elements by controlling the location and orientation of the fibers according to the
flow of forces [1]. The use of robots guarantees a controllable and reliable treatment of even
complex members during the limited time frame before the cement begins to harden in the
mold [2].
1.1. Preliminary research

Based on former investigations, the paper will present further theoretical consideration and
experimental research of the robot-aided interaction between magnetisms and the steel fiber
orientation. Here, new knowledge about the digital control of the robots could be gained, as
well as remarkable improvements of the performance of specimens could be achieved, e.g. an
increase of 45% regarding the boundary stress of treated specimens, see Fig 1(left and right).
Figure 1. Max boundary stress of treated and untreated motar prisms (left), three-point
bending test of a specimen, 160x40x40xmm (right)
1.2. Novel applications

Building on this preliminary research, a clamp system as a new application field of UHPFRC
is presented, see Fig 2 (left). Here, the elasticity of UHPFRC as a hybrid material is used for
these flexible, force-locking components. The goal was to evaluate the use of this informed
material for members commonly made from metal or polymers with special regards to the
reinforcement strategies of the brittle matrix.
138
Since the limited depth of impact of the magnetic fields asks for molds that are preferably
non-magnetic and have low wall thickness, the FDM technique was chosen for production of
the molds. This additive manufacturing method allowed a rapid production of thirty molds
that were produced for the prototype clamps. For the manipulative process of the magnetic
fiber rearrangement, predefined paths of robots were executed. The end effector of the robot
arm was implemented with ultra-strong neodymium magnets of different dimensions and
polarity. The repeatable path of the end-effector ensured reproducible interaction between the
force fields of the magnets, the geometry of the tested steel fibers and the geometry of the
mold. The desired micro-overlap of parallel-orientated fibers in the tensile zones of the
clamps was achieved by moving the magnets on the outside of the molds. The concentration
of fibers in the tension zone of the clamps could be increased drastically and therefore enabled
the needed elasticity for this demanding application.
This investigation of the influence of robot-aided magnetic arrangement of steel fibers was
included in a study of various reinforcement strategies. Beyond the use of steel fibers,
numerous reinforcement structures made of carbon fibers, Polycarbonate, steel rods and
various combinations were also tested and discussed. The following biaxial test set-up of the
clamps regarded the breaking force of the clamps, as well as the corresponding clamping
force applied on a round bar also made from UHPFRC, see Fig 2 (right). The application
fields of these clamping systems are expectedly force- locking and therefor detachable
concrete constructions as well as structures exposed to an environment with high risk of
corrosion like off-shore platforms.
Figure 2. Tested clamps (d=125mm, h=50mm wall thickness=15mm) made from UHPFRC
(left), biaxial test set-up (right)
REFERENCES
[1]! Ledderose, L.; Kloft, H.: Robot-aided rearrangement of steel fibers in UHPFRC via magnetic
forces (Proceedings of the IASS-SLTE 2015 Symposium “Future visions” 17 to 20 August 2015,
Amsterdam, Netherlands)
[2]! Ledderose, L.; Kloft, H.: Preliminary Investigations for magnetic rearrangement of steel fibers in
UHPFRC, in: Reyolando M.L.R.F. BRASIL and Ruy M.O. PAULETTI (Proceedings of the IASS-
SLTE 2014 Symposium “Shells, Membranes and Spatial Structures: Footprints” 15 to 19
September 2014, Brasilia, Brasil)
139
ARCHITECTURAL APPLICATION OF SMART DYNAMIC CASTING

E. Lloret-Fritschi* (1), F. Scotto (1), F. Gramazio (1), M. Kohler (1), Konrad Grasser (2), T. Wangler (3), L. Reiter (3), R. J.
Flatt (3) and J. Mata-Falcón (4)
(1) Institute of Technology in Architecture, Department of Architecture, ETH Zurich, (2) Dfab Architectural Design Team,
ETH Zurich, (3) Institute of Building Materials, ETH Zurich, (4) Institute of Structural Engineering, ETH Zurich,
1. INTRODUCTION
For more than a decade digital technologies and computer-aided additive fabrication in
architecture have demonstrated potential to construct bespoke complex concrete structures.
Reasoned by high cost for formwork – which impair environmental and economic issues [1],
research has focused on the integration of digital fabrication technologies for the production
of optimized and bespoke concrete structures. Contour Crafting [2], a layer-by-layer extrusion
process – is currently one of the most investigated additive fabrication methods with concrete
world-wide [3]. This process, however, constrains a systematic integration of reinforcement.
Smart Dynamic Casting (SDC), a novel digital fabrication process for complex concrete
structures, overcomes this issue by implementing reinforcement in the production process.
SDC exploits the potential of robotic slip forming to fabricate bespoke vertical concrete
structures, that conventionally require labour-intensive custom-made formworks [4]. The
latest development of SDC focused on the production of structurally optimised façade
mullions with a minimal cross section for the DFAB HOUSE, within the NEST building at
the EMPA premises in Dübendorf, Switzerland. The house combines four pioneering digital
fabrication technologies for architecture [5].
Figure 1: Prototype of a DFAB HOUSE mullions.

The design of the DFAB mullions required to conduct a set of experiments that allowed
understanding of the fabrication constraints of the SDC system. Specifically, the geometrical
possibilities of SDC are highly dependent on the geometry of the formwork and the material’s
ability to be shaped within it. Furthermore, the production of these columns required the
definition of a robust fabrication process that inadvertently highlighted the major issues with
digital fabrication processes and their application to concrete constructions. This paper
discusses the major challenges to enable the production of mass-produce bespoke reinforced
façade mullions with a minimal cross section.
2. FABRICATION AND CHALLENGES

To adapt optimally to the variable wind actions caused by a variable spacing of the façade
elements, SDC fabrication process is used for the production of mullions with different cross
140
sectional areas. The cross sectional areas vary from a min. of 7 x 10 cm to a max. of 7 x 18
cm. However, the narrow cross sectional area of the mullions posed a number of challenges in
terms of formwork construction, actuation, material processing, as well as the integration of
reinforcement.
The formwork used for the production of the mullions was based on the concept of a global
deformation formwork tested previously in SDC for larger cross sectional area [6] [7]. This
earlier formwork proved the efficiency of SDC for the production of optimised elements at
architectural scale, as it enabled the fabrication of columns with significant cross sectional
change along their entire height (max. ratio between the largest and min. cross sectional of 7).
For the mullion application presented in this work, the cross section had to be reduced. This
lead to increased friction forces, as the surface area to volume was increased by a 3.5 factor.
To adapt to this increased friction, the formwork material was changed from a composite
material of wood and plastic to plain stainless steel. Moreover, a capillary oiling system [8]
was further developed to assure a continuous lubrication of the formwork during production.
In regards to material processing, an automated acceleration and feeding system had been
developed earlier in SDC [9], suitable for structures with cross sectional areas ranging
between 15 x 15 cm up to 15 x 80 cm. The significant downscaling of the formwork required
a re-dimensioning of the acceleration system and a re-adjustment of the material mix design
to achieve the required self-compacting properties throughout the entire process of slipping.
The mix design was modified by significantly increasing the amount of the accelerator agent.
While this solved the issues of fluidity and self-compaction, it introduced durability issues
due to potential salt crystallization from the high dosage of the calcium nitrate based
accelerator. The high amounts of nitrate mixed within the processed concrete also required
changing the material of the reinforcement bars from conventional steel to stainless steel to
prevent any formation of corrosion.
Based on previous studies, it was known that the integration of traditional rebar cages
would be a challenge, as they can have significant geometric imperfections. While in
traditional casting this issue is solved by using spacers, this is not feasible in SDC and these
deviations can have a major impact on the overall precise robotic slipping process.
Specifically, reinforcement bars with deviations can prevent the material from distributing
equally in the formwork, or – even more problematic, can cause the final structures to shear or
bend during the processing. The issue was solved on one hand by producing precisely bended
reinforcement bars, and secondly and most importantly by slightly pre-tensioning the rebar’s
to assure their straightness during production.
During the research and development phase, the various production parameters were
integrated into a custom design tool. This tool was further used, by the architectural design
team of the DFAB HOUSE to define feasible geometries in line with the structural
requirements of the façade. In the case of the façade of the DFAB HOUSE, the lengths of the
windows varied – and with it – the structural requirements for each of the mullions. The
design tool was applied for the definition of the geometry of 15 different mullions that
integrated the constraints of the fabrication process and the structural requirements. Taking
advantage of the flexibility provided by the SDC formwork and the highly sophisticated
material processing, the final structures have been successfully fabricated by using one single
formwork within the premises of the ETH in Zurich.
141
REFERENCES
[1] R. H. Lab, “Think Formwork - Reduce Cost,” Structure Magazine, pp. 14-16, 4 2007.
[2] B. Khoshnevis, “Contour Crafting,” 2015. [Online]. Available:
http://www.contourcrafting.org. [Accessed 10 12 2015].
[3] T. Wangler, Lloret, E., Reiter, L. Hack, N, Gramazio, F., Kohler, M., Bernhard, M.
Dillenburger, B., Buchli, J., Roussel, N. and R. Flatt, Digital Concrete: Opportunities and
Challenges, RILEM Tech. Lett 1 :67-75, 2016.
[4] Design to Production, “EPFL Rolex Learning Center,” 2008. [Online]. Available:
http://www.designtoproduction.com/projects.en?epfl_learning_center. [Accessed 10 12 2015].
[5] NCCR Dfab, “http://www.dfab.ch/de/tag/dfab-house/,” [Online]. [Accessed 25 10 2017].
[6] E. Lloret-Fritschi, Lex Reiter, Wangler, T., Gramazio, F., Kohler, M., Flatt R., “Smart
Dynamic Casting: Slipforming with flexible formwork - inline measurement and,” in 2nd
Concrete Innovation Conference, Tromsoe, 2017.
[7] T. Schraner, Sigrist, L., Brasey P., “Smart Dynamic Casting: Investigating the Process
Constraints,” Institute for Building Material, ETH, Zurich, Zurich, 2016.
[8] E. Lloret-Fritschi, PhD: Smart Dynamic Casting: A digital fabrication method for non-
standard concrete structures, Zurich: ETH Zurich, Switzerland , 2016.
[9] S. Garcia, Neukom, L. “Alternative Acceleration and Continuous Processing,” Master Project,
ETH, Zurich, 2016.
[10] L. Fuhrimann, “Alternative Reinforcement System for SDC,” Master project, ETH, Zurich,
2017.
142
A FRAMEWORK FOR PERFORMANCE BASED TESTING OF FRESH

MIXTURES FOR CONSTRUCTION-SCALE 3D PRINTING
Ali Kazemian* (1,2,3), Xiao Yuan (3), and Behrokh Khoshnevis (1,3,4)
(1) The Sonny Astani Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
(2) Department of Computer Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA,
USA
(3) Contour Crafting Corporation, El Segundo, CA, USA
(4) Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, University of Southern California, Los
Angeles, CA, USA
*corresponding author (akazemia@usc.edu)
1. ABSTRACT
Use of additive manufacturing for full-scale in-situ automated building construction is in the
process of emerging in the construction industry. A well-developed automated layer-by-layer
construction process would present numerous advantages including design freedom, superior
construction speed, minimal waste of construction materials, and higher degree of
customization.
Contour Crafting (CC), invented by Dr. Behrokh Khoshnevis of University of Southern
California, is a pioneering additive fabrication technology that uses computer control to exploit
the surface-forming capability of troweling to create smooth and accurate planar and free-form
surfaces out of extruded materials. CC is commonly recognized as the first viable construction-
scale additive manufacturing process for construction. Some of important advantages of CC
include unprecedented surface quality of printed elements, increased fabrication rate, and a vast
choice of materials [1]. The prototype CC machine has work envelope dimensions of 5m x 8m
x 3m, corresponding to a 120m2 printing zone.
Due to unique and well-understood fresh and hardened properties of concrete, it is the most
popular construction material for use with automated layer-by-layer construction processes [2].
Perceiving ‘‘printing concrete” as the latest special concrete, however, there exists no relevant
guideline or proposed procedure for evaluating mixtures and new materials, or any set of well-
defined acceptance criteria for this type of concrete. While few previous studies have focused
on specific properties of printing mixtures, a comprehensive list of performance requirements
and test methods for a printing mixture has not yet been suggested.
The goal of current study is to present and examine a framework for performance-based
laboratory testing and evaluation of printing mixtures. It should be noted that only fresh
properties of a printing mixture are considered herein, while further research is needed to
investigate the structural requirements for hardened printing mixture. Development of a
comprehensive framework for laboratory testing of printing concrete would be a starting point
143
for systematic investigation on this special concrete by researchers, and a basis for future
specifications and guidelines.
In this study, a new definition is provided for workability of a fresh “printing mixture”, where
it is defined in terms of print quality, shape stability, and printability window. Print quality is
described using measures of surface quality and dimensions of printed layers. Details of two
proposed test methods for evaluation of shape stability, namely, “layer settlement” and
“cylinder stability” are also provided. Furthermore, two parameters are suggested to describe
printability window of a mixture, namely, printability limit and blockage limit. The printability
limit, refers to the time when the quality of printed layer is affected as a result of workability
loss, recognized by triple “print quality” requirement, whereas the blockage limit is the time
when the concrete cannot be guided out of the printing nozzle at all, so further delay would
result in mixture solidification and damage to the nozzle. All experiments are carried out using
a laboratory-scale concrete printer (Figure 1), which can produce 10 concrete layers (width x
height=38.1mmx25.4mm), 1.2m in length.
(a) (b)
Figure 1. (a) Laboratory-scale concrete printer which was constructed for this study
(b) 5-layer sample printed by the setup
The experimental results reveal that acceptable print quality does not guarantee high shape
stability, because the four printing mixtures with acceptable print quality show different levels
of shape stability. Also, the results show that inclusion of silica fume and Nano-clay (a highly-
puriﬁed attapulgite clay) enhance shape stability of printing mixture, while minor improvement
is observed from polypropylene fiber addition. With respect to printability window, the results
imply that neither setting time measurements nor workability loss measurements could replace
the direct measurement of printability and blockage limits. Also, both proposed limits are
directly dependent on the specific extrusion mechanism (i.e., auger, piston, etc.) used by the
concrete printer. Therefore, finding a printer-independent relationship between conventional
parameters such as setting time and printability window limits seems unlikely.
REFERENCES
[1] B. Khoshnevis, “Automated construction by contour crafting—related robotics and
information technologies,” Automation in construction, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 5-19, 2004.
[2] A. Kazemian, X. Yuan, E. Cochran and B. Khoshnevis, “Cementitious materials for
construction-scale 3D printing: Laboratory testing of fresh printing mixture,” Construction
and Building Materials, vol. 145, pp. 639-647.
144
!
EFFECT OF PROCESS PARAMETERS ON CONCRETE

BUILDABILITY IN ROBOT-BASED 3D CONCRETE PRINTING
Wilson R. Leal da Silva (1) *, Thomas J. Andersen (1), Nicolas Roussel (2), Timothy
Wangler (3), and Rex Leiter (3)
(1) Danish Technological Institute, Gregersensvej 4, 2630 Taastrup, Denmark
(2) IFSTTAR, Laboratoire Navier, Université Paris Est, France
(3) Physical Chemistry of Building Materials Group, IfB, ETH Zürich, Schafmattstrasse 6, 8093,
Zürich, Switzerland
* corresponding author
The use of concrete in extrusion-based 3D Concrete Printing (3DCP) yields challenges from a mix
design perspective since the material behaviour must feature a combination of self-compacting
concrete and shotcrete behaviour at once, while exhibiting a no-slump character after extrusion. This
is required because the extruded concrete needs to 1) be stable and easy to pump before extrusion, 2)
maintain its workability to enable continuous pumping, 3) sustain its given shape with little or no
deformation after extrusion, and 4) have a finely controlled setting time and strength development to
enable the stacking of subsequent layers without collapse. In the 3DCP research field, these
characteristics are described by parameters such as 1) pumpability, 2) open time, 3) extrudability, and
4) buildability, all of which recur to the term workability in concrete technology.
In this paper, we address the predominant challenges in concrete buildability, since this is paramount
to increase production rates in the 3DCP-based manufacturing of vertical elements, e.g. walls and
columns. By means of a setup that relies on a robot-based 3DCP system, we provide the experimental
results from a parametric study that explores the influence of process-related parameters such as
nozzle travel speed and concrete flow rate on the deformation of extruded layers. The layer
deformation is monitored by an image tracking system developed for this application – an example
of the image tracking system is illustrated in Figure 1.
(a) (b)
Figure 1. Image tracking system: (a) control points for computing layer deformations and (b)
bottom layer deformation.
145
!
Next, the experimental data are compared to numerical elasto-plastic simulations that link layer
deformations to the measured concrete rheological properties. To minimise the time dependence
effect on fresh concrete properties, i.e. the transition state from the moment concrete is extruded to
when the next layer is deposited, a high dosage of concrete retarder is used in the concrete mix
composition. In addition, a similar mix design without the use of retarders is also evaluated. From a
research outlook, this paper’s results will support 3DCP researchers with new experimental data, shed
light on the challenges in extrusion-based printing, and provide a numerical model that could become
an intrinsic part of a digital fabrication process in 3DCP processes.
Keywords: 3D Concrete Printing, buildability, concrete rheology, deformation, extrusion
146
TOPOLOGY OPTIMIZATION FOR STRESS-CONSTRAINED 3D

PRINTED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
F. Auricchio (1), D. Asprone (2), P. Festa (3), C. Menna (2)*, V. Mercuri (1) and T.
Pastore (3)
(1) Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
(2) Department of Structures for Engineering and Architecture, University of Naples Federico
II, Naples, Italy
(3) Department of Mathematics and Applications, University of Naples Federico II, Naples,
Italy
1. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, there is a growing demand in the construction sector for designing and
manufacturing complex shaped structures using innovative materials and technologies. The
recent advances achieved in additive manufacturing (AM) of concrete enable the
implementation of challenging design solutions based on topology optimization methods. The
combination of AM of concrete and topology optimization aims to produce components with
tailored mechanical performances and reduced weight. Indeed, among such methods,
topology optimization has been identified as a key technique to fully exploit the capabilities
of AM. Among the different optimization problems, the stress-constrained technique is the
most interesting from the structural point of view because it consists in the minimization of
the volume of the structure, while satisfying a set of stress constraints ([1],[2]).
In this study, a novel optimization solution technique named PSTOpt algorithm will be
described. Such a technique, oriented towards a new approach for the 3D printing of
reinforced concrete (RC) elements, introduces a new form for the stress constraints that acts
directly upon the principal stress components of concrete material.
2. CONSTRAINT ON STRESSES AND COMPUTATIONAL RESULTS

The PSTOpt algorithm is based on the introduction of the “risk factor” ratio that allows
imposing asymmetric stress constraints, effectively decoupling the stress limitations required
respectively in compression and traction due to the different strength behaviour of concrete
under compression and tension loads. Considering σx and σy as the normal component of the
principal stress tensor in a bi-dimensional structural problem and σ+ and σ- as the maximum
and minimum values allowed for the principal stresses, for each principal direction the two
risk factors RF1 and RF2 read:
147
RF1= max(σx / σ+ , σx / σ-) (1)
RF2= max(σy / σ+ , σy / σ) (2)
Henceforth, the structure is considered to be “over-stressed” once there is some node such
that at least one of its associated risk factors, RF1 and RF2, is greater than one. The
optimization algorithm exploits this formulation while distributing the material within the
physical domain in a proportional fashion as done in [3] for the case of von Mises stress
constraints in an isotropic material.
Figure 1. Depiction of optimization output and solution by means of the PSTOpt algorithm.
Preliminary results demonstrate that this approach adequately takes into account the
strength anisotropy of concrete, attaining configurations of emerging interest given the new
opportunities supplied by the recently popular additive manufacturing techniques.
REFERENCES
[1]! París J, Navarrina F, Colominas I, Casteleiro M, ‘Topology optimization of continuum structures
with local and global stress constraints’. Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization,
39(4):419–437, 2009.
[2]! Le C, Norato J, Bruns T, Ha C, Tortorelli D, ‘Stress-based topology optimization for continua’.

Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization, 41(4):605–620, 2010.
[3]! Biykli E, To AC, ‘Proportional Topology Optimization: A New Non-Sensitivity Method for
Solving Stress Constrained and Minimum Compliance Problem and Its Implemenation in
MATLAB’. PLoS ONE10(12): e0145041, 2015.
148
CORROSION CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES IN DIGITAL

FABRICATION OF REINFORCED CONCRETE
M. Stefanoni* (1), U. Angst (1) and B. Elsener (1)
(1) Institute for Building Materials, ETH Zurich, Switzerland

1. INTRODUCTION
Digital fabrication in the construction industry is increasingly receiving interest and bringing
together different fields such as structural engineering, architecture, materials science, etc. A
particular challenge is the introduction of reinforcing steel, which, in most applications, will be
needed to ensure the tensile strength of the structural members or to counteract shrinkage
cracking of the concrete. A range of different approaches have been proposed regarding the
placement of the reinforcing steel, either in the form of fibres, robot-assembled meshes, or by
manual work.
Digitally fabricated concrete structures will be exposed to the environment as traditionally
fabricated structures. This includes exposure to CO2, with the risk of concrete carbonation, or
exposure to chloride-bearing environments, resulting in the risk of reinforcement corrosion.
Corrosion may significantly impair the safety and serviceability of digitally fabricated
structures and also negatively affect their sustainability.
This contribution addresses corrosion of steel in digitally fabricated concrete. There is a
number of issues that differ from traditional construction, which may give rise to unexpected
corrosion and to corrosion mechanisms differing from those experienced in conventional
reinforced concrete. On the other hand, digital fabrication also offers a number of opportunities
to improve the corrosion performance. We are thus convinced that the issue of corrosion in
digital concrete fabrication is worthwhile to be addressed.
2. CORROSION CHALLENGES IN DIGITAL FABRICATION

At present, very little experience is available. However, there are a number of distinct aspects
inherent to digital fabrication processes that may substantially increase the risk for corrosion.
In digital fabrication, robots nowadays are capable of cutting, shaping and welding steel bars
and create a reinforcing mesh that can also have the function of a formwork (mesh mould [1]).
The different steel surfaces and the presence of welding points might lead to a variation in the
quality of the steel/concrete interface and give rise to galvanic elements.
The processes involving continuous concrete extrusion need a fine control of the hardening
timing, which in most cases implies the use of substantial amounts of activators and accelerators
to have a rapid enough setting allowing the extruded material to sustain its own weight (SDC
[2] and 3D printed concrete [3]). Calcium nitrate (CaNO3) is a frequently used accelerator. In
chloride-induced corrosion CaNO3 may act as inhibitor for steel corrosion [4], in carbonated
concrete however a substantial increase of the corrosion rate is observed (Fig. 1). The mix
design should not only be optimized for digital fabrication but the influence on porosity and
microstructure, the presence of cold joints and corrosion of the reinforcement should be
carefully tested.
149
Figure 1. Corrosion rate of steel in carbonated concrete without additives, with 1% of NaOH
activator and with activator and 1% of CaNO3 accelerator. The picture shows the formation of
corrosion products sticking out of the mortar in case of use of both NaOH and CaNO3, never
found in any other type of sample. (preliminary results by the authors)
3. OPPORTUNITIES FOR CORROSION PROTECTION

In this contribution, we will not only highlight expected challenges in ensuring durability for
digitally fabricated concrete, but also present opportunities for enhanced corrosion protection.
Based on this, directions for future research are indicated. Examples of opportunities are that
digitally controlled production may allow for a better control of concrete properties and the
cover depth, one of the main problems in traditional RC structures, or that the concrete mix and
the type of reinforcement can be “tailor made” according to the specific local exposure
conditions and additional protective methods can be included in digital fabrication.
REFERENCES
[1]! Hack Norman, Timothy Wangler, Jaime Mata-Falcon, Kathrin Dörfler, Nitish Kumar, Alexander
Nikolas Walzer, Konrad Graser, Lex Reiter, Heinz Richner, Jonas Buchli, Walter Kaufmann,
Robert J. Flatt, Fabio Gramazio, Matthias Kohler. "Mesh Mould: An on Site, Robotically
Fabricated, Functional Formwork." Second Concrete Innovation Conference (2nd CIC), Paper no.
19. Tromsø, Norway: 2017.
[2]! Lloret, E., Shahab, A. R., Linus, M., Flatt, R. J., Gramazio, F., Kohler, M., & Langenberg, S. (2015).
Complex concrete structures: Merging existing casting techniques with digital fabrication.
Computer-Aided Design, 60, 40-49.
[3]! Salet, T. A., Bos, F. P., Wolfs, R. J., & Ahmed, Z. Y. (2018). 3D concrete printing–a structural
engineering perspective. In High Tech Concrete: where Technology and Engineering Meet.
Springer Cham.
[4]! Roar Myrdal, “Corrosion Inhibitors - State of the art”, COIN Project report no 22, SINTEF. 2010.
150
CASE STUDY: FULL SCALE CONCRETE 3D PRINTING OF

CORBELLED SACRIFICIAL FORMWORK IN BUILDINGS USING A
RECYCLABLE GRAVEL AGGREGATE AS TEMPORARY SUPPORT
Sasa Zivkovic* (1), Wai Kai Leslie Lok (1)
(1) Cornell University, Ithaca, U.S.A.

1. OVERVIEW
Concrete 3D printing has potential advantages in full scale building construction but
implementation and development of this technology in building industry and academia has
largely stalled. While processes such as Contour Crafting developed at USC by Behrokh
Khoshnevis accomplish to directly 3D print with concrete [1], they fundamentally fail to take
advantage of the 3D printer’s ability to mass-customize complex curvature for no or little
additional cost. Contour Crafting (CC) follow-up projects developed by building industry and
universities alike (WinSun in China, Siam Cement Group in Thailand, Andrey Rudenko in the
United States, University of Technology Eindhoven in the Netherlands, or the Singapore
Centre for 3D Printing in Singapore, ApisCor in Russia, and many others) rely on vertically
extruded shapes which generally do not necessitate 3D printing but can all be implemented
more cheaply and efficiently using existing standard precast construction methods. However,
to fully take advantage of the 3D printing process and its ability to mass-customize complex
geometry [2], individual layers need to be able to incrementally cantilever. To address the
critical issue of creating complex curvature in concrete 3D printing, our team developed a
method which enables cantilevers by implementing a recyclable gravel aggregate as support
material.
1.1. Process
Desktop 3D printing processes have the advantage that the printing material used (PLA or
ABS) has the inherent ability to rapidly cool and harden which enables some cantilevers and
therefore allows for geometric complexity. In PLA or ABS structures that exceed the material
properties of the printing material, a support material system is used to allow for more
extreme geometries to be printed. Concrete, however, does not rapidly cure and is very heavy,
requiring a different approachmore similar to powder 3D printers. Using a gravity fed hopper-
auger system on a custom built 3-axis 3D printer, the concrete mixture has an open time of
approximately 1 hour and can be extruded at a maximum layer height of 10 mm and to an
overall print height of 200 mm before allowing time for the concrete to set. The gravel
aggregate has an approximate top size of 10 mm and is added to provide support for the
concrete during the 3D printing process. With the gravel as support material, steep cantilevers
up to 60 degrees can be achieved during the printing process [Figure 1]. To complete the
structural building process, sacrificial layers of concrete formwork are stacked, custom rebar
cages are added, and additional concrete which constitutes the main structural support for the
building is infilled.
151
2. CONCLUSIONS
Based on a full-scale case study of a small structure, this project demonstrates the
economic and structural feasibility of creating 3D printed formwork which takes full
advantage of mass customized complex geometries in 3D printing processes. Using a support
material in concrete 3D printing can help overcome some of the limiting paradigms of linear
extrusion that thus far dominate research and the industry.
Figure 1. (upper left) Concrete 3D printing process using gravel aggregate as temporary
support for corbelled print, (upper right) plan view showing extent of concrete corbel
cantilever, (lower left) inverted stack of sacrificial corbelled formwork and custom rebar
system, (lower center) full scale 3D printed and assembled structure, (lower right) view of
elevated and corbelled underside of structure.
REFERENCES
[1]! Khoshnevis, Behrokh. "Automated construction by contour crafting—related robotics and
information technologies." Automation in construction 13.1 (2004): 5-19.
[2]! Lipson, Hod, and Melba Kurman. Fabricated: The new world of 3D printing. John Wiley & Sons,
2013.
152
INDUSTRIALIZING,THE,NON0WASTE0WAX0FORMWORK,
TECHNOLOGY,,
J.,Mainka*(1),,F.,Wirth,(1),,E.,Herrmann,(1),,H.,Kloft,(1),,
(1)$TU$Braunschweig,$Institute$of$Structural$Design$(ITE),$Braunschweig,$Germany$
*corresponding$author$
1. INTRODUCTION
Within the TailorCrete Program (2009-2013) Gramazio/Kohler et. al. of the ETH Zürich
developed a freeform concrete formwork system using wax brought into form with a flexible
actuated mold [1]. Inspired by this research, the Institute of Structural Design (ITE) has
developed a somehow similar but different approach for a free form concrete formwork using
precisely CNC-milled cold industrial wax blocks. The basic research to develop this technology
was performed in a joint research project (2014 to 2016) called: “novel precise formwork-
technology on basis of CNC milled recyclable industrial waxes for the casting of geometrically
complex concrete elements” together with the Institute of Machine Tools and Production
Technology (IWF) of the Technical University Braunschweig within the Priority Program SPP
1542 funded by the German Research Foundation DFG. [3]
As a result the technical basics of the Non-Waste-Wax-Formwork were developed, providing
a technology and an industrial wax that allows the production of concrete and especially ultra-
high performance concrete (UHPC) members. Which can be cast with adjustable surface
qualities, with a precision in the tenth of a millimeter range and in almost any geometric form
with sharp edges and very small radii of curvature. A further advantage is the achieved
sustainable closed loop recycling process, since the recycling (melting) of the wax chips and
the disused wax formwork elements does not produce any waste in the process. This not only
makes the wax formwork technology ecologically interesting, but also provides an
economically efficient alternative to state of the art free form formwork made of epoxy resin
coated foaming polystyrene (EPS) and Polyurethane (PU). Reusing wax, can already yet lower
the material cost per application to a comparable level of EPS, while better material properties
are reached – comparable to the properties of medium dense PU.[2]
2. TRANSFERING THE TECHNOLOGY TO THE INDUSTRY

Based on these good results and the industry's need for sustainable formwork technology, the
Non-Waste-Wax-Formwork technology was awarded with the German Innovation Prize of the
Supplier Industry for Structural Concrete Products 2017 and is now being converted into
industrial applications. The challenge of transferring the technology into an industrial process
lies in the fulfillment of the respective user-specific requirements and the associated adaptation
and optimization of the individual process steps, such as the production of the wax blocks
(blanks). Using the examples of two actual research projects being carried out at the ITE
together with industrial partners, the different requirements, approaches and results are
presented and compared in this paper.
In the first project entitled "Development of a modular and fully automatic production process
for freeform concrete formwork in building construction based on technical wax" funded by the
153
German Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology (BMWi) the focus of research is the
fast and fully automated production of modular expandable wax formwork (Fig. 1, left) with a
low demand on the achievable precision (Replacement of EPS "disposable formwork").
Therefore, wax blocks are made by pressing cold wax chips. Although these wax blocks have
a lower compressive strength (FIG. 1, right, C) than until now cast wax blocks (FIG. 1, right,
A). The production is significantly faster and requires no melting energy at all.
The second project entitled "Innovative Non-Waste-Wax-Formwork for the Fabrication of
High-Precision Machine Frames made by UHPC", funded by the German Research Foundation
(DFG), focuses on the development of a precise and robust wax formwork (replacement of PU
/ Steel "multiple formwork"). Therefore, wax blocks are made by casting filler-added wax.
These wax blocks have shown a higher compressive strength (FIG. 1, right, B) than until now
cast wax blocks (FIG. 1, right, A). Their production is less complicated, since the thermal
shrinkage and the high melting energy are reduced.
7.5 (B)
7
6.5
1 6
5.5
2 5
Stress0[N/mm²]
4.5 (A)
4
3.5
3 3
2.5
2
1.5 (C)
1
0.5
4 0
0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5%
Strain0[%]
Compressed0 CFW0Chips CFW0with0filler CFW0Grouted
$
Figure 1. Principle of automated modular wax formwork: (1) compression of chips to blocks,
(2) CNC-milling, (3) assembly of modular formwork, (4) closed loop recycling (left),! Stress-
Strain Diagramm of ConFormWax (CFW) samples produced as: cast (A), cast with 20% filler
content (C) and compressed chips (B) (right).
REFERENCES
[1]$ F.Gramazio, M.Kohler, A.Mirjan, S. Oesterle und A. Vanssteenkiste,
„holcimfoundation.org/Architecture & Digital Fabrication, ETH Zurich,“ [Online]. Available:
Http://www.holcimfoundation.org/Portals/1/docs/A12/A12in1CH/A12GLin1CH-posterhigh.pdf.
[Zugriff am 04 06 2013].
[2]$ Mainka, J.; Kloft, H.,Stein E., Wirth F. : Non-Waste-Wax-Formwork technology: Innovative
precision formwork for concrete members made of recyclable industrial waxes, Proceedings of the
International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS Symposium 2017, Hamburg,
Germany, 2017
[3]$ Mainka, J.; Kloft, H.; Baron, S.; Hoffmeister, H.-W.; Dröder, K.: Non-Waste-Wachsschalungen:
Neuartige Präzisionsschalungen aus recycelbaren Industriewachsen. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau,
Ernst & Sohn, 111 (2016) 12, S. 784−793
$
154
EXPERIENCE IN ONLINE MODIFICATION OF RHEOLOGY AND

SETTING TIME OF 3D PRINTABLE MORTAR
V. Esnault* (1), M. Chantin (1), A. Labyad (1) and F. Toussaint (1)
(1) Lafarge Centre de Recherche, Saint Quentin Fallavier, FRANCE

1. PRINCIPLE
Since the pioneer work of Pr Berokh Koshnevis [1], 3D printing of concrete through the
extrusion process is seen as having the potential to disrupt deeply the way we consider the
usage of concrete in construction.
3D printable mortar or concrete formulations are subjected to contradictory requirements
[2]. They need to be pumpable, in order to be easily conveyed from a reservoir or a mixer to a
nozzle head. But the 3D printing application also requires some mechanical properties on the
extruded product, in order to sustain first its own weight, then the weight of the subsequent
layers. General ease of the process also require the formula to present a sufficient “open time”
for the transport and the application of the concrete on the structure, without early setting of
the product in the system which could prove catastrophic for the installation.
A solution to this issue is the use of an online addition device in the nozzle to modify the
product while it is printed. The material is conveyed from a reservoir or a mixer in an initial
state designed to optimize easiness of use: high fluidity, long open time… Just before the
product exits the system, an additive is incorporated in order to modify the rheology and/or
setting time properties of the material. The modified material can display different properties
than the initial material, which can be tailored to fit the requirements of 3D printing: solid-like
consistencies, immediate mechanical resistance, and fast setting time. The overall system
hence guarantees that the material displays the ideal properties at every stage of the process.
This procedure was first applied operationally in [3].
This study exposes recent advances in the mastery of formulations dedicated to such
process, and an evaluation of the impact of several factors on the quality of the extruded
product.
2. MATERIAL AND METHODS

Results were obtained on an experimental extrusion setup, which general outline is
exposed in Figure 1. The system did not allow piloting robotically the extrusion of the
material to 3D print, but could extrude continuously material in conditions and scale similar
to a real 3D printing process (2 L/min throughput).
Extruded material was characterized using a variety of quantitative (measure of heat
generation, strength acquisition over time), and qualitative (visual aspect of the extruded
material, assessment of homogeneity using a tracker agent) methods. Impact of material initial
formulation, nature and quantity of the addition was evaluated.
155
Figure 1 : Schematic of the experimental setup
3. RESULTS
Two types of additions have been considered for this purpose. Accelerators are molecules
that act on the Portland cement reaction kinetic. They shorten the setting time, and accelerate
the subsequent strength acquisition. If they act fast enough, the effect on rheology can be
already sizable by the time the product leaves the nozzle. Other type of additives only act on
the rheology, with little or no influence on the setting chemistry.
Two families of formulations were tested. One relied on a fast-action accelerator for both
early consistency and improvement of strength acquisition. Initial consistency was not very
firm, but strength acquisition was spectacular after a few minutes, displaying potential for
high performance applications. Other products used rheology modifier for initial consistency,
and slower accelerators for a milder increase of properties, ideal for robust and relatively slow
processes. Those products displayed a very different behaviour, with a very impressive initial
strength, but a slower strength acquisition in the follow-up. Impact of the product initial
rheology and maximum grain size also proved decisive on the efficiency of the process.
Both formulation displayed levels of initial fluidity and strength acquisition spectacularly
superior to results presented in the literature [4].
REFERENCES
[1]! Koshnevis, B., “Innovative rapid prototyping process making large size, smooth surface complex
shapes in a wide variety of materials” Materials Technology 13 (1998) 52-63
[2]! Bos F. et al., “Additive manufacturing of concrete in construction : potentials and challenges of
3D concrete printing”, Virtual and Physical Prototyping 11 (2016) 209-225
[3]! Gosselin C. et al. “Large scale 3D printing of ultra-high performance concrete – a new processing
route for architect and builder”, Material and Design 100 (2016) 102-109
[4]! Perrot, A., Rangeard, D. and Pierre, A., “Structural build-up of cement based materials used for
3D printing extrusion techniques” , Materials and Structures 49 (2016) 1213-1220
156
3D PRINTING OF STEEL FIBER REINFORCED CONCRETE:

RHEOLOGICAL AND MECHANICAL ASPECTS
C. Menna (1)*, L. Ferrara (2), D. Asprone (1) and F. Lo Monte (2)
(1) Department of Structures for Engineering and Architecture, University of Naples Federico
II, Naples, Italy
(2) Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
1. INTRODUCTION
The recent developments achieved in the additive manufacturing (AM) technology of
concrete have the potential to provide interesting design solutions for complex shaped structural
elements.
However, an effective approach for the manufacturing of steel reinforced concrete (RC)
elements is not yet a developed concept, mainly due to the scarce flexibility of “classical”
reinforcing steel with regard to AM technologies. Indeed, steel reinforcement integration on 3D
printed concrete structures is characterized by lower technological progress and remains a
challenge in the field. Available examples concern i) the mesh mould approach which consists
in digitally fabricate a metal wire formwork acting as permanent reinforcement [1]; ii) external
steel rods application to 3D printed concrete segments of a structural beams [2]; or, iii)
alternatively but less effective than steel, the use of fibres in printable mortars.
In this study, we explore the feasibility of adding different types of fibres (including
polymeric and amorphous alloy ones) into a printable concrete mixture for layered extrusion
process, focusing on rheological and mechanical issues arising from the steel component
integration.
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
We adopted a BigDelta WASP printer from the Italian CSP company [3] to assess the steel
reinforced concrete “printability” in a layered extrusion process. The printing head is made of
a conical container with a capacity of about 20 litres of fresh concrete. The concrete is extruded
by a rotating endless screw through a nozzle with a variable diameter. Different nozzle dimeters
are considered in order to effectively implement the printing process with steel fibres.
The fibre reinforced concrete mix design is optimized to overcome a number of constraints
related to its mechanical and physical properties:
-! rheological properties, i.e. yield stress and viscosity, of the fresh material tailored to
make it both “extrudable”, i.e. capable of being ejected through the extrusion head
without creating steel fibres agglomeration, and “buildable”, i.e. capable of being stacked
progressively in layers;
-! maximum aggregate size compatible with the extrusion nozzle;
157
-! size and amount of fibres compatible with extrudability requirements, with reference to
both the size of the nozzle and the rheological properties of the mix, as affected by the
fibre addition itself;
-! avoiding separation between fibres and cement paste/aggregates during the printing
process.
b)
a) c)
Figure 1. The printer a), polypropylene fibers b), steel fibers fibraflex (R) c)
A series of experimental tests have been performed to assess the relation between rheological
properties of the fresh mixture, as measured through a Mars III Haake rheometer, and feasibility
of the printing process. These have also included resistance to penetration, to shearing off of
interfaces as well as to extension/separation, over a range of time compatible with the printing
process [4]. Moreover, a mechanical characterization of the optimized mix has been performed
with aim of correlating the tensile behaviour of the material (strain softening/hardening, also as
a function of dosage and extrusion governed fibre alignment) and the flexural response of the
stacked layers. The aim is to obtain a high structural performance of the fibre reinforced
material in the printed structural configuration which could provide a reliable solution to the
need or reinforcing 3D printing structural concrete.
REFERENCES
[1]! Wangler, T., Lloret, E., Reiter, L., Hack, N., Gramazio, F., Kohler, M., ... & Flatt, R. (2016). 'Digital
concrete: opportunities and challenges'. RILEM Technical Letters, 1, 67-75.
[2]! Asprone, D., Auricchio, F., Menna, C., and Mercuri, V. '3d Printing of Reinforced Concrete
Elements: Technology and Design Approach', Under review
[3]! 22. http://www.wasproject.it/

[4]! Mettler, L. K., Wittel, F. K., Flatt, R. J., & Herrmann, H. J. (2016). Evolution of strength and failure
of SCC during early hydration. Cement and Concrete Research, 89, 288-296.
158
LAYER-BY-LAYER ROBOTIC CONSTRUCTION: ROBUSTNESS OF

PRINTING MIXTURE
Ali Kazemian* (1,2) and Behrokh Khoshnevis (1,3)
(1) The Sonny Astani Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
(2) Department of Computer Science, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA,
USA
(3) Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, University of Southern California, Los
Angeles, CA, USA
*corresponding author (akazemia@usc.edu)
1. ABSTRACT
Use of additive manufacturing for full-scale in-situ automated building construction is in the
process of emerging in the construction industry. A well-developed automated layer-by-layer
construction process would present numerous advantages including design freedom, superior
construction speed, minimal waste of construction materials, and higher degree of
customization.
Contour Crafting (CC), invented by Dr. Behrokh Khoshnevis of University of Southern
California, is a pioneering additive fabrication technology that uses computer control to exploit
the surface-forming capability of troweling to create smooth and accurate planar and free-form
surfaces out of extruded materials. CC is commonly recognized as the first viable construction-
scale additive manufacturing process for construction. Some of important advantages of CC
include unprecedented surface quality of printed elements, increased fabrication rate, and a vast
choice of materials. The prototype CC machine has work envelope dimensions of 5m x 8m x
3m, corresponding to a 120m2 printing zone. CC technology has been considered to be a viable
method for building immediate infrastructures on the surface of the moon and Mars for
colonization purposes.
There have been some previous research where aspects of automated layer-by-layer
construction such as robotics and information technologies [1] and construction materials
(mixture development) [2] have been studied. One important aspect related to printing concrete
is “robustness”, which has not been investigated by researchers. Robustness of printing mixture
is defined as resistance against variations in raw materials and proportions, and maintaining the
performance requirements with respect to concrete 3D printing process. Considering the
unprecedented construction speed offered by automated construction processes, robustness is
very critical, because change in printing mixture could cause problems such as deformations of
layers which, in extreme situations, can lead to collapse of fresh printed structure.
In this study, variations in water content is considered as the only source of change and
variations in material. In fact, change in water content is an existing problem in mass production
of special concretes (such as self-consolidating concrete) in construction projects, since
159
aggregate moisture content is variable and cannot be accurately measured. With respect to
performance assessment of printing mixtures, the criteria which was developed within a
performance-based framework (an earlier work of authors [2]) are employed in this study.
Based on these criteria, workability of a printing mixture is evaluated in terms of print quality,
shape stability, and printability window. For experimental investigation of robustness of
printing concrete, two reference mixtures and eight variations of those two mixtures are studied
(Table 1).
Table 1: Proportions for reference and altered mixtures

Fine aggregate Portland Free Silica Nano-
Mixture HRWRA
(SSD) cement Water fume clay
ID
Kg/m3 Kg/m3 Kg/m3 Kg/m3 %a %a
REF1 259.0
REF1+2% 264.2
REF1-2% 1357 540 253.8 60 0 0.16
REF1+5% 272.0
REF1-5% 246.0
REF2 259
REF2+2% 264.2
REF2-2% 1379 600 253.8 0 0.30 0.15
REF2+5% 272.0
REF2-5% 246.0
Workability and extrudability testing of the ten mixtures reveals considerable changes in
properties of printing concrete when water content changes by 5%. Also, the experimental
results reveal superior robustness of the mixture containing the Nano-clay (REF2).
REFERENCES
[1] B. Khoshnevis, “Automated construction by contour crafting—related robotics and
information technologies,” Automation in construction, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 5-19, 2004.
[2] A. Kazemian, X. Yuan, E. Cochran and B. Khoshnevis, “Cementitious materials for
construction-scale 3D printing: Laboratory testing of fresh printing mixture,” Construction
and Building Materials, vol. 145, pp. 639-647.
160
RHEOLOGICAL CONTROL OF 3D PRINTED CEMENT PASTE

Scott Z. Jones* (1), Dale P. Bentz (1), Nicos S. Martys (1), William L. George (1), and
Austin Thomas (2)
(1) National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA

(2) University of New Haven, West Haven, Connecticut, USA
1. INTRODUCTION AND METHODS

Three-dimensional concrete printing (3DCP) is a form of concrete fabrication where a
cement-based material is selectively solidified by means of a computer-controlled robotic
system. One such approach to 3DCP is called additive construction by extrusion (ACE). Here,
a robotic system controls the position and orientation of a nozzle that extrudes cementitious
material onto a working surface and the final shape is achieved without the need of temporary
structures to contain the material as it hardens. Before the benefits of this technology can be
realized, numerous challenges must be addressed, including how to reliably control the setting
and rheology of cement-based materials for ACE applications [1,2].
Two key parameters to the success of ACE are the open time (i.e., the time from mixing to
initial setting) and the structural build-up of the material that occurs due to hydration reactions
and flocculation of the cement particles [1,3]. This study seeks to relate these properties to the
printability, as described in [1], of two pastes containing cement and limestone. Additionally, a
combination of numerical simulations and experimental measurements are used to infer the
power law coefficient of the extruded material’s viscosity, which is used to control the dosage
of a setting accelerator. One mixture contains a 50 % by mass of powder blend of a 6 µm median
particle diameter (D50) limestone and cement and the other a 50 %, 25 %, and 25 % by mass of
powder blend of a cement, a 2.2 µm D50 limestone, and the 6 µm D50 limestone, respectively.
Both mixtures were formulated at a water-to-powder mass ratio = 0.28, with a 4 mL/kg of
cement polycarboxylate ether-based admixture dosage.

Printing with the two mixtures produces structures shown in Figure 1. The quality of the
structure depends upon the time after mixing, emphasizing the importance of the cement open
time. Figure 2a reports isothermal calorimetry measurements for both mixtures. It was observed
that structures were printable until approximately 2 h after mixing, corresponding to the end of
the induction period. The mixture in Figure 1a was able to create free standing structures at
30 min after mixing. The mixture in Figure 1b was printable at 50 min after mixing. The yield
stress measurements in Figure 2b show that an initially high yield stress is one key to success;
however, the rate of yield stress growth is also important as the material will need to support
an increasing mass as the structure grows taller.
A challenge to controlling yield stress is to do so without influencing the flow rates. One
approach may be to intentionally increase the open time by introducing an admixture to delay
the onset of initial setting (e.g., a retarder) and then initiate setting when a hardened material is
161
required by injection of a setting accelerator. With this approach, precise measurements of the
rheological properties are necessary to adjust the dosage of the setting admixture in line during
the processing. To accomplish this, a static mixing system is used to introduce a setting
accelerator in line with the extrusion process. Computer simulations are used to estimate the
flow rate as a function of pressure drop along a pipe. With this relationship, the power law
coefficients are computed from pressure measurements in the extrusion system.
"⃗$%&&'(
Collapse initiated
(a) t = 40 min (b) t = 70 min

Figure 1. Failure of 3D printed structure for (a) 2.2 µm and 6 µm limestone blend at 40 min
and (b) 6 µm limestone blend at 70 min.
3 104
6 µm LS
6 µm and 2.2 µm LS
Heat Flow (mW/gcement )
2.5
103
Yield Stress (Pa)
1.5 102
1
101 6 µm Limestone
0.5 6 µm and 2.2 µm Limestone
0 100
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Time (h) Time (h)
(a) (b)
Figure 2. (a) Isothermal calorimetry showing the induction period and (b) change in yield
stress with time. Error bars and confidence intervals show at 95 % confidence level.
REFERENCES
[1]! Lim, S., Buswell, R.A., Le, T.T., Austin, S.A., Gibb, A.G.F., and Thorpe, T., “Developments in
Construction-Scale Additive Manufacturing Processes,” Automation in Construction, Vol. 21 (1),
262-268, 2012.
[2]! Wangler, T., Lloret, E., Reiter, L., Hack, N., Gramazio, F., Kohler, M., Bernhard, M., Dillenburger,
B., Buchli, J., Roussel, N., and Flatt, R., “Digital Concrete: Opportunities and Challenges,” RILEM
Technical Letters, Vol. 1, 67-75, 2016, DOI: 10.21809/rilemtechlett.2016.16.
[3]! Perrot, A., Rangeard, D., and Pierre, A., “Structural Build-Up of Cement-Based Materials Used for
3D-Printing Extrusion Techniques,” Materials and Structures, Vol. 49, 1213-1220, 2016,
DOI:10.1617/s11527-015-0571-0.
162
CAPILLARY WATER INTAKE BY 3D-PRINTED CONCRETE

VISUALISED AND QUANTIFIED BY NEUTRON RADIOGRAPHY
C. Schröfl*, V. N. Nerella, V. Mechtcherine
1.! INTRODUCTION, MOTIVATION

3D-printing of concrete opens new horizons in construction, especially in terms of geomet-
rical flexibility. In extrusion-based digital construction, a nozzle typically deposits fresh con-
crete layer by layer. Experience from conventional concrete construction teaches to intensely
pay attention to layer-layer bonding zones as they can chemically and microstructurally repre-
sent critical vulnerabilities. In addition to mechanical shortfalls, a most negative consequence
of insufficiently dense bonding zones (in comparison to dense microstructure in each layer) can
be an easy capillary intake of water deep into a structural element, which can severely reduce
both the durability of printed concrete and its protective function with respect to steel reinforce-
ment. In the present study, neutron radiography imaging was used to visualise and quantify
capillary suction of 3D-printed concrete specimens along the interfaces between subsequently
printed layers. Layer-after-layer deposition time intervals were systematically varied. Besides
reference concrete, a recipe enriched with superabsorbent polymer (SAP) was investigated.
2.! MATERIAL
Concrete specimens were 3D-printed by extrusion according to [1]. The SAP had previously
been used and proven successful as a multipurpose admixture to concrete, e.g. to mitigate au-
togenous shrinkage [2]. “SAP D” denominated in [2] at a dosage of 0.4 % by weight of cement
(bwoc) was added to the reference composition. All processing parameters were kept constant,
but the time interval to placement of the next layer was systematically changed (Table 1).
Table 1: Specimen denomination, deposition intervals between the layers and suction time
Mixture Spec. 1st/2nd layer 2nd/3rd layer 3rd/4th layer 4th/5th layer Suction
A (fine grained A 4 13 min. 13 min. 13 min. 13 min. 26 hours
concrete with- A 13 2 min. 2 min. 2 min. 2 min. 26 hours
out SAP) A 19 2 min. 2 min. 2 min. 24 hours 26 hours
G1 13 min. 13 min. 13 min. 13 min. 54 hours
G (with 0.4 %
G 10 2 min. 2 min. 2 min. 2 min. 54 hours
bwoc SAP)
G 16 2 min. 2 min. 2 min. 36 min. 28 hours

Square specimens were prepared by saw-cutting from printed walls at the age of 28 days and
their moisture contents equilibrated. Each specimen contained five layers and four bonding
zones. Figure 1a sketches the specimen alignment in the capillary suction tests. After placement
in a shallow water tub, time-resolved neutron radiography imaging was immediately initiated.
This technique allows for visualisation and quantification of the water contents in a spatial res-
olution of some tens of micrometres. The experiments were performed at Paul Scherrer Institut
in Villigen/AG, Switzerland, at measurement position 3 in the NEUTRA beamline of the SINQ
spallation source. Imaging, processing and time-resolved quantification of water contents ac-
corded to previous studies by the authors, e.g., [3, 4].
163
4.! RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

direction)of)water)suction a) b)
layer1layer)
80#mm
interfaces 80#mm
8
d) c)
differential*water*
(A19(low
content*[g/dm³]
6
(G16(low
4
2
0
!2
!4
0 20 40 60 80 100
image*width*[mm]
Figure 1: a) Specimen alignment for capillary suction in NEUTRA, not to scale, bottom layer
on the right and upper layer on the left side; b) and c) referenced images after 26 hours of
suction (water basin at bottom, dark), being b) A19 (note water at the boundary 4th/5th layer and
in cracks in 5th layer) and c) G16 (note water-enriched SAP spots and water at the boundary
4th/5th layer); d) water contents in the indicated stripes of the specimens (note the scale g/dm³)
The matrices take in practically no water. The SAP slightly increase their water content in
time; most probably, a shallow increase in internal humidity makes them swell. A very short
layer-layer deposition interval results in no “capillary active” bonding zone, whereas longer
ones give rise to capillary suction in the bonding zone. However, in the latter case, the adjacent
matrix of each deposited layer does not intake a significant amount of water along the interfaces.
5.! ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors express their deep gratitude to the neutron imaging and activation group of Paul
Scherrer Institut, by name David Mannes, Pavel Trtik, Peter Vontobel and Eberhard Lehmann,
for making the investigation possible, their extensive on-site support and fruitful discussions.
REFERENCES
[1] Nerella, V.N., Krause, M., Näther, M., and Mechtcherine, V., ‘3D printing technology for on-site
construction’, CPI – Concr. Plant Int. 4 (2016) 36-41.
[2] Schröfl, C., Mechtcherine, V., and Gorges, M., ‘Relation between the molecular structure and the
efficiency of superabsorbent polymers (SAP) as concrete admixture to mitigate autogenous shrink-
age’, Cem. Concr. Res. 42 (2012) 865-873.
[3] Schröfl, C., Mechtcherine, V., Kaestner, A., Vontobel, P., Hovind, J., and Lehmann, E., ‘Transport
of water through strain-hardening cement-based composite (SHCC) applied on top of cracked rein-
forced concrete slabs with and without hydrophobization of cracks – Investigation by neutron radio-
graphy’, Con. Build. Mat. 76 (2015) 70-86.
[4] Schroefl, C., Mechtcherine, V., Vontobel, P., Hovind, J., and Lehmann, E., ‘Sorption kinetics of
superabsorbent polymers (SAP) in fresh Portland cement-based pastes visualized and quantified by
neutron radiography and correlated to the progress of cement hydration’, Cem. Concr. Res. 75
(2015) 1-13.
164
THE TECTONICS OF DIGITALLY FABRICATED CONCRETE

A case for Robotic Hot Wire Cutting
P. Martins* (1), P. Campos (2), S. Nunes (3) and J.P. Sousa (1)
(1) Faculty of Architecture, University of Porto + DFL/CEAU/FAUP, Porto, Portugal

(2) Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
(3) Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
1. ABSTRACT
In the last 30 years, the dissemination of digital design and fabrication technologies in
architecture and construction has inspired and enabled the production of increasingly complex
and customized solutions. Concrete is a particularly relevant material in this context. Its
ability to assume virtually any shape has historically enabled architects and engineers to
explore its plasticity in complex free forms and in turn, the process of their construction has
been one of the main challenges and limitations of concrete architecture. At the same time, it
is in this construction process that most of the aesthetic and tectonic value of concrete
architecture was defined, not only in the creation of expressive form, but also in the character
of its surface textures and in the properties of its material composition. Therefore, when
considering the impact of digital fabrication technologies in concrete construction, it is
relevant to contemplate not just the overcoming of limitations in construction processes, but
also its effects in light of these established tectonic concepts.
In this context, this paper argues that the integration of digital fabrication technologies
should not only help to overcome the limitations of traditional concrete construction processes
but also enable new architectural possibilities, in line with historic tectonic concepts for this
material. With this approach, this work seeks to answer the complex question: How can
digital fabrication technologies expand traditional concrete architecture in form, surface
and composition, through accessible, sustainable and tectonically relevant methodologies.
To answer this question, this paper will be developed in two main sections, summarized
below.
In the first part, the authors perform a critical analysis of existing digital fabrication
processes in concrete, focusing on their tectonic potentials and existing limitations to their
use. In this analysis, the authors address a wide range of processes, pointing to an expansion
of the tectonic concepts of form, surface and composition. Through this analysis,
contemporary approaches to these themes are identified, such as: a) complex double-curved
geometries, and variable modular components, b) new process-driven surface textures and
c) variable material compositions.
This analysis also finds that the exploration of these technologies at a construction scale is
still limited. The most common digital manufacturing technologies (CNC production of
formwork elements) still show considerable practical limitations, such as high production
costs and times, finishing qualities and material waste generation. For these reasons, they are
165
usually reserved for works of exceptional character, having reduced availability for the
general architectural practice. Furthermore, some examples of its uses indicate a tendency for
a disconnection between design, and fabrication processes that runs contrary to tectonic
traditions.
In the second section, the authors put forth a case for Robotic Hotwire Cutting as a viable
and tectonically significant digital fabrication method for a non-standard concrete
architecture, through the discussion of two prototypes, built with this technology and a
specific mold design strategy [1], [2]. These prototypes addressed both the optimization of
formwork production for concrete (time, materials and costs) and the aesthetic and tectonic
possibilities specific to this technology.
Considering the previous context, it is demonstrated how a relatively low-tech and
moderately constrained technology can overcome some of the limitations of other digital
fabrication processes, while expanding the vocabulary of concrete architecture with its own
tectonic expression, based on the assembly of variable components, process-driven surface
textures and simple material variations. In conclusion, it is argued that the dependency of
Robotic Hot Wire Cutting on a specific formal lexicon (ruled surfaces) results in a strong need
to consider this fabrication process from early stages of design, establishing more explicitly
than in other cases, a strong proximity between design and fabrication. As such, the
limitations of RHWC become the central element of its architectonic potential.
Figure 1. Built prototypes with Robotic Hot Wire Cut, EPS moulds. On the left, the prototype
for a system of precast MSE concrete panels for mechanically stabilized earth (MSE). On the
right, the Corkcrete arch, built from 3 GRC self-supporting components.
REFERENCES
[1]! Martins, P., Campos, P., Nunes, S. and Sousa, J., 'Expanding the Material Possibilities of
Lightweight Prefabrication in Concrete Through Robotic Hot-Wire Cutting - Form, Texture and
Composition', Proceedings of the 33rd eCAADe Conference - Volume 2, Vienna, September,
2015 (Vienna University of Technology, 2015) 341-351.
[2]! Sousa, J.P. and Martins, P., 'The Robotic Production of the GRC Panels in the CorkCrete Arch
Project – A stratified strategy for the fabrication of customized molds', Proceedings of the 34th
eCAADe Conference - Volume 2, Oulu, August 2016 (University of Oulu, 2016).
166
Digital$Concrete$2018$–$Zurich,$Switzerland,$10@12$September$2018$
$
REINFORCEMENT SYSTEMS FOR SMART DYNAMIC CASTING
STRUCTURES
L. Fuhrimann (1), E. Lloret Kristensen (2), J. Mata-Falcón (3)

(2) Institute of Technology in Architecture, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
(3) Institute of Structural Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
1. INTRODUCTION
Smart Dynamic Casting (SDC) is a robotic controlled slip-forming process, which allows to
create non-standard concrete structures [1]. By shaping concrete during the period when it
changes from a soft to a hard material SDC enables to mass-produce bespoke vertical concrete
structures, without the need for an individually made formwork for each structure produced.
Thus, SDC targets a waste-free construction technique for complex concrete structures. In
contrast to other additive manufacturing processes such as Contour Crafting or binder jetting,
one of the big advantages of SDC is that it allows the implementation of reinforcement during
the process [2]. Therefore, produced SDC structures perform similarly as conventionally built
concrete structures.
Reinforcing requirements are highly dependent on the structural element. SDC has till now
proven feasible for the producion of twisted columns, folded structures and lately for the
production of slim facade mullions. This research analyses different reinforcing solutions for
SDC elements with small-cross sections and subjected to bending moments, specifically
regarding the structural behaviour and the impact on the production process. The findings of
this research could be directly implemented by defining a reinforcing system for the production
of SDC mullions for the DFAB House [3],
2. REINFORCING STRATEGIES FOR SMALL CROSS-SECTIONAL

STRUCTURES
A reinforcement system for SDC needs to guarantee the strength, deformation capacity and
durability of the member, as in conventionally produced elements. Further, it must not restrict
the flowability of the material inside the formwork, as this can create voids which can have
negative impact on the final strength and surface quality.
Figure 1. Configurations of steel rebar and carbon fibres examined for SDC: (a) longitudinal
steel without shear reinforcement, (b) longitudinal steel with hooks, (c) longitudinal steel with
welded pins, (d) longitudinal steel with welded pins, (e) longitudinal steel with epoxy stiffened
carbon fibre bundles (f) epoxy stiffened carbon fibre mesh.
167
Digital$Concrete$2018$–$Zurich,$Switzerland,$10@12$September$2018$
$
The mullions for Nest are required to withstand wind loads up to 3kN/m over a height of 3m.
To find an appropriate reinforcement system six different systems, illustrated in figure 1 are
studied. For each system, elements of 70x100x840mm were produced with the SDC process
and loaded in a three-point load configuration to assess the shear capacity.
The bending verifications require a longitudinal conventional reinforcement steel of 12 mm

diameter. This reinforcement without transversal reinforcement (Fig. 1a) is an excellent
solution from the production point of view and provides enough shear capacity. However, to
increase the deformation capacity of the element, three different solutions with similar amount
of transversal steel reinforcement are analysed (Fig. 1b-d). These solutions proofed to not
restrict the flowability of the concrete.
Two different types of reinforcement systems using carbon fibres are tested (Fig. 1e-f). The
first, a composite of carbon fibres and steel rebar, showed similar deformation capacity and
shear strength than the setups with transversal steel reinforcement. The second system, where
steel is replaced entirely by carbon fibres, allows to reduce the minimum coverage and the
amount of reinforcement. However, these pre-produced carbon fibre meshes are sensible to
errors and inaccuracies, with a consequence that for none of the tested systems the predicted
strength could be measured. In both setups the dense fibre mesh restricted the flowability of
concrete.
The vertical steel rebar guaranteed enough strength to withstand the load acting on the
mullions. However, to ensure deformation capacity, shear reinforcement has to be
implemented. Thus summing up, all the test, apart from the carbon fibre mesh (figure 1f),
showed sufficient strength to withstand the given loads. For the specific case of the mullions
the system with welded steel pins between the longitudinal rebar (fig 1c) was chosen. This type
is more tedious to produce, than the hooks and external welded pins, however this configuration
allows the highest coverage around the rebar and enables the material to flow relatively well
inside the formwork.
For future applications the composite system (figure 1f) has a high potential as this type of
reinforcement system could be easy to produce in various geometrical shapes while the slipping
occurs. However, the carbon steel composite still comes with open questions such as spacing,
processing, and scalability, which need to be further investigated in the future of SDC.
References
[1] Ena Lloret, Amir R Shahab, Mettler Linus, Robert J Flatt, Fabio Gramazio, Matthias
Kohler, and Silke Langenberg. Complex concrete structures: Merging existing casting
techniques with digital fabrication. Computer-Aided Design, 60:40–49, 2015.
[2] Timothy Wangler, Ena Lloret, Lex Reiter, Norman Hack, Fabio Gramazio, Matthias
Kohler, Mathias Bernhard, Benjamin Dillenburger, Jonas Buchli, Nicolas Roussel, et
al. Digital concrete: Opportunities and challenges. RILEM Technical Letters, 1:67–75,
2016.
[3] NCCR Dfab, “http://dfabhouse.ch/smart-dynamic-casting/,” [Online]. [Accessed 25
10 2017].
168
MECHANICAL PERFORMANCE OF 3D-PRINTED STEEL REIN-

FORCEMENT FOR DIGITAL CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
V. Mechtcherine*, J. Grafe, V. N. Nerella
1.! INTRODUCTION, MOTIVATION

In recent years, new construction techniques such as 3D concrete printing have been devel-
oped. In most structural applications, the use of reinforcement is mandatory. With respect to
the use of common reinforcement according to the existing codes, i.e., steel bars, various strat-
egies may be applied. The horizontal reinforcement can be incorporated relatively easily, either
manually or automatically, by placing bars on a freshly printed layer before the next concrete
layer follows. When Contour Crafting is used, the vertical bars can be positioned within the
printed contour before the space is filled with flowable concrete. A relatively thin printed con-
crete contour serves as integrated formwork in this case. Another possibility is to mount the
reinforcement first and place concrete layer-by-layer, thus gradually enclosing reinforcing bars
from the sides. To master this task, a special design of the printhead is needed as developed by
Chinese company HuaShang Tengda Ltd. None of the existing approaches complies with all
the challenges posed by the digital concrete construction, so that further solutions must be de-
veloped.
This article presents a new method for digital production of vertical and inclined steel rein-
forcement by using shielding gas welding technique. The focus is on investigating mechanical
properties of the 3D-printed bars and their bond to printable concrete.
2.! MATERIALS
3D-printed steel reinforcement bars were produced at the Institute of Manufacturing Science
and Engineering at the TU Dresden by means of shielding gas welding technique using wire
electrode 3Si1. The material was deposited layer by layer with the average layer thickness of 2
mm. The diameter of the bars was 8 mm in the end regions, where the load was induced, and
7.5 mm in the 65 mm long central part, where the failure was expected. In total, 24 3D-printed
bars were produced and tested, see Figure 1a. For sake of comparison, common reinforcement
bars B500B according to DIN 488-1 with the nominal diameter of 8 mm were tested too using
the same procedures as applied in the experiments on 3D-printed samples.
In the pullout tests a printable fine-grained concrete according to [1] was used as material
for embedment of the reinforcement. In the study at hand, however, the concrete was not
printed, but placed into a cube mould with a reinforced bar and compacted on a vibrating table.

Steel reinforcement bars were tested in uniaxial tension according to DIN EN ISO 6892-1
using a universal testing machine. The deformations were recorded using high-speed camera
and digital image analysis software. Fracture surfaces of specimens were investigated using
scanning electron microscope. The testing of bond between steel bars and fine-grained concrete
was performed using approach by Rehm and with two different bond lengths: 16 mm and 32
mm, which correspond to 2 and 4 times of the bar diameter in agreement with [2]. The bond
region was positioned in the middle part of the concrete cube (side length of 100 mm), while
the rest of the bar was decoupled from concrete according to [2].
169
4.! RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
Figure 1b presents stress-strain curves obtained from uniaxial tension tests on the reinforcement
bars under investigation. The 3D-printed bars exhibited approximately 20% lower yield stress
and tensile strength values in comparison to the conventional steel reinforcement, but a consid-
erably higher ductility both in terms of a pronounced yielding and higher strain capacity. The
printed material showed a necking failure with “stairway” crack resulting of heterogeneity in-
duced by layer-by-layer material deposition, see Figure 1c. At a higher magnification, a dimple,
trans-granular fracture, characteristic for ductile failure mode, is clearly visible, see Figure 1d.
b)
a) c) d)
Figure 1: a) 24 3D-printed steel reinforcement bars used in this investigation; b) stress-strain

diagram for 3D-printed and conventional reinforcement bars; c) fracture surface of 3D-printed
reinforcement; d) detail view on the fracture surface (red box in the image c)
The pullout tests showed slightly lower values of the bond shear strength of the 3D-printed
bars in printable concrete in comparison to the conventional steel reinforcement. Interestingly,
in the experiments with bond length of 32 mm the shear-stress displacement curves showed a
kind of plateau for 3D-printed bars after reaching the maximum stress level, while the corre-
sponding curves for conventional reinforcement indicated a pronounced displacement-soften-
ing of the bond. In the tests with 16 mm bond length, however, the softening was observed for
both types of the reinforcement under investigation.
REFERENCES
[1] V.N. Nerella, M. Krause, M. Näther, V. Mechtcherine, ‘3D printing technology for on-site con-
struction’, CPI – Concr. Plant Int. 4 (2016) 36-41.
[2] G. Rehm, ‘Über die Grundlagen des Verbundes zwischen Stahl und Beton’, Volume 138, DAfStb,
Berlin, Wilhelm Ernst&Sohn, 1961
170
SHAPE STABILITY OF MORTAR WITH SUPPLEMENTARY

CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS AND ADMIXTURES
C.M. Ouellet-Plamondon* (1), M. Charrier (1), and H. Caron (1)
(1) Department of Construction Engineering, École de technologie supérieure, 1100 Notre-

Dame West, Montréal, H3C 1K3, Canada
1. INTRODUCTION
The 3D printing process includes two steps: 1) the production of a pumpable mortar premix
kept in a shearing mixer, 2) the printing process involving pumping and additives dispersion to
accelerate setting of mechanical properties [1]. The most critical properties of the mortar at the
fresh state are the extrusion capacity and the buildability [2, 3]. During 3D printing, the vertical
stress applied on the first layer varies with the building rate, the specific weight, time and height.
The vertical stress must be above the critical stress, which varies with the building geometry
and the material’s yield stress. Stability tests are used to simulate the load applied on a layer of
mortar due to the weight of the construction. The material composition must be optimized
according to cement admixtures, granular packing and costs. To improve the environmental
performances of the materials, supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) can replace part
of the cement and this quantity must be determined for 3D printing.

A general use Portland cement (GU) and a binary cement with silica fume (GUbSF) are used
in this study with a varying content of admixtures (superplasticizer, accelerator, strength
enhancing and biosourced). The mixes with GU had nanoclays (C at 0.3%) to increase its
stability. The solid content of the admixtures is determined according to ASTM C494. A
superplasticizer (SP) is added at 0.26% based on the mass cement and the solid content of the
admixture to increase the workability of each mixture. The accelerator (A) was tested at a
dosage of 0.53% and increases also workability. The strength-enhancing admixture (X) is added
at 0.3% and it is known improve cement hydration and enhances workability. Pectin (P at 0.5%)
was the biosourced admixture chosen; it is added in the experimental plan to check its roles,
because it is reported as an accelerator [4], whereas it is a polysaccharide that can have a
retarding effect [5]. A general concrete sand is used at a ratio cement/sand of 0.48. The
water/cement ratio is kept at 0.35. The stability of the fresh mortar is determined using a method
inspired by [2, 6] that proved that the procedure is representative of the weight of several mortar
layers. A cylinder of 35 mm height and 60 mm diameter is molded and immediately unmolded,
being maintained by a paper tape, which is removed just before the test. A force is applied from
2 N to 100 N by increment of 2 N every 20 seconds, corresponding to the fast printing of
approximately to 45 layers of mortar or 1.5 m. The deformation is recorded with a linear
variable differential transformer; the force and the time are recorded with a software. Density,
percentage flow and compressive strength at 1, 7, 14 and 28 days are measured.
171
3. PRELIMINARY RESULTS
The mixes with nanoclays are more stable and the silica fume has a lower stability. Two mixes
(SF-SP-X and SF-SP-P) have a failure point, identified by the fracture on the cylinder and the
important negative slope in shifting when applying the load (Figure 1). Moreover, the mixes
with X are stiffer. Finally, the mix with SP, P and C almost did not shift, but the mix was very
dry. The results give insight on the mix design for 3D printing mortars.
a)!
0 200 400 600 800 1000 Time (s)
GUbSF SP A
Deformation
-1 GUbSF SP X
(mm)
GUbSF SP P
GU SP A C
-3
GU SP X C
GU SP P C
-5
b)! c)
Figure 1. a) Vertical shifting of the cylinder during time, b) Cylinder without failure (GU SP X
C), c) Cylinder with failure signs (GUbSF SP A, red line)
REFERENCES
[1] C. Gosselin, R. Duballet, P. Roux, N. Gaudillière, J. Dirrenberger, and P. Morel, "Large-
scale 3D printing of ultra-high performance concrete – a new processing route for
architects and builders," Materials & Design, vol. 100, pp. 102-109, 2016/06/15/ 2016.
[2] A. Perrot, D. Rangeard, and A. Pierre, "Structural built-up of cement-based materials
used for 3D-printing extrusion techniques," Materials and Structures, journal article
vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 1213-1220, April 01 2016.
[3] T. T. Le, S. A. Austin, S. Lim, R. A. Buswell, A. G. F. Gibb, and T. Thorpe, "Mix design
and fresh properties for high-performance printing concrete," Materials and Structures,
journal article vol. 45, no. 8, pp. 1221-1232, August 01 2012.
[4] T. Kavas, A. Olgun, Y. Erdogan, and G. Once, "The effect of pectin on the
physicochemical and mechanical properties of cement containing boron," Building and
Environment, vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 1803-1809, 2007/04/01/ 2007.
[5] A. Peschard, A. Govin, P. Grosseau, B. Guilhot, and R. Guyonnet, "Effect of
polysaccharides on the hydration of cement paste at early ages," Cement and Concrete
Research, vol. 34, no. 11, pp. 2153-2158, 2004/11/01/ 2004.
[6] A. Kazemian, X. Yuan, E. Cochran, and B. Khoshnevis, "Cementitious materials for
construction-scale 3D printing: Laboratory testing of fresh printing mixture,"
Construction and Building Materials, vol. 145, no. Supplement C, pp. 639-647,
2017/08/01/ 2017.
172
CHALLENGES IN FULL SCALE FILLING OF A DIGITALLY

FABRICATED LEAKY FORMWORK
H. Heller* (1), T. Wangler (1), N. Hack (2), A. Walzer (2), and R. Flatt (1)
(1) ETH Zurich, Physical Chemistry of Building Materials, Zurich, Switzerland

(2) ETH Zurich, Gramazio Kohler Research, Zurich, Switzerland
1. INTRODUCTION
The Mesh Mould is a technology introduced by Gramazio Kohler Research as a method of
producing what is essentially a spatially extruded, leaky formwork that is intended to serve as
reinforcement post concreting. A robotic arm with a specially designed end effector bends,
cuts, and welds steel reinforcement bars to produce a predesigned shape, and the resulting
mesh is then filled with concrete. The mesh is expected to retain the concrete, allowing a
cover finish to produce the final reinforced concrete structural element [1].
Within the National Centre for Competence in Research (NCCR) for Digital Fabrication in
Architecture, the Mesh Mould project has been developed as a featured technology in the
NEST Building [2] DFAB HOUSE unit, the flagship project of the first four year phase of the
NCCR. The Mesh Mould will serve as a double-curved structural wall, linking the unit floor
slab with the “Smart Slab”, a prestressed floor slab for lightweight wood construction
residential units. The structural performance, and thus the concrete selection and placement
process, are of prime importance.
In this study, two strategies were developed and tested to fill a 3 meter high Mesh Mould
wall with 3x3 cm spacing. We report here on their development and result.
2. METHODOLOGY
Filling methods required a mix that would be retained in the mesh, either by high yield
stress or by granular blocking. The requirement of compaction upon placement added
additional requirements to the mix – either self compacting or the possibility of vibration.
Initial tests were performed with Sika Monotop 412N, a repair mortar with max grain size of
2 mm, and polypropylene fibers. This mix is easily pumped, but upon vibration with a
vibrating needle led to uncontrolled flow through the mesh spacings of approximately 3x3
cm. Therefore two alternative approaches were taken:
1)! Development of a self-compacting mix with large aggregate size and fibers to
obtain jamming
2)! An engineering fix to allow pumping of Sika Monotop 412N with light local
vibration
Blocking as a method to retain concrete in the mesh was initially noted as a possibility in [1].
This development and the local vibration engineering fix is explored in the following section.
173
3. RESULTS AND OUTLOOK

The first approach involved the balancing of two opposing requirements – self compaction
and a large aggregate size. Larger aggregates tend to segregate out of mixes that have a very
low paste yield stress. The tendency of an aggregate to segregate out of a mix scales with the
aggregate diameter and inversely with the density; as aggregate diameter is fixed by the
requirement to cause jamming, the only other option was to modulate density. Pre-saturated
crushed brick obtained from Eberhard AG was used to match the density of the paste.
Additionally, the use of stiff polymer fibers supported jamming by forming a new, smaller
mesh when captured by a mesh unit. Paste retention also was a problem after jamming; and
the formulation of a low density paste by the use of small lightweight aggregate fractions
aided in paste retention by reducing formwork pressure. Admixtures used included
superplasticizer for low yield stress and stabilizer for reducing tendency to segregate.
Figure 1. Mesh filling strategies: a) (left) self compacting mix with fibers delivered via
concrete bucket, and b) (right) mix pumped from side.
This mix was then used to fill a 3 meter high double curved prototype of the NEST Mesh
Mould wall as a demonstration (Figure 1a). The mix was delivered in a 350 L concrete
bucket. Mix self compaction and retention due to jamming was no issue during the
concreting; however, there was a problem of fiber nests forming on cross ties between the two
mesh wireframes. These fiber nests led to holes below, and required manual fill in post
concreting.
The second approach involved simply the pumping in through the mesh of the Sika
Monotop 412N and use of a small trowel to lightly compact the material in the mesh. In this
method, a pump pushed the material through one side of the mesh and a board was pressed
against the opposite side to prevent pumping through the entire mesh (Figure 1b). This
method proved quite a robust solution, but required heavy use of manpower. This method was
ultimately chosen to concrete the Mesh Mould wall by the contractor, considering the
familiarity with the material and the greater control over the filling afforded by the operators.
In both filling cases, the final cover was added by shotcreting and hand finish.
REFERENCES
[1]! N. Hack, M. Kohler, F. Gramazio, K. Doerfler, A. Walzer, N. Kumar, J. Buchli, T. Wangler, L. Reiter, H.
Richner, A. Reusser, R. Flatt. “Mesh Mould: an on-site, 3D printed, functional formwork.” In Proceedings
of 2nd Concrete Innovation Conference, Tromso, Norway, 6-8 March 2017
[2]! https://www.empa.ch/en/web/nest/digital-fabrication
174
ULTRA-HIGH-PERFORMANCE FIBER-REINFORCED
CEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITE OCTET LATTICE UNIT CELLS
P. Aghdasi (1), I. D. Williams* (1), B. Salazar (1), H. K. Taylor (1) and C. P. Ostertag (1)
(1) University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Motivation and Impact

Concrete is the most widely used building material in the world today due to its versatility
and widespread availability, yet it is far from an ideal material; it is heavy, weak in tension, and
a poor insulator. Beyond the material properties, concrete has a significant environmental
impact due to its high carbon footprint and demand for raw materials. As human population
increases and more people trend toward living in urban areas [1], the need for fully optimized
materials and structures becomes increasingly important to improve the performance of
buildings and reduce their environmental impact.
1.2. Cellular Solids

Lattices are used in nature to great effect. With structures tailored to suit the material,
excellent mechanical properties are achieved using a minimal amount of material.
Advancements in additive manufacturing in recent years have enabled the creation of three
dimensional lattices optimized for the base material. This yields excellent mechanical and
thermal properties, and simultaneously reduces the amount of material used [2]. An ideal lattice
for concrete is one that places the material primarily under compression, thus minimizing the
influence of concrete’s poor tensile strength. One such cell structure that is shown to have this
characteristic is the octet lattice. Previous studies have shown that the octet lattice approaches
linear relation between strength and density for metal and polymer base materials [3], yet its
effectiveness for quasi-brittle materials such as concrete or cement composites remains
unknown.
2.1 Focus of the Study
Cellular concrete is traditionally achieved by foaming cement with aluminum powder
resulting in a random pore structure. Concrete and cement mortars foamed in this way
demonstrate strength decreasing at a cubic proportion to density. This study investigates the
relationship between compressive strength and effective density for octet lattice unit cells made
from an ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced cementitious composite (UHP-FRC). These
octet lattice unit cells are then compared with ultra-high-performance cement mortar (UHPC)
foamed with conventional methods.
2.3 Methods
To form the complex octet lattice structure, molds were first manufactured out of
acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) using fused deposition modeling (FDM). Molds were
175
then infiltrated with the UHP-FRC, and after seven days the mold material was dissolved away
in an acetone bath. Following removal of the molds, lattices were cured in a fog room for
twenty-one additional days and then tested in compression.
A true lattice material consists of many unit cells, however for this study only single
unit cells were tested. During testing, unit cells were placed in aluminum holders intended to
mimic the boundary conditions imposed by a repeated lattice.
2.2 Results
Figure 1: Normalized compressive strength vs. relative density on log-log scale
Three variations of the octet unit cell with member diameters of 8-mm, 10-mm, and 11-
mm were tested in this study, and one conventionally foamed mortar for comparison. Figure 1
shows the normalized compressive strength vs. relative density of the UHP-FRC octet trusses
and the foamed UHPC. Strengths for each specimen have been normalized to the strength and
density of a solid cube of the material used (foamed mortar specimen is normalized by the
strength of same mortar without foaming).
Results of this study show that octet lattices can achieve 40% lower density than foamed
UHPC, and achieves an improved relationship between strength and relative density. While
further optimization of the size and scaling of the lattices as well as improved methods of
manufacturing are required to make it feasible, these results demonstrate the improved
mechanical behavior at low densities when using an octet lattice compared to random porosity.
REFERENCES
[1] 'World’s population increasingly urban with more than half living in urban areas,' United
Nations, 2014. [Online]. Retrieved from:
http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/news/population/world-urbanization-prospects-
2014.html. [Accessed: 11-Oct-2017].
[2] Ashby, M.F., 'The properties of foams and lattices.,' Philos. Trans. A. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci.,
vol. 364, no. 1838, pp. 15–30, 2006.
[3] Zheng, X., Lee, H., Weisgraber, T. H., Shusteff, M., DeOtte, J. Duoss, E. B., … Spadaccini, C.
M., 'Ultralight, Ultrastiff Mechanical Metamaterials,' Science, vol. 344, no. 6190, pp. 1373–
1377, 2014.
176
ROBOTIC POST-PROCESSING OF 3D PRINTED CONCRETE FOR

THERMAL BEHAVIOR IN DESIGN
J. Bard* (1), D. Cupkova (2), G. Zeglin (3) and N. Washburn (4)
(1-4) Carnegie Mellon University 1-4, Pittsburgh, USA
1. OVERVIEW
This paper describes a unique approach to the high-performance design and robotic construction
of modular concrete facade panels. This approach combines simulation feedback, advanced
modeling, and emerging robotic manufacturing techniques to create a seamless flow between
design generation, evaluating thermal performance, and construction. By modulating the mass
to surface ratios facade panels can be tuned to control heat transfer and actuate specific thermal
behavior in concrete. The necessity for complex and varied surface geometry required in this
system compelled the authors to develop a moldless approach to manufacturing concrete
panels. This was achieved by designing a robotic additive manufacturing workflow for concrete
that combines the deposition of material and surface finishing using custom tooling.
1.1. Performance Driven Design

High-performance design of passive concrete facade systems is rooted in the combination of
form and matter: topologically complex shapes using engineered materials that are optimized
for better energy performance. Based on empirical testing, the mass to surface ratios of the
concrete panels play a significant role in the thermodynamics of thermal behavior. The shaping
of the surface furthermore effects heat absorption and reradiation rates in thermal mass. We
discovered a ‘sweet spot’ in the surface area to volume ratio: 1.12, in which the geometric
articulation of the surface area more actively affects thermal behavior, through modification of
the heat coefficient. We observed and measured the capacity of geometry to change thermal
behavior of concrete panels with a minimum of 10-15min and maximum 75 min in heat
reradiation.
1.2 Advanced Robotic Manufacturing

High-performance building design requires new methods for manufacturing. Additive
manufacturing techniques in architecture promise the removal of formwork from the
construction, but often produce components in a single step, ignoring rough to finish
construction. Post-processing of additive techniques is central to developing more robust
approaches to the construction of high-performance concrete components. The authors
developed and tested a robotic approach to manufacturing high-performance modular concrete
building components. The robotic workflow includes custom end-of-arm-tooling for automated
delivery of material for selective deposition of panel geometry, and tooled shaping of rough
and finish layers for high-fidelity physical production of computationally generated forms.
1.3 Material Composition

The authors conducted empirical testing of concrete mixes to tune the qualities needed in
workflow. Desired qualities of cementitious mixes included easy flow for material delivery,
workability for tooling, minimal slump once tooled, and structural and thermal performance.
177
Two mixes were developed for rough buildup of panel geometry and a finish coat. Various
additives were tested to modify viscosity, flow, and set time. Mixes were tested for compressive
and tensile strength using industry standards.
1.4 Findings
Specific'results'include:
•! Developing'new'computational'models'for'simulation'and'component'generation'of'
thermal'concrete'panels.'
•! Creating' a' robotic' work<cell' with' custom' tooling' for' material' delivery' and' post<
processing'of'rough'and'finish'concrete'layers.''
•! Conducting'Empirical'testing'of'concrete'mix'for'structural'and'thermal'performance.'
•! Modeling'heuristics'from'empirical'testing'of'robotic'tooling'constraints'and'material'
behavior'to'inform'geometric'form'generation.'
2. FIGURE
Figure 1. (from left to right) airflow simulation over panel surface geometry, generation of
panel geometry, robotic 3D printing and surface finishing of concrete panels.
REFERENCES
[1]! Khoshnevis, Behrokh. 2004. “Automated Construction by Contour Crafting - Related Robotics
and Information Technologies.” In Automation in Construction, 13:5–19.
doi:10.1016/j.autcon.2003.08.012.
[2]! Csáky, I., and Ferenc Kalmár F. 2015. "Effects of Thermal Mass, Ventilation, and Glazing
Orientation on Indoor Air Temperature in Buildings." Journal of Buildings Physics 39 (2): 189–
204.
[3]! Balaras, C. A.. 1996. " The Role of Thermal Mass on the Cooling Load of Buildings: An
Overview of Computational Methods." Energy and Buildings 24 (1): 1–10.
178
THIN CONCRETE PANELS FORMED BY A ROBOTIC FLEXIBLE

MOULD TABLE
S. Lut (1), H.R. Schipper*(1), P. Eigenraam (2), F. Geuskens (3), and S. Grünewald (1)
(1) Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft, The
Netherlands
(2) Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Delft,
The Netherlands
(3) CurveWorks, Zoetermeer, The Netherlands
1. THE FLEXIBLE MOULD METHOD

The flexible mould method has been applied successfully in recent years in a small series of
construction projects. It appeared to be the best solution for a number of buildings where
curved cementitious façade or roof cladding panels were part of the design. The flexible
mould manufacturing method uses a digitally controlled moulding table that allows for
efficient semi-robotic production of curved thin architectural concrete panels (Figure 1). It is a
method that is especially apt for realisation of freeform architecture with inherent complex
geometry, since this complex geometry often results in large numbers of panels with mutually
varying curvature and edge contours [3].
Figure 1. Thin curved architectural concrete panels
The flexible mould method, when used in combination with the material concrete, comes
with various scientific challenges [4] in the field of concrete technology that ask for scientific
underpinning. Among these are questions related to the rheology, the required hardening time
before demoulding, risk of cracking [2], flexible reinforcement, formwork pressure and the
like.
179
2. STATE OF THE ART IN CONCRETE FLEXIBLE FORMWORKS

In the present article, we will first outline the various sub-methods that can be identified
with their pro’s and con’s [1]. Different choices can be identified: 1) the use of open or closed
moulds, 2) mould deformation before or after casting, each of them requiring a different
concrete mixture, and 3) whether or not to use an intermediate mould material such as wax or
a thermoformed plastic that can be recycled for more than one panel shape.
Figure 2. Flexible robotic mould table
After presenting this broader overview, we will demonstrate the particular applicability of
one of these methods for a double-curved panel geometry in a case study. For this case, the
robotic moulding table with a flexible formwork membrane shown in Figure 2 was used, and
a small series of panels of high-quality architectural concrete were manufactured in a semi-
automated production process.
The article concludes with an outlook towards future application of the flexible mould
method, its potential, possible developments and limitations..
REFERENCES
[1]! Hawkins, W. J.; Herrmann, M.; Ibell, T. J.; Kromoser, B.; Michaelski, A.; Orr, J. J.; Pedreschi, R.;
Pronk, A.; Schipper, H. R.; Shepherd, P.; Veenendaal, D.; Wansdronk, R. & West, M. Flexible
formwork technologies: A state of the art review, Structural Concrete, Ernst & Sohn, 2016
[2]! Troian, S.; Grünewald, S.; Schipper, R.; Schlangen, E. & Çopuroğlu, O. Hordijk, D. A. &
Lukovi&cacute;, M. (Eds.) Deliberate Deformation of Concrete in the Fresh State - Crack Risk
and Efficient Production of Curved Precast Elements High Tech Concrete: Where Technology
and Engineering Meet: Proceedings of the 2017 fib Symposium, held in Maastricht, The
Netherlands, June 12--14, 2017, Springer International Publishing, 2017, 2521-2529
[3]! Schipper, H. R.; Eigenraam, P.; Grünewald, S.; Soru, M.; Nap, P.; Van Overveld, B. &
Vermeulen, J. Coenders, J.; Borgart, A. & Pronk, A. (Eds.) Kine-Mould: Manufacturing
technology for curved architectural elements in concrete Proceedings of the International Society
Of Flexible Formwork (ISOFF) Symposium, Amsterdam, KIVI, 2015
[4]! Schipper, H. R. Double-curved precast concrete elements - Research into technical viability of the
flexible mould method Delft University of Technology, Delft University of Technology, 2015
180
CONCRETE CANOE USING FDM 3D PRINTING AND UHPFRC

N. Ruffray* (1), M. Bernhard (2), A. Jipa (2), R.J. Flatt (1) and B. Dillenburger (2)
(1) Physical Chemistry of Building Materials, Institute for Building Materials, D-BAUG
ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
(2) Digital Building Technologies, Institute of Technology in Architecture, D-ARCH
ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
*corresponding author: nicolas.ruffray@ifb.baug.ethz.ch
1. CONCEPT
Concrete canoe competitions have taken place in Germany since 1983. Every second year,
four-to-five-meter-long concrete canoes for two rowers compete in a 200-metre-long race.
While also a sporting event, this competition also draws scientific interest for demonstrating
innovations in concrete construction methods. The concrete canoe regattas in Germany have
been over the years stepping stones for research projects which have since become valuable
contributions to both the scientific community and the construction industry, like
Mesh Mould [1] and Smart Dynamic Casting [2].
Material efficiency is an important design driver in sustainable concrete construction.
However, the more efficient a structure is, the more complex its geometry becomes. For such
optimised structures, conventional formwork panels and reinforcement bars are limiting the
fabrication, and therefore a novel fabrication method is proposed. The concept of this work was
to combine topological optimisation together with 3D Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM)
printing and Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC) in order to create
a skeleton shaped canoe. This method relies on the geometric freedom of 3D printed formwork
and the flexibility of fibre reinforcement when filling complex topologies as well as its high
mechanical performance. Additional constraints such as skeletal tube diameters, smooth
blending for ideal concrete flow, spatial orientation of skeletal parts for printability with a
minimum of support structure and others were also taken into account as crucial design
parameters. Similar techniques were successfully combined in the past in order to produce
complex architectural elements [3,4]. These methods enabled the fabrication of “skelETHon”,
a functional four-metre-long concrete canoe with a complex topology and very fine surface
texture. This geometric design freedom would be hardly achievable with other techniques of
mould-making.
2. EXECUTION
The mould was discretized into 84 separate parts which were 3D printed in natural
Polylactide (PLA) thermoplastic which is a recyclable bio-material. The transparency of the
PLA allowed the monitoring of the mould infilling during casting. The pieces were assembled
together by chemical welding using dichloromethane as well as epoxy gluing. The final mould
of the canoe can be seen in Figure 1.
181
Figure 1. Left: FDM printed mould after assembly of the 84 pieces. Top-right: UHPFRC
skeleton of the canoe after casting and removing the mould. Bottom-right: Finished
“skelETHon” canoe after sewing the textile and painting it with the grout.
The casting of the mould was realized under a slight angle through several inlets situated at
different heights in the mould in order to minimize air entrapment. During casting, the mould
was progressively buried in sand in order to counteract the hydrostatic pressure of the UHPFRC
and avoid breakage of the mould and leakage. The skeleton was kept buried in sand for 48
hours, and then transported to a 95% RH climatic room where it was cured for 7 days.
After removing the plastic mould, the skeleton (Figure 1) was covered with a sewn cotton
cloth which was then painted with a superfluid cement paste and cured another 7 days.
3. OUTCOME AND CONCLUSIONS

The resulting “skelETHon” canoe (Figure 1) was sent to the competition with a total empty
weight of 114kg. It participated successfully in the 17th “Betonkanu-Regatta” competition in
Cologne in June 2017 and won the 1st prize for innovation.
This project showed a novel method which can be used to produce parts with a high degree
of geometric freedom and unique aesthetics inherited from the 3D printed mould and high
mechanical performance given by UHPFRC. Future projects shall study further the
sustainability, applications and benefits of combining these two techniques together.
REFERENCES
[1]! Hack, N. and Lauer, W. V., 'Mesh-Mould: Robotically Fabricated Spatial Meshes as Reinforced
Concrete Formwork', Archit. Design, 84 (3) (2014) 44-53
[2]! Lloret, E. et al., 'Complex concrete structures: Merging existing casting techniques with digital
fabrication', Computer-Aided Design, 60 (2015) 40-49
[3]! Ruffray, N. et al., 'Complex architectural elements from HPFRC and 3D printed sandstone', in
UHPFRC 2017, RILEM Proceedings PRO 106, Montpellier, October, 2017, 135-144
[4]! Jipa, A., Bernhard, M. and Dillenburger, B., 'Submillimeter Formwork', in 2017 TxA Emerging
Design + Technology, Austin, Texas, 2017
182
EXPLOITING THE POTENTIAL OF DIGITAL FABRICATION FOR

SUSTAINABLE AND ECONOMIC CONCRETE STRUCTURES
J. Mata-Falcón* (1), P. Bischof (1) and W. Kaufmann (1)
(1) Institute of Structural Engineering (IBK), Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETHZ),
Zurich, Switzerland
1. INTRODUCTION
Reinforced concrete is by far the most used building material today. Existing concrete and
reinforcement technology and approaches for its dimensioning have been optimised for more
than a century hand in hand with traditional construction methods. This has led to highly
efficient conventional concrete construction processes, hard to beat by novel technologies.
The implementation of digital technologies brings about many new possibilities to the
conceptual design, dimensioning, detailing, and production of concrete structures, promising to
revolutionise the concrete construction industry. The digital fabrication research community
has developed over the past few years diverse interesting digital fabrication technologies with
strong focus on material and geometrical aspects. These technologies overcome typical
constraints of traditional processes caused by the high impact of labour costs. Nevertheless,
many of them encounter difficulties in penetrating the market due to high costs and lacking
compliance with structural integrity requirements of clients and building codes, since these
aspects were not sufficiently considered in their development. The present contribution
discusses some of the intrinsic benefits that digital fabrication brings to structural concrete,
which should be investigated in order to exploit the full potential offered by these new
technologies to build economic, code-compliant and sustainable concrete structures.
2. NECESSITY OF REINFORCEMENT IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Current 3D printing by layered extrusion (e.g. “contour crafting”) – the most popular digital
fabrication technology with concrete – typically does not allow adding reinforcement during
the production. The use of external reinforcement resisting tensile forces is, however, essential
for the load bearing capacity of structural concrete, since concrete tensile strength is unreliable
and therefore typically neglected in structural design. Moreover, reinforcement is not only
required to provide strength: A “minimum reinforcement” is required to (i) avoid brittle failures
at cracking, (ii) ensure a sufficiently ductile behaviour to enable plastic redistribution, and (iii)
limit deformations and crack widths in real-life structures.
While the combined use of external post-tensioned reinforcement and fibre-reinforced
concrete can significantly improve the structural performance of 3D printed concrete elements,
their strength and ductility will still be limited with respect to conventional concrete structures.
Hence, the integration of internal reinforcement in 3D printing is fundamental to produce load
bearing concrete structures more efficiently than with traditional construction methods. In some
digital fabrication techniques, such as the Smart Dynamic Casting [1] and Mesh Mould [2]
processes, this requirement has already been implemented.
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3. POTENTIAL OF DIGITAL FABRICATION FOR STRUCTURAL CONCRETE

The use of digital fabrication processes has a great potential to reduce the quantity of
reinforcement required in concrete structures. The robotic placement of reinforcement allows
providing reinforcement in the optimum directions and strictly in the statically required amount,
significantly reducing the reinforcement quantities for ultimate limit state particularly in walls
and slabs. Equally promising is the potential reduction of “minimum reinforcement” which
often makes up for more than 50% of the reinforcement content. This can be tremendously
reduced by (i) tailoring the concrete grade locally to the actual needs and (ii) ensuring small
crack spacings and correspondingly reduced crack widths by means of crack initiators.
Interestingly, weak layer joints inherent to extrusion processes, often seen as a problem by the
digital fabrication research community, are beneficial from this perspective. As an example,
Figure 1 shows that producing weak layer joints with 33% of the concrete tensile strength inside
the layer allow reducing by 67% the minimum reinforcement for a given maximum crack width
requirement. At the same time, these weak layer joints would allow reducing by around 90%
the maximum crack with a constant reinforcement content of around 1%.
0.6
Conventional
Weak concrete (fct )
layers
0.67·fct
0.33·fct ↓↓ w max for the
same reinforcement
wmax ↓ reinforcement
[mm] for the same w max
0
0 2
! [%]
Figure 1. Impact of weak layer joints in extrusion processes on the amount of reinforcement
required to control the maximum crack width caused by imposed deformations, based on the
Tension Chord Model [3] (Ø = 16 mm; fct = 2.9 MPa; weak layers spacing = 100 mm).
Current research of the authors is addressing beneficial effects of weak layers and other intrinsic
characteristics of digitally fabricated concrete structures aiming at exploiting them for developing
sustainable and economic products and production processes able to penetrate the mass market.
REFERENCES
[1]! Lloret-Fritschi, E., Reiter, L., Wangler, T., Gramazio, F., Kohler, M. and Flatt, R. J., ‘Smart
Dynamic Casting: Slipforming with flexible formwork – inline measurement and control’, Second
Concrete Innovation Conference (2nd CIC), Tromsø, Norway, 6-8 March 2017.
[2]! Hack, N., Wangler, T., Mata-Falcón, J., Dörfler, K., Kumar, N., Walzer, A. N., Graser, K., et al.,
‘Mesh Mould: An On Site, Robotically Fabricated, Functional Formwork’, Second Concrete
Innovation Conference (2nd CIC), Tromsø, Norway, 6-8 March 2017.
[3]! Marti, P., Alvarez, M., Kaufmann, W., and Sigrist, V. ‘Tension chord model for structural concrete’,
Structural Engineering International, 8(4) (1998) 287–298.
184
MECHANISMS CONTROLING THE INTERFACIAL BEHAVIOUR OF

3D PRINTED CONCRETE LAYERS
V.M.C.F. Cunha* (1), J. Pereira (2), C. Gonçalves (2) and E.N.B. Pereira (1)
(1) ISISE, IB-S: Institute for Bio-Sustainability, University of Minho, Guimarães, Portugal
(2) dstgroup, IB-S: Institute for Bio-Sustainability, University of Minho, Guimarães, Portugal
*corresponding author (vcunha@ib-s.uminho.pt)
1. INTRODUCTION
Additive manufacturing techniques have gone through a swift development and
dissemination in the past years within distinct areas, by e.g. manufacturing industry,
prototyping, medical and food industries [1]. Nowadays, the application of these techniques
for manufacturing cementitious based structures is becoming more feasible. Some of the
innovative aspects of these layer-based manufacturing techniques may contribute to a step-up
of the construction processes by eliminating the necessity of using formwork, potentiate the
construction of structures with complex geometries, minimize the on-site construction
operations, and thus contributing to mitigate the risk of work injuries. Albeit significant
technological research efforts have been conducted and are undergoing, the available research
about the mechanical properties of 3D printed structures is still limited, by e.g. [2,3]. The
mechanical behaviour of printed cementitious-based materials will be quite distinct from the
one obtained with traditional mortars/concretes, which have essentially an isotropic
mechanical behaviour. Due to the nature of the technological process of printing by adding
layer upon layer, the mechanical behaviour of printed concrete will be either orthotropic or
even anisotropic depending on the printing direction and layer deposition sequence. For this
particular material, the behaviour of the interface established between each contiguous printed
layer will play an important role on the overall mechanical behaviour of the composite.
This work presents an experimental study focussed on the characterization of the
mechanical behaviour of the interface between printed cementitious layers. A comprehensive
analysis of the stiffening mechanisms established during shear loading was performed by
conducting shear tests and analysing the evolution of the failure mechanisms through digital
image correlation techniques (DIC). The influence of the cement content on the mechanical
properties of printed concrete, namely, under compression, flexure and direct shear was
assessed, as well as the influence of loading orientation towards printing direction on the
mechanical behaviour.
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
2.1. Concrete composition, specimens and printing procedure

In this study, three concrete compositions with distinct cement contents, namely 300, 450
and 600 kg/m3 were used. The amount of binder as well of the other constituents was kept
constant. The concrete ingredients were: cement, fly ash, silica fume, fine river sand with a
maximum aggregate size of 1 mm, superplasticizer and viscosity modifier. The specimens for
mechanical testing were printed using a custom-made 3D printer based on the extrusion
185
technique. For comparison purposes, the technological parameters, i.e. extruder dimension,
layer height, printing velocity and procedure were kept constant. For each concrete
composition, the bulk material properties were determined using conventionally cast and
vibrated specimens. A total of 54 printed specimens and 27 cast specimens were tested under
distinct loading conditions.
2.2. Mechanical testing

The mechanical behaviour of the printed concrete specimens was assessed under
compression, flexure and direct shear for two directions of loading regarding the printing
direction, i.e. 0 and 90º, Figure 1. These results were compared with the mechanical
behaviour obtained from specimens conventionally cast and vibrated. The compressive stress-
strain relationship, as well as the elasticity modulus, were assessed using prismatic specimens
with a 50!50!100 mm. The flexural behaviour was assessed through three-point bending tests
using notched prismatic specimens with 50!50!160 mm. Finally, the direct shear tests were
performed using prismatic specimens 50!100!150 mm. During the mechanical testing of
each loading configuration regarding the printing direction, the strain field was monitored
through a digital image correlation technique, which allowed to analyse the evolution of the
cracking and failure mechanisms, in particular at the interface between printed layers.
p1 p3
p2 p2 p3 p1
p1 p2 p1 p3
p2 p1
p1 p2 p3
p3 p3 p2
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 1. Loading direction regarding printing direction sequence (p1, p2, p3) for: (a)
compressive, (b) flexural and (c) direct tests.
3. CONCLUSIONS
The mechanical behaviour of printed concrete with distinct cement contents was assessed
under compression, flexure and shear. Both the cement content and loading orientation
regarding the printing direction sequence have influenced the concrete mechanical properties.
The digital image correlation technique enabled the identification of the principal failure
mechanisms observed at the interface between the printed layers for the different loading
directions. The importance of defining a procedure to characterize the interlayer shear
behaviour of 3D printed cementitious layers was discussed.
REFERENCES
[1]! Lipson, H., Kurman, M., ‘Fabricated: the new world of 3D printing’, John Wiley & Sons (2013).
[2]! Le, T.T., Austin, S.A., Lim, S., Buswell, R.A., Law, R., Gibb, A.G.F., Thorpe, T., ‘Hardened
properties of high-performance printing concrete’, Cem. Concr. Res. 42 (2012) 558-566.
[3]! Feng, P., Meng, X., Chen, J.-F., Ye L., ‘Mechanical properties of structures 3D printed with
cementitious powders’, Constr. Build. Mater. 93 (2015) 486-497.
186
LARGE SCALE TESTING OF DIGITALLY FABRICATED CONCRETE

(DFC) ELEMENTS
F.P. Bos* (1), R.J.M. Wolfs (1), Z.Y. Ahmed (1) and T.A.M. Salet (1, 2)
(1) Eindhoven University of Technology, Department of the Built Environment, Eindhoven,

the Netherlands
(2) Witteveen+Bos consulting engineers, the Netherlands
1. INTRODUCTION
Case study projects based on Digitally Fabricated Concrete (DFC) are presented in an
increasing pace around the globe, as shown by regular updates by 3ders.org [1] and AM4AE
[2]. Generally, though, it is not reported what structural requirements (if any) these structures
meet and how compliance to these requirements was established.
Meanwhile, material research into structural properties of DFC and its dependencies on process
specific characteristics such as anisotropy, is also enjoying rapid growth as evidenced by recent
publications [refs]. However, published material research is often not connected to the
presented case studies, and even when it is, it is not necessarily obvious their small scale results
can be applied to full scale structures as some scale effects should be anticipated.
The development of DFC has entered into a hazardous phase. Without a proper understanding
of structural properties and scale effects, the worldwide enthusiasm for the technology could
result in structures that have not been thoroughly proven. If that were to result in a collapse,
that could endanger the development of the technology as a whole, in addition to the effects on
an individual project. As long as these uncertainties exist, large scale testing of structural
elements is an essential tool that should be applied to prove their validity and avoid structural
failures.
2. SCALE EFFECTS
For two reasons, caution is required when applying results of small scale material tests on full
scale DFC structures. First, these tests themselves are still under development. In particular, the
range of process settings in which test results are valid, is largely unknown (e.g. environment
temperature, pump pressures, interlayer interval time, etc.). It is thus also unclear which settings
need to be recorded. Second, the effect of scale has hardly been investigated. Besides better
known effects of shrinkage and creep – which also should be established for print materials –
scale effects in DFC that could be expected include:
•! changes in the DFC system, e.g. temperature, friction, nozzle height above object.
•! effects of object geometry, e.g. pressure caused by self weight of object, interlayer
interval time.
•! effects of design, e.g. interactions with other materials and joints.
•! statistical effects, e.g. due to a varying quality of print material, or scatter in interlayer
strength.
187
3. LARGE SCALE EXPERIMENTS
To avoid unexpected detrimental scale effects in two DFC projects, large scale tests have been
performed at the Structures Lab of the Eindhoven University of Technology. The first involved
testing of wall segments for a planned pavilion in Nyborg, Denmark; the second of a bridge for
slow traffic in Gemert, the Netherlands.
3.1. Nyborg Pavilion

A one-storey structure was designed, consisting of 3 printed concrete, curved walls, connected
by timber-and-glass infill panels. The walls were made up of two 60 mm faces of layered
concrete filament, separated by a 300 mm cavity filled with PUR insulation. The faces were
connected by polymer wall ties, approximately 10 m-2. Three prototype wall segments were
produced with the TU/e 3DCP facility and tested in compression, 3-point bending and
pendulum impact (Figures 1a, b, c). The tests showed satisfactory results, with resistances well
above the design load. However, some other problems were identified that were due to the
interaction of the concrete with the wall ties and insulation.
! ! !
Fig. 1a, b, c. Testing of 2.5 m high wall element for pavilion: compression, bending and
impact.
3.2. Gemert Bicycle Bridge

The Gemert bicycle bridge consists of a number of custom shaped 3D printed deck elements
that were joined together by post-tensioned prestressing rods (De Ingenieur, [3]). Creep tests
were performed to estimate prestress loss over time. A 1:2 scale model of the bridge was tested
in 4-point bending to validate the expected failure behaviour (Figure 2). It was tested until
failure by concrete cracking. Although loaded well above the design load, collapse did not
occur. Based on the tests, the bridge manufactured and positioned on-site. Before opening, an
on-site load test was performed (Figure 3) to provide a final validation of its resistance.
188
! !
Fig. 2. 1:2 scale model of 3d concrete printed Fig. 3. On-site testing of 3d concrete printed
pedestrian and bicycle bridge tested in 4- pedestrian and bicycle bridge
point bending.
4. PAPER
The authors propose to elaborate in a paper on the discussion of scale effects, and to present
and discuss the design and test results of the mentioned projects.
REFERENCES
[1]! 3ders.org. Available online: www.3ders.org. Accessed 4 December 2017.
[2]! AM4AE. Available online: http://www.am4ae.com/statistics.html. Accessed 4 December 2017.
[3]! De Ingenieur. Available online: https://www.deingenieur.nl/artikel/betonnen-fietsbrug-uit-de-
printer (accessed on 26 September 2017).
189
DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTABLE STRAIN HARDENING

CEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITE PART I: MIX DESIGN
DEVELOPMENT
S. Chaves Figueiredo* (1), C. Romero Rodriguez (1), Z.Y. Ahmed (2), D.H. Bos (2), Y.
Xu (1), T.A.M. Salet (2), O. Çopuroğlu (1), F.P. Bos (2), and E. Schlangen (1).
(1) Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands

(2) Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands
*corresponding author: S.ChavesFigueiredo@tudelft.nl
1. INTRODUCTION
The employment of automation in construction sites has not yet reached its full potential.
One promising construction technique which has drawn a lot of attention in the past few years
is the three-dimensional printing of structures. This method promises to bring a new era on
the construction industry. However, a whole new variety of materials must be developed to
meet the mechanical and durability-related demands of a long-lasting and safe structure.
Recent researches have shown the development of cementitious composites with different
aggregate particle sizes. Concrete and mortars have been developed with printable
characteristics. In some studies fibres have been incorporated to stabilize the mixture at the
fresh state or to minimize the occurrence of cracks due to shrinkage. However, the materials
and printing methods have not yet delivered solutions to improve the performance of the
composite when loaded in tension [1], [2].
In this research a printable strain hardening cementitious composite (SHCC) has been
developed. The mix design was elaborated based on the study of the rheology of the fresh
mixture, employing models developed for the study of extruded ceramics, plastics and
fibrocement. The SHCCs are cementitious materials able to deliver high ductility and
controlled crack propagation when loaded in tension. It has been demonstrated already the
ability of this composite of achieving not only high mechanical performance, but also
improved durability [3].
A study of the rheology of the mixture is necessary to understand and quantify the factors
involved on the development of an extrudable composite. The fresh state of cementitious
composites is crucial to determine its printability.
It is reported that the standard rheometers usually employed on the rheology
characterization of cementitious materials are not able to capture features of highly
concentrated mixtures. These mixtures are usually investigated employing a ran-extruder
proposed by Benbow-Bridgwater [4], where the dough-like paste is pushed from a barrel to a
die of smaller diameter. Employing this technique, the bulk yield stress (σ0) and the yield
shear stress (τ0) can be obtained.
Departing from two known SHCC mix designs reported elsewhere [5], [6], the rheology of
their matrices (the composite without the fibres) were studied. The influence of viscosity
190
modifier agent, superplasticizer, water content and PVA fibre volume were investigated. With
this experimental procedure, a detailed behaviour of σ0 and τ0 is obtained.
Composites reinforced by 2% by volume of PVA fibres were also evaluated mechanically.
Four-point bending, and direct tensile tests were performed to evaluate the capability of these
composites to absorb energy during failure and to develop multiple cracks.

The use of the Benbow-Bridgwater model demonstrated great potential to characterize
printable mix-designs. The role of each studied parameter on the rheology properties could be
comprehend. The employment of σ0 and τ0 as feedback parameters for the development of
printable SHCC was proven to be adequate. The bulk yield stress has demonstrated to be a
good parameter to determine the shape stability of the mixture and the shear yield stress has
direct influence on the pumpability. A printable SHCC with high content of fly ash and sand
or blast furnace slag and limestone powder were developed. In the figure 1a an example is
reported of the flexural hardening and multiple cracking behaviour of the composite after
testing in four-point bending, and in figure 1b an example of the rheology test.
Figure 1: a) Flexural hardening and multiple crack behaviour of printable SHCC and; b)
Rheology test employing a ram-extruder mix-design (mix-design shows shape stability).
REFERENCES
[1] F. Bos, R. Wolfs, Z. Ahmed, and T. Salet, “Additive manufacturing of concrete in construction:
potentials and challenges of 3D concrete printing,” Virtual Phys. Prototyp., vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 209–
225, 2016.
[2] A. Kazemian, X. Yuan, E. Cochran, and B. Khoshnevis, “Cementitious materials for construction-
scale 3D printing#: Laboratory testing of fresh printing mixture,” Constr. Build. Mater., vol. 145,
pp. 639–647, 2017.
[3] S. F. U. Ahmed and H. Mihashi, “A review on durability properties of strain hardening fibre
reinforced cementitious composites (SHFRCC),” Cem. Concr. Compos., vol. 29, no. 5, pp. 365–
376, 2007.
[4] J. J. Benbow and E. W. Oxley, “THE EXTRUSION MECHANICS OF PASTES- THE
INFLUENCE OF PASTE FORMULATION EXTRUSION PARAMETERS,” Chem. Eng. Sci.,
vol. 42, no. 1967, pp. 1467–1473, 1987.
[5] P. Wang, F. H. Wittmann, P. Zhang, E. Lehmann, and T. Zhao, “Durability and Service Life of
Elements Made With Shcc Under Imposed Strain,” in SHCC3 - 3rd International RILEM
Conference on Strain Hardening Cementitious Composites, 2014, pp. 33–41.
[6] J. Zhou, S. Qian, M. G. Sierra Beltran, G. Ye, K. Breugel, and V. C. Li, “Development of
engineered cementitious composites with limestone powder and blast furnace slag,” Mater. Struct.,
vol. 43, no. 6, pp. 803–814, 2010.
191
DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTABLE STRAIN HARDENING

CEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITE PART II: CHARACTERIZATION OF
THE PRINTED COMPOSITE
S. Chaves Figueiredo* (1), C. Romero Rodriguez (1), Z.Y. Ahmed (2), D.H. Bos (2), Y.
Xu (1), T.A.M. Salet (2), O. Çopuroğlu (1), F.P. Bos (2), and E. Schlangen (1).
(1) Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands

(2) Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands
*corresponding author: S.ChavesFigueiredo@tudelft.nl
1. INTRODUCTION
In the past few decades the constant evolution of the building process has improved the
efficiency of the construction industry. The employment of techniques developed for
manufacture applications have brought concepts usually seen on industrial engineering to the
daily life of construction engineering. Leam production with its waste control delivering the
just-in-time solution for instance, or the six sigma tools improving the quality of the
manufactured products are all techniques imported from the industrial engineering concepts.
Although, these theories have led to a totally new branch on the building technology they are
very much focused on the management of construction techniques already existent [1], [2].
Emerging as one of the attempts to improve automation in the construction market three-
dimensional printing (3DP) of structural elements is now being investigated by several
research groups [3]. Some attention has been devoted to enhance the ductility of printed
materials. Bos et al, have successfully embedded a metallic cable on the printed material,
contributing to the reinforcing of this new casting procedure [4].
One of the most successful ductile materials in civil engineering, strain hardening
cementitious composites (SHCC) has a high potential to be employed for 3DP. The match
between the tailored brittle matrix and ductility of the Polyvinyl Alcohol fibres (PVA) enables
these composites to develop multiple cracks when loaded under tension [5].
To investigate the mechanical properties of the composite the material was printed with
different lengths and number of layers. Long beams with one, two, three and four layers were
printed as it is exemplified on figure 1a. While fresh, these beams were segmented in sections
of about 50cm to facilitate the transport from the printing table to the curing room after the
final setting time. After 10 days of cure these segmented sections were cut to create
specimens which were tested after 14, 28 and 35 days. Due to the anisotropic behaviour of the
casting procedure an extensive investigation of the mechanical properties is proposed and
detailed on table 1.
Table 1: Detailed mechanical tests
Load direction Curing Number of
Test (printing direction age in layers of the Purpose
as a reference) days specimen
192
Perpendicular Gain of strength with the curing

Compressive 14 and
4 age and the influence of the bond
strength Parallel 28
in between layers.
Flexural hardening and multiple
Four-point 14 and crack formation assessment. The
Perpendicular 1, 2, 3 and 4
bending 28 influence of the number of layers
was studied.
Perpendicular Strain hardening and multiple
Tensile 35 1
Parallel crack formation assessment.
Layer The layer interface tensile bond
interface strength of composites printed
Perpendicular 28 2
tensile bond with two different time intervals
strength were evaluated.
Fracture
Toughness and its limit of
toughness Perpendicular 28 4
proportionality.
test

The mechanical properties of two SHCCs with high content of blast furnace slag and
limestone powder or fly ash and sand up to 0.5mm were evaluated. Strain and flexural
hardening followed by multiple cracking behaviour was observed and an example can be
found on the figure 1b. The fibre distribution were assessed by image analysis from polished
sections and X-ray microtomography.
Figure 1. a) Example of printed beam; and b) Flexural hardening with multiple crack.
REFERENCES
[1] O. Salem, J. Solomon, A. Genaidy, and M. Luegring, “Site Implementation and Assessment of
Lean Construction Techniques,” Lean Constr. J. , vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 1–21, 2005.
[2] L. S. Pheng and M. S. Hui, “Implementing and Applying Six Sigma in Construction,” J. Constr.
Eng. Manag., vol. 130, no. 4, pp. 482–489, 2004.
[3] F. Bos, R. Wolfs, Z. Ahmed, and T. Salet, “Additive manufacturing of concrete in construction:
potentials and challenges of 3D concrete printing,” Virtual Phys. Prototyp., vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 209–
225, 2016.
[4] F. P. Bos, Z. Y. Ahmed, E. R. Jutinov, and T. A. M. Salet, “Experimental exploration of metal
cable as reinforcement in 3D printed concrete,” Materials (Basel)., vol. 10, no. 11, 2017.
[5] V. C. Li, “On engineered cementitious composites (ECC). A review of the material and its
applications,” J. Adv. Concr. Technol., vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 215–230, 2003.
193
Influence of Admixture on Rheology of 3D Printable Construction Materials
Yi Wei Daniel Tay1*, Ming Jen Tan1

1
Singapore Centre for 3D Printing, School of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering,
Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798
Abstract
3D (three dimesional) printing is a process where objects of almost any shape are formed in a layer by
layer manner. Some of its potential advantages are reduced waste, reduce hard physical work, high
accuracy and complexity.
The rheological aspect for conventional casting application is as crucial as it is for 3D concrete printing.
In extrusion-based 3D printing method, the material should exhibit thixotropic behaviour, where the
material is required to be low in viscosity during pumping and high in viscosity after extrusion so that the
material maintains its shape after extrusion. This change in viscosity can be achieved by the addition of
admixtures.
In this paper, oscillation tests were used to analyse the rheology for different mix design. In the early
stage of the oscillation test, the stress is sufficiently low to preserve the structure which simulates the
material at rest. As the test progresses, the incrementing speed of the probe in the rheometer will tend to
cause disruption in the structure which mimics the flow of the material. The use of oscillatory test helps to
identify the nature of the structuring mechanisms present in the material which is useful when attempting
in understanding the flow behaviour of the material. Lastly, a suitable mix design is proposed for 3D
printing and some future work will be presented.
Keywords: 3D printing, Additive Manufacturing, Construction, Rheology, Thixotropic, Oscillation.
194
SIMPLIFYING THE QUESTION OF HYDRATION

CONTROL FOR DIGITAL FABRICATION WITH CONCRETE
Lex Reiter* (1), Timothy Wangler (1) and Robert J. Flatt (1)
(1) Institute for Building Materials, NCCR Digital Fabrication, ETH Zurich, Switzerland.
Gaining control over hydration kinetics of cements is of primordial importance to the

successful implementation of the emerging additive manufacturing techniques in concrete
processing, primarily of layered extrusion and slipforming (1). While mechanisms and
admixtures enhancing flocculation can be required to successfully extrude and keep in shape
layers of material, this effect cannot be extended beyond a few layers. Going beyond these
few layers remains a considerable challenge for digital fabrication, as hydration is not
traditionally controlled for processes in which material is delivered and controlled
continuously for several hours. Several admixture systems and processes have previously
been proposed and used, most of the time with ordinary Portland cement (OPC) (2–5).
OPC hydration is a complex coupled chemical process, involving the dissolution of

several cementitious phases, most importantly tricalcium silicate and tricalcium aluminate, the
precipitation from a pore solution of varying composition and growth of hydration products
such as ettringite and calcium silicate hydrates. OPC hydration is governed by intricate
interactions of all these mechanisms at the same time and is not fully understood despite
decades of intensive research. More importantly for concrete in digital fabrication, the
detailed mechanism responsible for the transition from the induction to the acceleration period
of hydration is still an open question, even when no admixtures are present (6,7). The
incomplete understanding of OPC hydration has substantial consequences for technological
development, as the effect of compositional changes (especially changes in cement
composition and admixture dosage) is often subject to unpredictable effects, requiring regular
empirical optimisations. Additionally most set accelerating admixtures have severe limitations
in practice (1).
Reducing the complexity of these interactions by using cements that are better
understood and in which essentially a single cement phase is hydrating on the time-scale of
processing, could improve the resilience of processes and support development of other parts
of fabrication processes, by using them as model systems. Such cements are calcium-sulfo-
aluminates (CSA) in which essentially ettringite forms and calcium-aluminate cements (CAC)
in which essentially calcium aluminate hydrates form.
We propose to use a combination of a set retarder, such as sodium gluconate and a set
accelerator, such as lithium hydroxide to control the hardening of CAC cement (cf. figure 1).
Sodium gluconate dosages as low as 0.025% by weight of cement are sufficient to delay
hydration by multiple hours. The retarding effect can be cancelled by addition of lithium
hydroxide. More importantly, the ratio of accelerator to retarder dosage allows tailoring the
195
time of occurrence of a first hydration peak. This is important for acceleration in an inline
mixing system, as structural buildup is not initiated immediately upon accelerator addition,
leaving enough time for extrusion without clogging the delivery line.
Figure 1. Controlling the setting time of a calcium aluminate cement by a combined use of
set retarders and set accelerators. It appears that by ratio of set retarder to set accelerator, the
time to onset of hydration can be defined, while the amount of accelerator defines essentially
the time of occurrence of the main peak.
REFERENCES
1. Reiter L, Wangler T, Roussel N, Flatt RJ. The role of early age structural build-up in
digital fabrication with concrete. Cem Concr Res. submitted;
2. Lloret E, Shahab AR, Linus M, Flatt RJ, Gramazio F, Kohler M, et al. Complex concrete
structures: Merging existing casting techniques with digital fabrication. Mater Ecol. 2015
Mar 1;60(Supplement C):40–9.
3. Da Silva WRL. 3d concrete printing: from material design to extrusion. Presented slides.
In: Annual Civil Engineering Workshop at Ecole Centrale de Lille (ACE Workshop
2017). 2017.
4. Gosselin C, Duballet R, Roux P, Gaudillière N, Dirrenberger J, Morel P. Large-scale 3D
printing of ultra-high performance concrete – a new processing route for architects and
builders. Mater Des. 2016 Jun 15;100:102–9.
5. Le TT, Austin SA, Lim S, Buswell RA, Gibb AGF, Thorpe T. Mix design and fresh
properties for high-performance printing concrete. Mater Struct. 2012;45(8):1221–32.
6. Bullard JW, Jennings HM, Livingston RA, Nonat A, Scherer GW, Schweitzer JS, et al.
Mechanisms of cement hydration. Conf Spec Cem Hydration Kinet Model Quebec City
2009 CONMOD10 Lausanne 2010. 2011 Dec;41(12):1208–23.
7. Scrivener KL, Juilland P, Monteiro PJM. Advances in understanding hydration of
Portland cement. Keynote Pap 14th Int Congr Chem Cem ICCC 2015. 2015 Dec;78, Part
A:38–56.
196
CONTINUOUS CHARACTERISATION METHOD FOR

STRUCTURAL BUIDLUP
Lex Reiter* (1), Timothy Wangler (1), Nicolas Roussel (2) and Robert J. Flatt (1)
(1)!Institute for Building Materials, NCCR Digital Fabrication, ETH Zurich, Switzerland.
(2)!Université Paris Est, IFSTTAR, France
In digital fabrication technologies with concrete such as layered extrusion and

slipforming, the yield stress of concrete must evolve over time in a specific way and in a
similar fashion for each layer. As the composition of concrete and the manufacturing
conditions (most importantly temperature) may vary from day to day, some variability in
hydration and hardening kinetics can be expected. However these processes are currently only
resilient to minor changes in flow behaviour, the issues varying from segregation, improper
placing, layering to flow out, fracturing and buckling (1). If yield stress evolution after
placing can be monitored, the rate at which the manufacturing processes run, can be modified
according to the day to day flow behaviour (2,3).
Monitoring yield stress in concrete at rest is however not trivial. Many strategies can
be devised to relate measurements to yield stress. Not all techniques are however directly
measuring yield stress. Calorimetry is one such case, as cumulative heat is an excellent
indicator of the growth of hydration products, which are responsible for long-term strength
development, but the technique fundamentally does not provide information on physical
interactions between particles. Additionally yield stress is a measurement of transient flow
behaviour, involving some destruction of the structural bonds between particles that were
built in the concrete at rest and turns most measurement techniques essentially into single
point measurements at a single time. Additionally concrete transitions from fully plastic to
brittle behaviour during the timeframe of interest, changing cohesion and friction angle over
time.
To measure the evolution of yield stress over time, setups monitoring the penetration
force of an indenter applied at multiple points and in intervals are in use (4). Continuous
measurements have been possible on cement paste measuring the penetration force at low
penetration rates (5). We broaden the validation of this continuous measuring approach, by
comparing measurements to other accessible flow behaviour measurements and widening the
validation to mortars saturated in cement paste, as they are used in digital fabrication and
provide techniques to compare and calibrate measurements conducted on a specific sample
geometry to yield stress measurements gathered with widely accessible means.
We compare penetration tests conducted on cement paste (cf. figure 1) and mortar,
where the penetration rate is fast at 1 mm/s and suited for point measurements to ones where
the penetration rate is slow at 20 mm/h and suited for continuous measurements. In these
experiments the penetration force is recorded. For cement paste the agreement between
197
penetration measurements conducted at different penetration rates is excellent. These

measurements are compared to more common methods such as slump test, uniaxial
compression and vane test, from which a yield stress can be computed. For yield stresses
computed from vane test and uniaxial compression the same hardening kinetics can be
observed as for penetration tests over multiple scales. These measurements could thus serve
as basis for calibration of penetration tests conducted on samples of a specific geometry.
Figure 1: Comparison of different characterisation methods for yield stress measurement on

cement pastes. A good agreement could be found between penetration force measurements
conducted at different penetration rates and could be related to yield stress measured from
vane and uniaxial compression tests in the range of interest for digital fabrication with
concrete.
REFERENCES
1. Reiter L, Wangler T, Roussel N, Flatt RJ. The role of early age structural build-up in
digital fabrication with concrete. Cem Concr Res. submitted;
2. Lloret Fritschi E. Smart Dynamic Casting A digital fabrication method for non-standard
concrete structures [Doctoral thesis]. [Switzerland]: ETH Zürich; 2016.
3. Lloret Fritschi E, Reiter L, Wangler T, Gramazio F, Kohler M, Flatt RJ. Smart Dynamic
Casting - Slipforming with Flexible Formwork - Inline Measurement and Control. In: 2nd
Concrete Innovation Conference. 2017.
4. Mettler LK, Wittel FK, Flatt RJ, Herrmann HJ. Evolution of strength and failure of SCC
during early hydration. Cem Concr Res. 2016 Nov;89:288–96.
5. Lootens D, Jousset P, Martinie L, Roussel N, Flatt RJ. Yield stress during setting of
cement pastes from penetration tests. Cem Concr Res. 2009 May 1;39(5):401–8.
198
How nanoclays improve printing quality in presence of PCE
Ye Qian, Quentin Moli-Brallans, Teo Leconte, Geert De Schutter
Ghent University, Department of Structural Engineering, Magnel Laboratory for Concrete

Research, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde 904, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
Abstract:
Recent studies have found that nanoclay greatly increases shape stability and print quality of
fresh cementitious mortars in 3D printing. In this study, rheological tests are carried out to
explore the mechanisms. The interaction between nanoclay and polycarboxylate ether
superplasticizer (PCE) is studies in terms of dynamic yield stress and thixotropy. It is found
that nanoclay has a good compatibility with PCE surfactant. Nanoclay increases the dynamic
yield stress and enhances the thixotropy of fresh cement pastes with and without PCE addition.
This study gives insight of achieving low dynamic yield stress yet high static yield stress and
thixotropy mixtures. It is believed to be suitable for 3D printing applications.
Keywords: Nanoclay, PCE, dynamic yield stress, thixotropy
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FROM MASTERING FLUIDITY TO CONTROLLING HYDRATION

RETARDATION: FIRST STEP TO PCES MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
OPTIMIZATION
D. Marchon* (1) and R.J. Flatt (2)
(1) University of California, Berkeley, USA

(2) ETHZ, Zurich, Switzerland
1. INTRODUCTION
Polycarboxylate ether (PCE) superplasticizers are nowadays among the most efficient
concrete dispersants in the market. However, they are not used at their best as they invariably
cause a retardation of cement hydration. This can show usefulness when needed but generally
represents a real issue for faster and controlled concrete hardening. Recently, we were able to
show that cement hydration retardation induced by the PCEs can be mastered using
knowledge-based modifications of their molecular structure [1]. One step further was made by
combining the findings on retardation and a rheological empirical analysis considering the
PCEs dispersive effect with respect to their molecular structure. This led to the development
of a molecular structure optimization chart. The aim of this chart is to show how to change the
structural parameters of PCEs to minimise the retardation without compromising the effect on
rheology. The use of such a chart and the understanding of the physico-chemical phenomena
behind are of great importance for the development of mix designs suitable for digital
fabrication.
2. CHART OF MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OPTIMIZATION

Figure 1 was built comparing two polymers, 1 and 2, with different structural parameters,
represented by N and P. PCEs are comb copolymers composed of a backbone and side chains
and are divided in repeat units, each having one side chain. N is the number of monomers of
the backbone for one repeat unit and P is the number of monomers in one side chain [2].
Figure 1 shows the retardation of the main hydration peak represented by the ratio ∆t1/∆t2 as a
function of N1/N2 ratio for different P. It displays the evolution of the retardation as a function
of changes of structural parameters with respect to a reference polymer, 1, dosed to achieve
the same dispersion efficiency. The dot represents the case where polymer 2 has the same
structural parameters as polymer 1. This plot simply indicates how to modify either N, P or
both relatively to the reference polymer in order to reduce the retardation, i.e. to increase the
ratio ∆t1/∆t2, without impacting the dispersion that they equally induce. The stars represent
realistic and common polymers where the length of the molecules were imposed to not suffer
of adsorption artefacts. We can observe that, in the best case (upper star), the retardation is
reduced by about 2.5 times when N and P are increased from 4 to 7 and 23 to 68, respectively.
This polymer presents reasonable structural parameters and provides a substantial reduction in
retardation without loss of fluidity.
200
Figure 1. Chart for molecular structure optimization [1].
3. CONCLUSION
Although this chart still depends on some limiting factors, such as a reference polymer or
the use of a delayed addition mode, it still represents a first step to define new options in
polymer development. Indeed, it offers a very promising tool for the design of molecular
structure through the optimisation of the macro-scale performance characteristics of PCEs,
fluidity and retardation. Understanding in a molecular level the physico-chemistry of such
admixtures is important to control their properties together with their side effects and to
develop such tools for molecular design optimization. This indeed turns essential for digital
fabrication, where mix designs become highly complex. The next step in this endeavour for
digital fabrication will be met by determining the interaction between such admixtures used
for rheology control and others, as accelerators, used to accelerate setting and hardening
kinetics.
REFERENCES
[1] D. Marchon, P. Juilland, E. Gallucci, L. Frunz, R.J. Flatt, Molecular and submolecular scale
effects of comb-copolymers on tri-calcium silicate reactivity: Toward molecular design, J. Am.
Ceram. Soc. 100 (2017) 817–841. doi:10.1111/jace.14695.
[2] R.J. Flatt, I. Schober, E. Raphael, C. Plassard, E. Lesniewska, Conformation of Adsorbed Comb
Copolymer Dispersants, Langmuir. 25 (2009) 845–855. doi:10.1021/la801410e.
201
ENVIRONMENTAL POTENTIAL OF DIGITAL FABRICATION FOR

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
I. Agustí-Juan* (1) and G. Habert (1)
(1) Chair of Sustainable Construction, ETH Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland

1. INTRODUCTION
The construction sector is responsible for high environmental impacts worldwide, such as
38% GHG emissions and 40% solid waste generation. Increasing concern about sustainability
is inducing the emergence of innovative processes and technologies to overcome the impacts
caused by traditional construction. In particular, additive digital fabrication techniques applied
to construction evidence a significant potential to produce complex geometries without
supporting structures, reduce material though structural optimization, and integrate multi-
functionality. Given the recent developments in concrete construction, this research aims to
identify environmental principles to guide the design of digitally fabricated concrete structures.
2. IMPACT OF CONSTRUCTION VS. IMPACT OF MATERIAL PRODUCTION

Several studies have investigated the energy consumption and environmental impacts of 3D
printing processes. Looking specifically at additive construction, [1] showed that the production
of robotic technologies for construction and the electricity demand during fabrication contribute
marginally to the overall environmental impact of digitally fabricated building elements.
Moreover, the LCA evaluation confirmed that most of the impacts derive from the amount and
type of building materials used. A common argument against the use of digital fabrication in
construction is the increase of energy consumption due to the increase of automated
construction techniques. However, current studies allow to rule out this argument and push
designers and material scientists to focus much more intensively on material optimization
within additive construction.
3. SHAPE COMPLEXITY IN CONSTRUCTION

Current digital fabrication techniques allow the construction of non-standard concrete
structures efficient in material use by reducing or eliminating the need for formworks. In order
to quantify the environmental benefits of digital fabrication for complex concrete construction,
[2] carried out a LCA comparison of robotically-fabricated and conventional concrete walls
with different degrees of shape complexity. As shown in Figure 1, the analysis confirmed that
the environmental potential of digital fabrication increases proportionally to the degree of
complexity in the architectural geometry. Higher shape complexity was achieved without
additional environmental impacts associated with conventional formworks, etc. However, this
conclusion does not mean that non-standard geometries have always an environmental
advantage. The shape complexity facilitated by digital fabrication techniques should be the
result of an optimization of material use, which is usually achieved through two design
strategies: structural optimization or functional hybridization.
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Figure 1. Complexity-related environmental advantage of digital fabrication vs. conventional

construction, expressed by percentage of Global Warming Potential (kg CO2 eq.) per m2
3.1. Structural optimization for material reduction

Computational approaches for digital fabrication integrate structural optimization in form-
finding design. These design strategies increase shape complexity while addressing resource
efficiency, only using material where is structurally needed. However, the optimization of
complex concrete structures through digital fabrication techniques often relies on high contents
of cement. As the environmental impact of concrete increases by augmenting cement content,
the volume reduction has to be more effective. [3] showed that the concrete weight of a floor
slab can be reduced more than 70% trough structural optimization.
3.1. Functional hybridization for material reduction

Digital fabrication techniques facilitate construction targeting multi-functionality through
geometrical complexity. Specifically, structures with functional hybridization can provide a
secondary function (e.g. acoustic, thermal) through their complex shape, which avoids
additional building components. For instance, [4] applied this strategy to 3d print a concrete
wall, which demonstrated a gain in thermal insulation performance of 56% in comparison to a
conventional wall. Functional hybridization saves material during production, associated with
a reduction in environmental impacts. However, it may hinder the maintenance of building
components and increase replacement rates during service life, carrying environmental
consequences. Therefore, digitally fabricated structures require design flexibility.
REFERENCES
[1]! Agustí-Juan, Isolda, and Guillaume Habert. "Environmental Design Guidelines for Digital
Fabrication." J Clean Prod 142 (2017) 2780-91.
[2]! Agustí-Juan, Isolda, Florian Müller, Norman Hack, Timothy Wangler, and Guillaume Habert.
"Potential Benefits of Digital Fabrication for Complex Structures: Environmental Assessment of a
Robotically Fabricated Concrete Wall." J Clean Prod 154 (2017) 330-40.
[3]! Block, P., A. Schlueter, D. Veenendaal, J. Bakker, M. Begle, I. Hischier, J. Hofer, et al. "Nest Hilo:
Investigating Lightweight Construction and Adaptive Energy Systems." J Build Eng 12
(2017/07/01/ 2017) 332-41.
[4]! Gosselin, Clément, Romain Duballet, Ph Roux, Nadja Gaudillière, Justin Dirrenberger, and Ph
Morel. "Large-Scale 3d Printing of Ultra-High Performance Concrete–a New Processing Route for
Architects and Builders." Mater Des 100 (2016) 102-09.
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DIGITAL DESIGN AND OPTIMIZED FABRICATION OF A

CONCRETE SHELL BRIDGE WITH 36M SPAN
B. Kromoser* (1)
(1) University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Research group for Biobased
Design, Vienna, Austria
1. INTRODUCTION
Concrete shells are efficient supporting structures. They highly utilize the construction
material if properly designed. The problem is still that the production of the formwork is labor
and material intensive. An alternative resource saving construction method called “Pneumatic
Forming of Hardened Concrete (PFHC)” was invented by the authors as described in [1], [2],
[3]. The method uses a simple air cushion and additional post-tensioning tendons to transform
a flat concrete plate into a double curved shell. Thus, the complicated spatially curved formwork
and the framework are not required any more. Recently, the construction method was first
practically applied to build a deer pass as concrete shell bridge over the two-track rail
Koralmbahn on behalf of the Austrian railways (ÖBB).
2. PROJECT DATA AND CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE

The plan measurements of the bridge are 36.2 x 38.7 m and the height of the shell from the
foundations to the vertex are 8.0 m. The bridge during construction is shown in Figure 1. During
the construction process a flat 100 mm thick hardened concrete plate with a weight of 546 t was
Figure 1. Concrete shell bridge with 36 m span constructed with PFHC during construction –
view from outside
204
lifted to the designed double curved shell by inflating an air cushion and by simultaneously
tensioning 16 post-tension tendons at the circumference of the structure with hydraulic jacks.
This thin concrete shell served as lost formwork for the final bridge. In the required areas
additional reinforcement and concrete were applied to achieve the final thickness of 450 mm.
An air pressure of 29-32 mbar, produced by high-performance fans, in the air cushion was
sufficient to perform the transformation process. The erection from the flat plate to the double
curved shell was finished after only 5 hours
3. DIGITAL DESIGN, AUTOMATED REGULATION OF THE PNEUMATIC

STRUCTURES AND CONSTRUCTION WORK ON SITE
The complete form finding process for the determination of the final design of the concrete
shell bridge was performed by the aid of digital design tools. The present paper describes the
process in detail starting with the form finding of the reference geometry and the form of the
final bridge and ends with the geometry of the flat starting plate.
The second part of the present contribution deals with the digital regulation of the pressure
in the pneumatic structures during the construction process.
Finally, some details about the construction process on site will be given.
REFERENCES
[1]! B. Kromoser and J. Kollegger, ‘Herstellung von Schalentragwerken aus Beton mit der “Pneumatic
Wedge Method”’, Beton- Stahlbetonbau, vol. 109, no. 8, pp. 557–565, Aug. 2014.
[2]! B. Kromoser and J. Kollegger, ‘Application Areas for Pneumatic Forming of Hardened Concrete’,
J. Inernational Assoc. Shells Spat. Struct. IASS, vol. 56, no. 3, pp. 187–198, 2015.
[3]! B. Kromoser and J. Kollegger, ‘Pneumatic forming of hardened concrete – building shells in the
21st century’, Structural Concrete, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 161–171, Jun. 2015.
205
STABILITY EVALUATION OF 3D PRINTED CONCRETE ELEMENT

THROUGH NUMERICAL MODELING
R. Hameed* (1) (2) and A. Papon (2)
(1) Civil Engineering Department, University of Engineering & Technology Lahore, Pakistan
(2) LMDC, Université de Toulouse, UPS, INSA, Toulouse, France
*corresponding author, Email: rashidmughal@uet.edu.pk
ABSTRACT
Important experimental research work has been carried out in the recent past years worldwide
to design the cement based materials of required rheological and mechanical properties to be
used in the 3D printing of concrete elements and it has been made possible today through
such research studies to print small scale concrete structures practically. Approaches such as
Fuller Thomson theory and Marson-Percy model have been employed successfully to design
cementitious materials for 3D printing [1] and effect of properties of materials on the build-
ability in terms of maximum number of layers to ensure stability of printed element has been
experimentally investigated. Currently, there is need to develop numerical modeling
techniques to study the response of printed structures during printing process in order to better
understand the physical phenomena which come into play and to optimize the need of
expensive experimental tests. Literature review indicates that very few studies have been done
on the finite element modeling of the behavior of the printed element in terms of shape
stability. Numerical modeling of early age mechanical behavior of 3D printed concrete has
been recently done [2] and for this purpose, Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion (Eq. 1) was
employed. Model parameters were determined by performing uniaxial unconfined
compression and direct shear tests. The approach to model the response of printed structures
was validated through experimental observations.
! = tan & ' + ) (1)

where τ is the shear yield stress, ! is the normal stress, " is the angle of internal friction and c
is the cohesion between particles bonded by cement.
In the present study, the authors compare two numerical approaches to determine the
maximum number of printed layers without causing stability problem in the printed element.
The first approach considers that the printed concrete is in a static state after extrusion and for
this a linear elastic perfectly plastic Mohr–Coulomb model is assumed, as done in [2]. The
second approach allows for a dynamic study for which the printed concrete is considered as a
viscoplastic material (see Fig. 1). The constitutive model selected for this approach is the
Herschel-Bulkley model (Eq. 2).
! = !* + +, - (2)
where τ is the shear stress, , is the shear rate, τ0 is the yield stress, n is the behavior index and
K is the consistency index.
206
In order to take into account the thixotropic behavior of the concrete, the different constitutive
parameters are considered as time-dependent parameters [2-3]. The values of constitutive
parameters are obtained from the literature for this study. Further, modeling results are
validated using the experimental, analytical and numerical data published by other
researchers.
Time = 0.01 s Time = 0.1 s
Time = 0.2 s
Figure 1. Flow rate of a viscoplastic material at different times after deposition (Approach 2).
Both approaches are compared in terms of robustness, computational cost, qualitative and
quantitative relevance of the numerical results with respect to experimental ones.
REFERENCES
[1]! Weng Y., Li M., Tan M.J. and Qian S., 'Design 3D printing cementitious materials via Fuller
Thompson theory and Marson-Percy model', Construction and Building Materials 163 (2018)
600-610
[2]! Wolfs R.J.M., Bos F.P. and Salet T.A.M., 'Early age mechanical behaviour of 3D printed
concrete: Numerical modelling and experimental testing', Cement and Concrete Research 106
(2018) 103-116
[3]! Perrot A., Rangeard D. and Pierre A., 'Structural built-up of cement-based materials used for 3D-
printing extrusion techniques', Materials and Structures 49 (2016) 1213-1220
207
USE OF SELECTED GCC IN DIGITAL FORMULATION
Pascal Gonnon* (1), Thomas Lys (1)

(1), Omya International AG, Oftringen, Switzerland
Ground Calcium Carbonate (GCC) has been used for decades in construction to enhance
performance-cost ratio of cement-based products as mortar and concrete. From dry-mortars to
structural concrete, engineers associate GCC with cementitious materials to optimize fluidity,
viscosity and reduce the carbon footprint of the mixtures [1], [2]. Nevertheless, the contribution
of Ground Calcium Carbonate to the flowability and viscosity of the cement-based systems as
well as the range of GCC fineness available to optimize the packing density are poorly
appreciated. These principles are expected to be very useful in formulating concrete or mortar
for digital fabrication, so that this paper will present an overview on the best practice use of
GCC, hoping to stimulate interest for the material and the ideas for use in digital fabrication
with concrete.
Due to environmental reasons and the growth of infrastructure development resulting in an

enormous demand for cement, the workability and durability aspects of ecological mortar &
concrete with high content of Ground Calcium Carbonate is frequently evaluated by many
authors around the world [3], [4]. It appears, that most of the related works based on cement
paste or mortars are dealing with cement substitution, hydration, strength, heat release, low
temperature curing and pore structure [5], [6]. In many countries, this interest is also
supported by the proposal of new valuable supplementary cementitious materials such as blast
furnace slag, calcined clay or silica fume and the on-going cement evolution with lower
carbon footprint.
During the last decades, in particular for innovative underlayment systems, SCC and Ultra
High-Performance Concrete, we have created several methods to evaluate the performance of
each individual component, namely cement, admixture, additions and GCC. Today, some of
these methods are included in national provisions or standards [7].
By using a novel approach, named LGformulation, to formulate GCC for cement-based

products it will be demonstrated that the introduction of new functional minerals and the right
combination with other fillers, such as cementitious materials help to enhance the
performance-cost ratio and reduce the environmental impact of mortar and concrete.
Particularly for high demanding exposure classes it appears fundamental to demonstrate that
GCC is never used in cement substitution, but as a mineral plasticizer to achieve an optimum
packing skeleton and durability performance. Explained since years in several industries by
various mathematical models, the optimization of the packing leads to lower water need and
better dispersibility of the powders [8], [9], [10]. As complement, in a sum of practical steps,
LGformulation establishes the binder-admixture (s) as the central point of the observation to
208
achieve the viscosity and determine the best organo-mineral combination. All components are
systematically evaluated on the both properties of flow and strength contribution.
Successfully experienced in innovative underlayment formulas, SCC or UHPC, Ground

Calcium Carbonate is associated with selected Fine GCC whose d50% is around 3µm and
Ultrafine GCC whose d50% is 1µm. It makes it possible to achieve the common requested
properties defined by the engineer as flowability, viscosity, stability, cost thanks to a more
effective use of Supplementary cementitious materials (Table 1). Because digital fabrication
typically uses mixes with smaller aggregates, the paste volume must be increased, and the
proper grading of the remaining components must be better optimized. In particular, rheological
behavior is crucial, and it is our hope that our established mix design rules for better use of
GCC can also be utilized in digital fabrication with concrete.
Table 1: LGformulation methods and expected benefits

Methods, purpose Expected benefits
LGsystem – Definition of the GCC point of Stability, packing, flow, viscosity.
saturation
LG10 – SCMs evaluation and combination Packing, flow, viscosity and strength
with Fine GCC or Ultrafine GCC improvement
REFERENCES
[1] Durable eco-concrete in Austria: Materials and mix design methods, J. Juhart, G.A. David , C.
Nickel, G. Fischer, F. Mittermayr, P. Maydl - Institute of Technology and Testing of Building Materials,
Graz University of Technology, Austria.
[2] High or Ultra-High performance concrete, United States, Patent Application Publication, Pub. No.:
US 2012/0037045 A1.
[3] Effect of cement substitution by limestone on the hydration and microstructural development of
ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC), Wei Huang, Hadi Kazemi-Kamyab, Wei Sun, Karen
Scrivener, Cement and Concrete Composites.
[4] Hydration and strength development in ternary portland cement blends containing limestone and fly
ash or metakaolin, Kirk Vance, Matthew Aguayo , Tandre Oey, Gaurav Sant, Narayanan Neithalath,
Cement & Concrete Composites.
[5] Low-Temperature Curing Strength Enhancement in Cement-Based Materials Containing Limestone
Powder, Dale P. Bentz, Paul E. Stutzman1, Franco Zunino, Materials and Structures.
[6] Ternary blends containing slag and interground/blended limestone: Hydration, strength, and pore
structure, Aashay Arora, Gaurav Sant, Narayanan Neithalath, Cement & Concrete Composites.
[7] Méthode LG7 – Limestone addition for concrete, NF P 18-508:2012.
[8] Next generation UHPFRC for sustainable structural applications, Amir Hajiesmaeili, Emmanuel
Denarié, EPFL, DSCS 2018: 2nd International Workshop on Durability and Sustainability of Concrete
Structures, 6-7 June 2018, Russian Academy of Sciences.
[9] Fennis S, Walraven J, Den Uijl J. Defined-performance design of ecological concrete. Materials and
structures 2013,46:639-650.
[10] Packing Density Improvement through Addition of Limestone Fines, Superfine Cement and
Condensed Silica Fume, J. J. Chen, A. K. H. Kwan, P. L. Ng, L. G. Li, Journal of Materials Science and
Chemical Engineering, 2016, 4, 29-36
209
PRESSURE MAPPED SQUEEZE FLOW APPLIED TO CEMENT-

BASED MATERIALS
Rafael G. Pileggi*, Franco A. Grandes, Victor K. Sakano, Andressa C. A. Rego, Fábio A.
Cardoso
Department of Construction Engineering, Escola Politécnica, University of São Paulo, São

Paulo, Brazil
*corresponding author: rafael.pileggi@lme.pcc.usp.br
1. MOTIVATION
Squeeze-flow testing is widely used in many areas [1] either to simulate processing and
application conditions or to overcome difficulties of the rotational techniques as: slip at
material-shear element interfaces, very thick or fibre-containing materials. It has also been
applied as an alternative technique to assess the behaviour of diverse types of building materials
[1,2], since its geometry change during gap reduction creates flow conditions with restrictions
similar to those involved in some types of processing and application of cement-based
materials: spraying, spreading, levelling and finishing of renders; squeezing mortars between
bricks or aggregates; regular extrusion; and the new trend of 3D printing which includes
extrusion and deposition of consecutive layers of pastes and mortars or the injection of fibre-
reinforced compositions in complex-shaped moulds [1,2]. Suspensions can undergo phase
separation depending on material’s susceptibility and flow conditions [1,2], and this affects
rheological behaviour, due to variations on the solid content distribution, which can lead to
particle jamming and, ultimately, to heterogeneous microstructures after hardening. Common
squeeze flow determines material’s bulk behaviour through the normal force, but the test itself
is not able to provide details regarding stress distribution which varies depending on flow type,
behaviour and of phase separation [2]. Thus, this work briefly describes the newly developed
pressure mapped squeeze flow (PMSF) method for rheological evaluation of mortars,
highlighting pressure distribution evolution and the effect of a cellulose ether admixture.
2. EXPERIMENTAL: MORTARS, SQUEEZE FLOW, PRESSURE SENSOR

•! Reference mortar (REF): 70%vol quartz sand, 15% limestone filler, 15% Portland cement.
•! CE mortar (CE): same composition as REF, plus 0.05%wt of MHEC (Tylose 10012P6).
!! Universal testing machine (INSTRON 5569) with a 1 kN load cell for the displacement-
controlled squeeze flow (0.1mm/s). Constant area geometry: upper plate and sample with
101mm of diameter. Steel plates with smooth surface covered with polymeric films.
"! Pressure distribution assessed at mortar-bottom plate interface by a dynamic pressure
mapping system (I-Scan, Tekscan Inc.) with a pressure sensor formed by a mesh of
piezoresistive sensing cells (FlexiForce ® model 5210N 200kPa) [2].
3. RESULTS: SQUEEZE FLOW CURVES AND PRESSURE EVOLUTION

MHEC admixture reduces phase separation due to the viscosity increase of the liquid phase,
therefore shifting the undesired strain hardening stage to larger displacements (smaller gaps).
210
Formation of jammed granular structures in drier regions leads to localized pressure peaks
that finally manifest as the bulk strain hardening behaviour indicated by load curves [2].
Pressure evolution shows heterogeneous flow for REF and this characteristic was reduced in
CE. Comparison of pressure profiles to theoretical models indicated Newtonian shear flow, then
transition to Coulombic frictional behaviour due to particle jamming predominance.
Figure 1. (a) Squeeze flow curves; (b) Pressure distribution at specific displacements for REF;
(c) Pressure distribution at specific displacements for CE mortar; (d) Raw pressure colour scale.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The PMSF method has interesting potential for innovative rheological studies of multiphasic
heterogeneous concentrated suspensions subjected to confined and complex flows. It opens new
possibilities of analysis by: associating anomalies in pressure distribution to microstructural
changes and; identifying the predominant flow type, thus allowing for the application of
adequate models and calculation of rheological parameters. It can also assist studies on
viscoelasticity-related issues of modern manufacturing processes of cementitious components.
REFERENCES
[1]! Cardoso, F.A., John, V.M., Pileggi, R.G., Banfill, P.F.G., ‘Characterisation of rendering mortars by
squeeze-flow and rotational rheometry’. Cement and Concrete Research. 57, (2014) 79–87.
[2]! Grandes, F.A., Sakano, V.K., Rego, A.C.A., Cardoso, F.A., Pileggi, R.G., ‘Squeeze flow coupled
with dynamic pressure mapping for the rheological evaluation of cement-based mortars’, Cement
and Concrete Composites 92, (2018) 18–35.
211
CHLORIDE INGRESS THROUGH COLD JOINTS IN DIGITALLY

FABRICATED CONCRETE BY μXRF MAPPING
P. Bran-Anleu* (1), T. Wangler (1) and R.J. Flatt (1)

1. INTRODUCTION
Extrusion-based 3D printing is a well-established manufacturing process in fields such
as aerospace and medical fields that works well for polymeric materials in which material is
extruded in the liquid or plastic state that later hardens, analogous to concrete.
Although it is true that digital fabrication in the construction field has great potential,
some questions are still open. One aspect that has only recently been looked at, is the effect of
the quality of the layered concrete interfaces. Nerella et al [2], are some of the first researchers
to look at the effect of a weak interface or the formation of cold joints between printed layers,
on the mechanical performance of 3D printed cementitious materials. However, the importance
of such phenomenon and its impact on durability remains an open question, and in the case of
3D printed concrete, the sensitivity to material properties is probably aggravated. Thus, on top
of concrete’s identifiable issues in terms of durability, the additional effect of formation of cold
joints needs to be addressed and investigated for digital fabrication.
2.1. Materials
The 3D printed samples were received ready for exposure. They were mixed and cured
by a group of researchers from the Institute of Construction Materials at the Technical
University of Dresden in Germany. The mortar specimens were mixed according to DIN 12390-
2 [3]. The water to binder ratio was 0.42 for all samples. The mortar was used to print wall
elements. The samples were then obtained from these walls, by cutting them into 4 x 1 x 2.5
cm3 pieces, giving each sample 2 interfaces (3 layers) along the 4-cm edge.
Three groups of samples were prepared, where the printing interval was varied to study
its effect. Another varying parameter was the curing condition. The curing of the printed
elements was carried out according to DIN 12390-2 [3]. The curing process of the samples
included a week of underwater curing, 2 to 3 weeks of high relative humidity curing, and in the
case of a group of samples, 76 hours of curing at 40°C.
2.2. Exposure to chlorides

The samples were exposed to chlorides by means of capillary rise. The samples were
suspended from a balance, and one of the faces with the two interfaces was in contact with a
solution containing the chlorides (1 M NaCl + 0.1 M NaOH + sat. Ca(OH)2). The experiment
was run for 24 hours, after which time the samples were dry cut, perpendicularly to the exposed
surface before collecting the chloride maps.
212
2.2. µXRF
The relatively freshly cut surfaces of the samples were mapped with a 45 µm resolution.
The applied acceleration potential and current were 35 kV and 950 µA, respectively. At each
point, a spectrum was acquired for 150 ms. Measurements were carried out in air with a built-
in 25-µm thick aluminum filter .

The significance of the influence of the time interval between layers on the chloride
penetration depth, was not as strongly evident as the influence of the curing conditions.
The effect of a cold joint on the resistance of concrete or mortar to chloride penetration can
be clearly seen in Figure 1 for example. A cold joint has little to no resistance to moisture
penetrations, and so the large time interval between layers could be detrimental for a concrete
object in terms of its durability. This is important, not only for chloride ingress, but also for
other substances that can damage the concrete or reinforcement, such as sulfates and CO2.
Figure 1. µXRF mapping of chloride in sample A59. This sample has a 2 minute interval for
the right interface, and a 24 hours interval for the second interface, with curing condition P (1
week under water & 3 weeks at 20°C and 65% RH).
4. CONCLUSIONS
An important challenge is the bond quality of the interfaces between layers of a printed
concrete or mortar, as it can have a direct impact on the strength. It is important to understand
it, not only to improve mechanical properties of the printed objects, but ultimately for durability
issues as well.
On the whole, the presence of cold joints proved to be a potentially detrimental aspect for a
3D printed concrete or mortar object in terms of its durability. A cold joint has little to no
resistance to moisture penetration compared to the bulk. Furthermore, using conventional
methods to characterize the chloride profile over a cross section, for example, is extremely
misleading and so a method that offers a spatial resolution, such as ours, is highly needed.
REFERENCES
[1] V.N. Nerella, S. Hempel, V. Mechtcherine, Micro- and macroscopic investigations on the
interface between layers of 3d-printed cementitious elements, (2017) 11.
[2] DIN EN 12390-2 - Prufung von Festbeton - Teil 2: Herstellung und Lagerung von
Probekorpern fur Festigkeitsprufungen, 2009.
213
Ultra High Performance Sandwich panel for walls, using aerogel mortar, UHPFRC and a robotically
fabricated steel mesh
Sanz-Pont, Daniel; Flatt, Robert J.
1. Introduction
Aerogels are the world’s highest thermal insulating material. With a thermal conductivity of 13 mW/m·K and bulk
density between 50 to 200 kg/m3, silica aerogels (Fig. 1) can provide two times more insulation than standing air
(26 mW/m·K), due to their porous nature (>90%, with a mean pore size of 20nm), which generates the so called
Knudsen effect. This occurs when the pore size is smaller than the mean free path of air, preventing air molecules
from colliding with each other, thus virtually eliminating convection. Due to this, silica aerogels are suitable to
produce superinsulating mortars, relevant for Zero-energy/Positive energy buildings.
2. Materials and Methods
The application of aerogel mortars of this projects is focused on the development of ultra-high performance walls,
that can bring ultra-high thermal insulation and load bearing capacity. A prototype of a prefabricated sandwich
panel for structural wall systems, including a robotically fabricated structural steel mesh, from a collaborative
project with the NCCR (Mesh Mould project from Gramazio Kohler Research), shown in Figure 1, left. For this
application we had developed a thermally superinsulating aerogel mortar with a λ = 19 mW/m·K, placed at the
center layer of the panel (15 cm). The outer layers consist in an ultra-high performance fiber reinforced concrete
(UHPFRC) of a thickness of 2 cm each. The materials were poured in a wooden mold, of 70 x 70 x 19 cm, first
the concrete layers and 7 days later the aerogel mortar. The panel is then tested to obtain its thermal conductivity
(Guarded hot box Method) and its load bearing capacity, through uniaxial compressive strength test. Finally, a
simulation with COMSOL Multiphysics for a complementary thermal conductivity analysis is made.
3. Results and discussion
The wall system (19 cm thick) is able to comply Swiss regulations in terms of thermal insulation (U-value <0.20)
while bringing structural capabilities at the same time, achieving a load bearing capacity of 10 MPa (Figure 1,
center). However, the aerogel mortar contained a high amount of water (~10 kg), leading to very long drying time
(+1 month), in which the UHPFRC layers reduced the drying rate due to their very high density (~2500 kg/m3).
Due to this behavior, the thermal insulation of the panel was influenced by the remaining unevaporated water
(2.5 kg), increasing the overall thermal conductivity by 50%, when compared to dry, single layer samples.
Figure 1. Left: Robotically fabricated steel mesh (Mesh Mould project from Gramazio Kohler Research). Center: Sandwich panel
with aerogel mortar and UHPFRC. Right: COMSOL Multiphysics simulation of U-value and thermal bridge effect.
According to the COMSOL simulation (Figure 1, right), the panel should achieve a U-value of 0.123 and 0.155
without and with the steel mesh respectively, therefore, the later generating a thermal bridge effect, increasing
the U-value by 0.032 W/m2K. Despite the thermal bridge and the drying problem, this first prototype of a wall
system shows a very high potential for applications on the building envelope.
4. Conclusions
An ultra-high performance wall system, with load bearing capacity and high thermal insulation in a thickness
below 20 cm is possible using ultra high performance materials, such as aerogel and UHPFR concrete. Our wall
system can comply Swiss regulations in terms of thermal insulation (U-value <0.20), and potentially Minergie
Standards (U-value of 0.15), however, still some improvements are needed, especially regarding the drying
behavior of the panel, which compromises the final thermal insulation performance.
214

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RILEM 1st International Conference on

Digital Fabrication with Concrete

Zurich, Switzerland, 10-12 September 2018

EVOLUTION OF CONCRETE INTERFACE OF SLIPFORMING 1

FEASIBILITY OF USING LOW CO2 CONCRETE ALTERNATIVES IN EXTRUSION- 3

ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING OF CONCRETE ELEMENTS USING SELECTIVE 7

THE STRUCTURAL PARADOX OF 3D CONCRETE PRINTING 17

[P]ARAMETRIC [A]DJUSTABLE [M]OULD FOR CONCRETE PANEL CASTING 19

INTRUSION OF CEMENT PASTE FOR PARTICLE BASED METHOD 21

SELECTIVE CEMENT ACTIVATION TECHNIQUE – EFFECT OF WATER/CEMENT- 23

A CRITICAL REVIEW OF INTERLAYER ADHESION IN 3D PRINTING OF CONCRETE 27

ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING OF STRUCTURALLY OPTIMIZED CONCRETE VAULT 28

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF 32

SYNTHESIS AND 3D PRINTING OF ONE-PART GEOPOLYMER MORTAR 36

OPTIMIZING RHEOLOGY AND SETTING PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE FOR ROBOT 38

METHOD OF ENHANCING INTERLAYER BOND STRENGTH IN 3DCONCRETE 59

ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN CUSTOMIZATION OF UHPFRCFAÇADE COMPONENTS 63

MIXTURE DESIGN OF 3D PRINTABLE CONCRETE WITHDIFFERENT BINDERS 65

FRESH AND RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF 3D PRINTING BASEDCEMENT 67

A FLUENT METHOD FOR THE REAL-TIME ROBOTIC DEPOSITIONOF COMPLEX 71

BOND STRENGTH MEASUREMENT IN ADDITIVE MANUFACTURINGOF 75

ICE FORMWORK FOR UHPC: TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF USE OFICE IN FABRICATION 86

SCAFFOLDLESS, 3D-PRINTED FORMWORK FOR CONCRETE SHELLS 96

3D-PRINTING CHALLENGE WITH CEMENTITIOUS MATERIAL 98

GRAPHENE AND OTHER 2D MATERIALS AS NANO-INCLUSIONSFOR EFFECTIVE 100

ENHANCING PRINTABLE CONCRETE THIXOTROPY BY HIGHSHEAR MIXING 105

IMPACT OF 3D PRINTING DIRECTION ON TENSILEPERFORMANCE OF STRAIN- 107

EFFECT OF VISCOSITY-ENHANCING ADMIXTURE ON THE STRUCTURATION RATE 114

MATERIAL RESOLUTIONS OF CONCRETE 119

ADAPTING SDC TO THIN FOLDED GEOMETRIES 121

SUSTAINABLE 3D-PRINTABLE BIO-BASED SUPPORT MATERIALFOR DIGITAL 123

DIGITAL FABRICATION AS CHANCE FOR A “NEW STANDARD” IN CONCRETE 127

WATER RETENTION CAPACITY AND RHEOLOGICAL BEHAVIOROF CEMENT-BASED 134

CHARACTERISING BOND BETWEEN CONCRETE LAYERSRESULTING OF 136

A FRAMEWORK FOR PERFORMANCE BASED TESTING OF FRESHMIXTURES FOR 143

INDUSTRIALIZING THE NON-WASTE-WAX-FORMWORK TECHNOLOGY 153

EXPERIENCE IN ONLINE MODIFICATION OF RHEOLOGY ANDSETTING TIME OF 3D 155

CAPILLARY WATER INTAKE BY 3D-PRINTED CONCRETEVISUALISED AND 163

REINFORCEMENT SYSTEMS FOR SMART DYNAMIC CASTING STRUCTURES 167

MECHANICAL PERFORMANCE OF 3D-PRINTED STEEL REINFORCEMENTFOR 169

SHAPE STABILITY OF MORTAR WITH SUPPLEMENTARYCEMENTITIOUS 171

CONCRETE CANOE USING FDM 3D PRINTING AND UHPFRC 181

EXPLOITING THE POTENTIAL OF DIGITAL FABRICATION FORSUSTAINABLE AND 183

DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTABLE STRAIN HARDENINGCEMENTITIOUS COMPOSITE 190

HOW NANOCLAYS IMPROVE PRINTING QUALITY IN PRESENCE OF PCE 199

FROM MASTERING FLUIDITY TO CONTROLLING HYDRATIONRETARDATION: 200

DIGITAL DESIGN AND OPTIMIZED FABRICATION OF ACONCRETE SHELL BRIDGE 204

USE OF SELECTED GCC IN DIGITAL FORMULATION 208

PRESSURE MAPPED SQUEEZE FLOW APPLIED TO CEMENTBASEDMATERIALS 210

CHLORIDE INGRESS THROUGH COLD JOINTS IN DIGITALLYFABRICATED 212

EVOLUTION OF CONCRETE INTERFACE OF SLIPFORMING

T. Craipeau* (1)(2), T. Lecompte (1), A. Perrot (1), F. Toussaint (2)

Keywords: suction, adhesion, interface, shear stress, friction

FEASIBILITY OF USING LOW CO2 CONCRETE ALTERNATIVES IN

In the recent periods, extrusion-based 3D concrete printing (3DCP) as a new concrete

Table 1: Cementitious binder content of 3D printable concrete

IS IT POSSIBLE TO PRINT AN EARTH-BASED STRUCTURE?

laboratory-scale printing of an earth structure is presented and the subsequent mechanical

Figure 1. Earth-based printed sample

ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING OF CONCRETE ELEMENTS USING

4. FIRST RESULTS OF STRENGTH AND DURABILITY

POWDER-BASED 3D PRINTING USING CEMENT-BASED

DEVELOPMENT OF 3D PRINTABLE GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE