materials

Article
Evaluation of Shear Strength of RC Beams with
Multiple Interfaces Formed before Initial Setting
Using 3D Printing Technology
Kyeongjin Kim 1 , Sangmin Park 1 , WooSeok Kim 2 ID
, Yoseok Jeong 2 and Jaeha Lee 3, *
1 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Korea Maritime and Ocean University, 727 Taejong-ro,
Yeongdo-gu, Busan 49112, Korea; kkj4159@naver.com (K.K.); psm9153@naver.com (S.P.)
2 Department of Civil Engineering, Chungnam National University, 99 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu,
Daejeon 34134, Korea; wooseok@cnu.ac.kr (W.K.); yosoksi@gmail.com (Y.J.)
3 Department of Civil Engineering, Korea Maritime and Ocean University, 727 Taejong-ro, Yeongdo-gu,
Busan 49112, Korea
* Correspondence: jaeha@kmou.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-51-410-4466

Received: 25 October 2017; Accepted: 17 November 2017; Published: 24 November 2017

Abstract: With the recent development of 3D printing technology, concrete materials are sometimes
used in 3D printing. Concrete structures based on 3D printing have been characterized to have the
form of multiple layer build-up. Unlike general concrete structures, therefore, the 3D-printed concrete
can be regarded as an orthotropic material. The material property of the 3D-printed concrete’s
interface between layers is expected to be far different from that of general concrete bodies since there
are no aggregate interlocks and weak chemical bonding. Such a difference finally affects the structural
performance of concrete structures even though the interfaces are formed before initial setting of the
concrete. The current study mainly reviewed the changes in fracture energy (toughness) with respect
to various environmental conditions of such interface. Changes in fracture energies of interfaces
between concrete layers were measured using low-speed Crack Mouth Opening Displacement
(CMOD) closed loop concrete fracture test. The experimental results indicated reduction in fracture
energy as well as tensile strengths. To improve the tensile strength of interfaces, the use of bridging
materials is suggested. Since it was assumed that reduction in fracture energy could be a cause of
shear strength, to evaluate the reduced structural performance of concrete structure constructed
with multiple interfaces by 3D printing technology, the shear strength of RC beam by 3D printing
technology was predicted and compared with that of plain RC beam. Based on the fracture energy
measured in this study, Modified Compression Field Theory (MCFT) theory-applied Vector 2 program
was employed to predict the degree of reduction in shear strength without considering stirrups.
Reduction factors were presented based on the obtained results to predict the reduction in shear
strength due to interfaces before initial setting of the concrete.

Keywords: layered concrete; fracture energy; shear strength; initial setting

1. Introduction
In recent years, 3D (three dimensional) printing technology has gained large attention and
has become important in many engineering applications. In this technology, powdered forms of
materials such as resin and metals are processed to produce 3D shapes very precisely based on
design data. In 2013, global management consulting firm McKinsey selected 3D printing technology
as one of the 12 technologies that are expected to bring innovation [1]. Typically, in construction
industry, the size of construction forms is larger than that in other industries. Compared to other
industries, the construction sector has a very low ratio of plant-produced elements (forms of combining

Materials 2017, 10, 1349; doi:10.3390/ma10121349 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2017, 10, 1349 2 of 22

diverse parts and materials instead of automation). Since a huge capital is necessary for construction
automation and others, it is not easy to apply this 3D technology in the construction sector. On the other
hand, it is also expected that 3D printing technology would help solve many problems encountered
Materials 2017, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 23
in the construction industry, such as low labor efficiency, high accident rate (loss of lives) and too
much manpowerparts and materials for
necessary instead of automation).
construction Since a huge
site control and capital is necessary
surveillance [2]. for construction
It was also reported that
automation and others, it is not easy to apply this 3D technology in the construction sector. On the
3D printingother
technology could reduce the amount of CO2 andwould
hand, it is also expected that 3D printing technology
construction wastes compared to the
help solve many problems
conventional encountered in the construction industry, such as low labor efficiency, high accident many
way of construction by 75% and 86%, respectively [3]. However, rate (loss studies
of are still
lives) and too much manpower necessary for construction site control and
necessary for the application of 3D printing in large-scale civil structures. Concrete-based 3D printingsurveillance [2]. It was
also reported that 3D printing technology could reduce the amount of CO2 and construction wastes
technology has been applied in mid- to smaller-sized structures, such as houses or aesthetic structures.
compared to the conventional way of construction by 75% and 86%, respectively [3]. However, many
As shownstudiesin are
Figure 1a,b, toforbuild
still necessary a 3D concrete
the application structure,
of 3D printing 3D printing
in large-scale technology
civil structures. Concrete-was applied
based 3D printing technology has been applied in mid- to smaller-sized
so that each layer was built on top of the other by spreading them out through nozzle structures, such as houses[4].or A detailed
aesthetic structures.
information on building up each layer through 3D printing technology could be found in literature
As shown in Figure 1a,b, to build a 3D concrete structure, 3D printing technology was applied Commented [M1]: Modify.
Kwon (2002) so[5]. Using
that each layerthis
wastechnique many
built on top of interesting
the other by spreading structures have been
them out through nozzle formed which exist
[4]. A detailed till
information3D
now. For example, on building
printedupbridges
each layerfor
through
bike3D printing
were technology
designed and could
now be found
openinto literature
public as shown
Figure 1c,dKwon[6]. (2002)
Other [5].structures
Using this technique
such as many
aninteresting
office instructures
Dubai have been formed
in UAE which exist
and Lewis till
Grand Hotel in
now. For example, 3D printed bridges for bike were designed and now open to public as shown
PhilippinesFigure
were1c,d also[6].constructed by building up layers through 3D printing technology. Other
Other structures such as an office in Dubai in UAE and Lewis Grand Hotel in
methods, such as powder-based
Philippines 3D printed
were also constructed cement,
by building require
up layers a certain
through form technology.
3D printing of base-structure
Other made by
methods,
steel or fabric such as powder-based
for applying cement powder3D printed
[7].cement, requireintroduced
Recently a certain formcarbon
of base-structure made by
textile-reinforced mortar
steel or fabric for applying cement powder [7]. Recently introduced carbon textile-reinforced mortar
could be a base-structure for powder or mortar based 3D printing technology [8]. In the present study,
could be a base-structure for powder or mortar based 3D printing technology [8]. In the present study,
our aim wasour toaim
build
was layers
to build of concrete
layers without
of concrete withoutusing anymold.
using any mold.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 1. 3D printing technique using concrete material: (a) Rudenko (2014), (b) Rudenko (2014); (c)
Figure 1. 3D printing
Salet, technique
TU/e (2017); using
(d) Salet, TU/e concrete material: (a) Rudenko (2014); (b) Rudenko (2014);
(2017) Commented [S2]: Modified
(c) Salet, TU/e (2017); (d) Salet, TU/e (2017).
In a multilayered structure, material properties (e.g., splitting tensile strength and fracture
energy) of interlayer interface are expected to be weaker than those of normal concrete bodies. Due
to these weakstructure,
In a multilayered material properties
materialof layer interface,(e.g.,
properties a proper stackingtensile
splitting plan should be implemented
strength and fracture energy)
in the construction process to achieve interface integrity, strength
of interlayer interface are expected to be weaker than those of normal concrete bodies. and durability. The material
Due to these
properties of interface between the concrete layers depend upon the water-cement ratio, concrete
weak material properties of layer interface, a proper stacking plan should
viscosity, elapsed time to meet new layer, and superimposed dead load from upper part.
be implemented in the
constructionAdditionally,
process tocrack
achieve interface
formation phase dueintegrity, strength
to temperature, and durability.
humidity, The material
creep, and drying properties of
shrinkage, is
also expected
interface between to affect the
the concrete material
layers properties
depend of thethe
upon interface.
water-cement ratio, concrete viscosity, elapsed
As shown in Figure 2, concrete walls built using 3D printing technology are classified under
time to meet new layer, and superimposed dead load from upper part. Additionally, crack formation
orthotropic structures where multiple interfaces are layered in parallel, unlike normal concrete
phase due tostructures
temperature, humidity,
which are creep,homogeneous.
usually assumed and drying shrinkage, is also expected to affect the material
properties of the interface.
As shown in Figure 2, concrete walls built using 3D printing technology are classified under
orthotropic structures where multiple interfaces are layered in parallel, unlike normal concrete
structures which are usually assumed homogeneous.
Materials 2017,
Materials 2017, 10,
10, 1349
1349 33 of
of 22
23

(a) (b)
Figure 2.
Figure 2. Normal
Normal concrete
concrete (homogeneous
(homogeneous material)
material) and
and 3D
3D printed
printed concrete
concrete (orthotropic
(orthotropic material):
material):
(a) homogeneous
(a) homogeneous material;
material; and
and (b)
(b) orthotropic
orthotropicmaterial.
material.

In the present research, a low-speed Crack Mouth Opening Displacement (CMOD) closed loop
In the present research, a low-speed Crack Mouth Opening Displacement (CMOD) closed loop
fracture tests were conducted based on concrete fracture mechanics to study reduction in concrete
fracture tests were conducted based on concrete fracture mechanics to study reduction in concrete
fracture energy due to addition of interfaces between concrete layers. As environmental conditions,
fracture energy due to addition of interfaces between concrete layers. As environmental conditions,
time to meet new layer was considered because the longer the time to meet new layer, the larger is
time to meet new layer was considered because the longer the time to meet new layer, the larger is the
the reduction in interface strength and fracture energy due to curing of the concrete. The other
reduction in interface strength and fracture energy due to curing of the concrete. The other conditions
conditions were kept unaltered throughout the experiments.
were kept unaltered throughout the experiments.
The current study also suggested the use of bridging material to recover and compensate the
The current study also suggested the use of bridging material to recover and compensate the
reduced concrete integrity. To evaluate the strength reduction in concrete structures with several
reduced concrete integrity. To evaluate the strength reduction in concrete structures with several
interfaces, shear strength of RC beam with several interfaces was estimated. Based on the fracture
interfaces, shear strength of RC beam with several interfaces was estimated. Based on the fracture
energy measured in the experiment, Vector 2 program was utilized to estimate the degree of
energy measured in the experiment, Vector 2 program was utilized to estimate the degree of reduction
reduction in shear strength due to formation of interfaces between concrete layers. It was assumed
in shear strength due to formation of interfaces between concrete layers. It was assumed that formation
that formation of interfaces occurred before initial setting time. The obtained results could be useful
of interfaces occurred before initial setting time. The obtained results could be useful information for
information for estimating the strength of concrete structure built via 3D printing technology.
estimating the strength of concrete structure built via 3D printing technology.
2. Experimental Setup for Evaluating Fracture Energy
2. Experimental Setup for Evaluating Fracture Energy
This study
This studyestablished
establishedan an experimental
experimental plan plan to create
to create a set of a3Dset of 3Dconstructional
printing printing constructional
conditions
for specimens in an indirect way. The production method is described in more detail in
conditions for specimens in an indirect way. The production method is described in more detail in
later Section 3.
later Selected
Section 3.cement is Type I Portland cement and slump of the concrete used was measured at
130 mmSelected
(targetcement is Type
value: 100 mm).I The
Portland cement
average 28-dayand slump of the
compressive concrete
strength wasused
31.85 was
MPa;measured
air volume,at
130 mm (target value: 100 mm). The average 28-day compressive strength was 31.85
4%; and maximum size of aggregate, 25 mm. The concrete from same batch was used to implement
MPa; air volume,
4%; and maximum size of aggregate, 25 mm. The concrete from same batch was used to implement
experiment on time for stacking. Change in fracture energy was observed according to various
experiment on time for stacking. Change in fracture energy was observed according to various
environmental conditions. To estimate the bilinear tension softening diagram (stress and crack width),
environmental conditions. To estimate the bilinear tension softening diagram (stress and crack
the final form of load-MOD graph from fracture energy test and concrete tensile strength from splitting
width), the final form of load-MOD graph from fracture energy test and concrete tensile strength
tensile test are also necessary.
from splitting tensile test are also necessary.
To estimate fracture energy, compression strength test, three-point bending test and splitting tensile
To estimate fracture energy, compression strength test, three-point bending test and splitting
test were conducted. For the compression strength and splitting tensile tests, regular 10 cm-diameter
tensile test were conducted. For the compression strength and splitting tensile tests, regular
and 20 cm height cylindrical specimens were used. The three-point bending test used specimens having
10 cm-diameter and 20 cm height cylindrical specimens were used. The three-point bending test used
150 mm square cross section and 450 mm span length (total length: 550 mm). To induce cracks to the
specimens having 150 mm square cross section and 450 mm span length (total length: 550 mm). To
center, a notch which has 1/3 height of the beam was used, as shown in Figure 3.
induce cracks to the center, a notch which has 1/3 height of the beam was used, as shown in Figure 3.
In this study, to implement low speed CMOD control experiments, high-precision clip on gauge
In this study, to implement low speed CMOD control experiments, high-precision clip on gauge
(EPSILON 3541-005M-100M-ST) was employed. The measuring device is a high-precision device with
(EPSILON 3541-005M-100M-ST) was employed. The measuring device is a high-precision device
1.5 µm resolution and maximum nonlinearity of 0.064% during a total of 10 mm. The load cell of the
with 1.5 μm resolution and maximum nonlinearity of 0.064% during a total of 10 mm. The load cell
equipment used was initially 1000 kN and it was replaced with Instron’s maximum 50 kN small load
of the equipment used was initially 1000 kN and it was replaced with Instron’s maximum 50 kN small
cell to increase load measuring precision by allowing load measurement in 20% (5–10 kN) of maximum
load cell to increase load measuring precision by allowing load measurement in 20% (5–10 kN) of
load measuring capacity. The servo valve was also replaced with a small 1 GPM (94 LPM) capacity,
maximum load measuring capacity. The servo valve was also replaced with a small 1 GPM (94 LPM)
a high-performance pressuring device made by JKS, for precise control in this tests. To receive and
capacity, a high-performance pressuring device made by JKS, for precise control in this tests.
process CMOD signals from outside, an additional internal algorithm was designed to connect to the
To receive and process CMOD signals from outside, an additional internal algorithm was designed
Materials 2017, 10, 1349 4 of 22
Materials 2017, 10, 1349 4 of 23

equipment
to connectcontroller since this CMOD
to the equipment control
controller is not
since thisa CMOD
built-in function in not
control is the controller
a built-in(DAQ). As in
function such,
the
CMOD control fracture toughness test of concrete requires many considerations
controller (DAQ). As such, CMOD control fracture toughness test of concrete requires many for experimental setup
preparation
considerationsand for
the experimental
actual experiment
setupprocedures.
preparationThere is aactual
and the study experiment
finding that procedures.
simple stroke control
There is a
included in most of the hydraulic machine supports final fracture energy measurement
study finding that simple stroke control included in most of the hydraulic machine supports final reliability
instead
fractureofenergy
using CMOD
measurementcontrolreliability
[9]. However,
insteadforofmore
usingreliability in study
CMOD control [9].findings
However,rather
for than
more
efficiency, all of the present study experiments were implemented using the CMOD
reliability in study findings rather than efficiency, all of the present study experiments were control presented
by ACI 446 committee
implemented using the [10].
CMOD control presented by ACI 446 committee [10].

Figure 3. Formations of interface at different times.

Figure 3. Formations of interface at different times.

3. Elapsed Time to Meet New Layer and Bridging Materials

3. Elapsed Time to Meet New Layer and Bridging Materials
As in Figure 3, to consider the elapsed time to meet new layer (accumulation time), plates were
As in Figure 3, to consider the elapsed time to meet new layer (accumulation time), plates were
placed inside during concrete pouring to artificially prevent two layers from contacting each other.
placed inside during concrete pouring to artificially prevent two layers from contacting each other.
The pre-installed plates were removed after 0, 15, 30 and 60 min, as shown in Figure 3. Even though
The pre-installed plates were removed after 0, 15, 30 and 60 min, as shown in Figure 3. Even though
specimens were not formed by actual 3D printing technology, it was assumed that these procedures
specimens were not formed by actual 3D printing technology, it was assumed that these procedures
indirectly mimic the interface since the aggregates are aligned within a layer and did not cross to the
indirectly mimic the interface since the aggregates are aligned within a layer and did not cross to the
other layer. This means that surface of layer is mainly smooth. When concrete is extruded by actual
other layer. This means that surface of layer is mainly smooth. When concrete is extruded by actual
3D printing machine pressure through a nozzle, surface will be smooth and coarse aggregates are
3D printing machine pressure through a nozzle, surface will be smooth and coarse aggregates are
normally trapped within layers.
normally trapped within layers.
Table 1 shows specimen types according to different experimental conditions. Additionally,
Table 1 shows specimen types according to different experimental conditions. Additionally, different
different bridging materials for enhancing interface integrity have also been considered. To improve
bridging materials for enhancing interface integrity have also been considered. To improve the structural
the structural integrity of 3D printed concrete structures, three bridging materials were considered,
integrity of 3D printed concrete structures, three bridging materials were considered, as shown in Figure 4.
as shown in Figure 4. The bridging materials used in the present study are steel fiber, aggregates, and
The bridging materials used in the present study are steel fiber, aggregates, and retarder. Selected type
retarder. Selected type of steel fiber has 60 mm length and diameter of the steel fiber is 0.9 mm.
of steel fiber has 60 mm length and diameter of the steel fiber is 0.9 mm. Yield strength provided by
Yield strength provided by manufacturer is 700 MPa. For aggregates, crushed type with maximum
manufacturer is 700 MPa. For aggregates, crushed type with maximum size 25 mm was selected to take
size 25 mm was selected to take advantage of irregular shapes as a bridge material. For retarder,
advantage of irregular shapes as a bridge material. For retarder, general powder type for Portland cement
general powder type for Portland cement was used. Main components of retarder are calcium
was used. Main components of retarder are calcium carbonate and methylcellulose.
carbonate and methylcellulose.
After the formation of concrete layers, these bridging materials can be simply applied on top of
the concrete layers using a different
Table 1. nose which
Test plan for can spread
fracture theof
energy materials.
interfaces.
The splitting tensile test was also implemented using Ø100 × 200 mm cylindrical specimen
Specimen Bridging Materials Removing Plate Time (Min)
according to ASTM C496 (2011), Reinhardt et al. (1986) and Rocco et al. (2001) for estimation of bond
C-0 0
strength (tensile strength)
C-15 of the interface [11–13]. 15
NA (Control Specimens)
For estimation C-30
of tensile (bond) strength of interface of two concrete30layers, splitting tensile test
C-60
was performed. However, increment of bond strength due to the addition 60 of bridging material was
A-30 30
ignored. Therefore, for this study, conservatively,
Aggregate (8 mg/mm )it* was assumed that the bridging material only
2
A-60 60
contributed to the fracture
R-30
energy and not to tensile strength. Tensile strength30
obtained from splitting
tensile test is the maximum Retarder
point ofagent (1.75 stress–crack
normal g/1 kg Concrete)opening
* bilinear curves, which is normally
R-60 60
called Mode 1 fractureS-30behavior of the concrete.
Steel fiber 30
S-60 (1%) * 60
* Numbers in parenthesis show amount of bridging material used per unit area, unit weight and unit volume.
Materials 2017, 10, 1349 5 of 22

Table 1. Test plan for fracture energy of interfaces.

Specimen Bridging Materials Removing Plate Time (Min)

C-0 0
C-15 15
NA (Control Specimens)
C-30 30
C-60 60
A-30 30
Aggregate (8 mg/mm2 ) *
A-60 60
R-30 30
Retarder agent (1.75 g/1 kg Concrete) *
R-60 60
S-30 Steel fiber 30
S-60 (1%) * 60
* Numbers in parenthesis show amount of bridging material used per unit area, unit weight and unit volume.
Materials 2017, 10, 1349 5 of 23

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Selected
Selected bridging
bridging materials:
materials: (a)
(a) crushed
crushed aggregate;
aggregate; (b)
(b) retarder;
retarder; and
and (c)
(c) steel
steel fiber.
fiber.

After the formation of concrete layers, these bridging materials can be simply applied on top of
4. Theoretical Background of Fracture Energy Test and Setup
the concrete layers using a different nose which can spread the materials.
Experimental
The splitting procedure
tensile testtowasestimate the fracture energy
also implemented usingofØ100
interface
× 200formed by using 3Dspecimen
mm cylindrical printing
according to ASTM C496 (2011), Reinhardt et al. (1986) and Rocco et al. (2001) for estimation offor
technology was implemented by following the draft ASTM test standard (ACI 446 2009) the
bond
fracture toughness
strength presented
(tensile strength) byinterface
of the the ACI[11–13].
446 committee in 2009 as well as the method by RILEM
(2007) [10,11,14].
For estimation To of
conduct
tensilea(bond)
quasi-static testof
strength that minimizes
interface dynamic
of two concreteeffects, low-speed
layers, splitting test should
tensile test
be performed. The draft ASTM (2009) instructs to perform the experiments according
was performed. However, increment of bond strength due to the addition of bridging material was to the constant
rate of CMOD
ignored. increase
Therefore, for in thestudy,
this lower conservatively,
central notch of itthree-point
was assumed bending
thattest
the[11]. CMOD
bridging rate is not
material onlya
set value and the CMOD rate of 3–5 min to reach the maximum load is recommended
contributed to the fracture energy and not to tensile strength. Tensile strength obtained from splitting for the whole
processtest
tensile of experiment.
is the maximum Appropriate
point of CMOD
normal rate for this study
stress–crack wasbilinear
opening calculated in line
curves, withisthe
which criteria
normally
and it is
called 0.0003
Mode mm/s. The
1 fracture experiment
behavior needs to be continued at the rate until CMOD exceeds at least
of the concrete.
2.0 mm. After 20 mm, fracture energy is not measured anymore; instead, fracture energy after 2.0 mm
4.
is Theoretical
estimated using Background
slope of of Fracture Energy
load–CMOD graphTest
nearand Setup
point of 2.0 mm CMOD, as shown in Figure 5,
where WF is total work of fracture, Nmm (mJ); WFM is measured work of fracture, Nmm (mJ); A is
Experimental procedure to estimate the fracture energy of interface formed by using 3D printing
far tail constant, N-mm2 ; δR is load-point at the end of test, mm; and δA is CMOD at zero P1 for the
technology was implemented by following the draft ASTM test standard (ACI 446 2009) for the
raising part of curve, mm.
fracture toughness presented by the ACI 446 committee in 2009 as well as the method by RILEM
As shown in Figure 6, dead load from two cylindrical masses is working on the specimen under
(2007) [10,11,14]. To conduct a quasi-static test that minimizes dynamic effects, low-speed test should
the principle of levers. Thus, the obtained load from load cell at 2 mm of CMOD also includes
be performed. The draft ASTM (2009) instructs to perform the experiments according to the constant
certain upward force from the dead load. To offset such an upward force generated by self-weight
rate of CMOD increase in the lower central notch of three-point bending test [11]. CMOD rate is not
compensation, the whole graph must be offset upon test termination as in Figure 5 to make the load 0.
a set value and the CMOD rate of 3–5 min to reach the maximum load is recommended for the whole
In this process, δA is found. After the termination of 2 mm test, residual fracture energy remains in the
process of experiment. Appropriate CMOD rate for this study was calculated in line with the criteria
specimen; however, the residual fracture energy after then is estimated through the equation in Figure 6.
and it is 0.0003 mm/s. The experiment needs to be continued at the rate until CMOD exceeds at least
Given the characteristics of test conditions, load decreases asymptotically; thus, the test cannot be
2.0 mm. After 20 mm, fracture energy is not measured anymore; instead, fracture energy after 2.0 mm
implemented until the load reaches 0. Therefore, at a certain point, the test should be terminated.
is estimated using slope of load–CMOD graph near point of 2.0 mm CMOD, as shown in Figure 5,
where WF is total work of fracture, Nmm (mJ); WFM is measured work of fracture, Nmm (mJ); A is far
tail constant, N-mm2; δR is load-point at the end of test, mm; and δA is CMOD at zero P1 for the raising
part of curve, mm.
As shown in Figure 6, dead load from two cylindrical masses is working on the specimen under
based only on the data of <5% maximum load (P1max) in the whole curve. Thus, it was named as tail
constant in this study. The ACI 446 committee named it (A) as far tail constant. X is the reciprocal of
constant in this study. The ACI 446 committee named it (A) as far tail constant. X is the reciprocal of
square of CMOD [10]. It can be related to load P1 with certain constant, A. The equation was formed
square of CMOD [10]. It can be related to load P1 with certain constant, A. The equation was formed
based on the study findings of Petersson (1981) that the load (P)–displacement (u) graph decreased
based on the study findings of Petersson (1981) that the load (P)–displacement (u) graph decreased
according to u−2 asymptotically [15]. Petersson (1981) presented that the load from kinematic
according to u−2 asymptotically [15]. Petersson (1981) presented that the load from kinematic
equilibrium without
Materials 2017, 10, 1349 consideration of rigid body’s dynamic effect was reverse proportional 6 of to
22
equilibrium without consideration of rigid body’s dynamic effect was reverse proportional to
displacement square as below [15]:
displacement square as below [15]:
The ACI 446 committee suggested 2 mm forP the = appropriate. value [10]. The fracture energy values (2)
were different according to termination point P =(24mm, 3 mm,. 4 mm, and 5 mm) [9,10]. Further (2)
study
4
where
will needP represents load; b is
to be performed in specimen width;
this regard s is present
and this span; u is displacement
study (deflection);
applied the recommended GF is value
fracture of
where P represents load; b is specimen width; s is span; u is displacement (deflection); GF is fracture
energy;
2 mm byand the ACI is 446
center of gravity
committee in on
thethe area under procedure
experimental the softening
[10].curve.
energy; and is center of gravity on the area under the softening curve.

Load P1 (N)
Load P1 (N)

P1max
P1max 2A
WF = WFm + 2 A
WF = WFm + δ R − δ A
δR −δ A

WFM
WFM
δR (mostly 2mm)
δR (mostly 2mm)
δA
δA

Displacement (mm)
Displacement (mm)
Figure
Figure 5.
5. Measured
Measured and
and total
total works
works of
of fracture
fracture energy.
Figure 5. Measured and total works of fracture energy.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 6. Three-point bending test set-up: (a) Front view; (b) Top perspective view
Figure 6. Three-point bending test set-up: (a) Front view; (b) Top perspective view
Figure 6. Three-point bending test set-up: (a) Front view; (b) Top perspective view

The far tail constant, A, in Figure 5, as explained above, is the value set to estimate the residual
fracture energy after test termination.
This is an example of an equation:

P1 = X ( A + K ) (1)

where P1 , as mentioned above, represents the value of the existing load measurement value minus
residual load from the cylindrical mass. The maximum P1max load is shown in Figure 5 and P1 and
X graphs are described in Figure 7. The quadratic equation with X is expressed in Equation (1) to
calculate A. X is defined as presented by the x-axis in Figure 7. The area identified in the graph is based
only on the data of <5% maximum load (P1max ) in the whole curve. Thus, it was named as tail constant
in this study. The ACI 446 committee named it (A) as far tail constant. X is the reciprocal of square of
CMOD [10]. It can be related to load P1 with certain constant, A. The equation was formed based on
the study findings of Petersson (1981) that the load (P)–displacement (u) graph decreased according to
u−2 asymptotically [15]. Petersson (1981) presented that the load from kinematic equilibrium without
Materials 2017, 10, 1349 7 of 22

consideration of rigid body’s dynamic effect was reverse proportional to displacement square as
below [15]:
bs
P= GF w. (2)
4u2
where P represents load; b is specimen width; s is span; u is displacement (deflection); GF is fracture
Materialsand
energy; 2017,w
10,is1349
center of gravity on the area under the softening curve. 7 of 23

400
y = 830.68x
R² = 0.9868
300
( )

200

100

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

=( ) ( )

Figure7.7.Estimation
Figure Estimationofoffar
fartail
tailconstant,
constant,A.
A.

It is possible to estimate A values linearly using such a linear equation but the ACI draft (2007)
It is possible to estimate A values linearly using such a linear equation but the ACI draft (2007)
instructs to use a quadratic equation to estimate A values. The Figure 7 below shows the graph
instructs to use a quadratic equation to estimate A values. The Figure 7 below shows the graph utilized
utilized in A estimation. In the Figure 7 below, WM represents the measured CMOD value (mm); and
in A estimation. In the Figure 7 below, WM represents the measured CMOD value (mm); and WMR is
WMR is the CMOD value (mm) measured upon test termination. WMA is the CMOD value (mm) when
the CMOD value (mm) measured upon test termination. WMA is the CMOD value (mm) when P1 is 0
P1 is 0 in the incremental curve. Based on this, P1 and X values are shown using a diagram in Figure 7.
in the incremental curve. Based on this, P1 and X values are shown using a diagram in Figure 7.
Figure 7 shows one of the cases found in the experiment. In this case, the tail constant (A) is
Figure 7 shows one of the cases found in the experiment. In this case, the tail constant (A) is
deemed 830.7 (N-mm22). Thus, the estimated A value is substituted into the equation in Figure 7 to
deemed 830.7 (N-mm ). Thus, the estimated A value is substituted into the equation in Figure 7 to
estimate energy value (WFM) and the estimated energy value is added to find the total energy (WF).
estimate energy value (WFM ) and the estimated energy value is added to find the total energy (WF ).
In this study, about 3–5 h were required to measure the complete fracture energy of single
In this study, about 3–5 h were required to measure the complete fracture energy of single
specimen (min CMOD 2 mm). Specific details regarding test method, controversy surrounding the
specimen (min CMOD 2 mm). Specific details regarding test method, controversy surrounding
test method, conclusion and relevant theory can be found in Lee and Lopez (2014) and Gerstle (2010)
the test method, conclusion and relevant theory can be found in Lee and Lopez (2014) and Gerstle
[9,16]. The results measured in the three-point bending test and splitting tensile test can be finally
(2010) [9,16]. The results measured in the three-point bending test and splitting tensile test can be
determined as in Figure 8 based on the relationship between crack width and normal stress with
finally determined as in Figure 8 based on the relationship between crack width and normal stress with
bilinear approximation, which is useful for engineering applications. Here, GF is true fracture energy;
bilinear approximation, which is useful for engineering applications. Here, GF is true fracture energy;
and Gf, is size effect fracture energy. The main properties of the bilinear approximation are the tensile
and Gf , is size effect fracture energy. The main properties of the bilinear approximation are the tensile
strength (ft), the size-effect fracture-energy (Gf), and the true fracture energy (GF). Detailed
strength (ft ), the size-effect fracture-energy (Gf ), and the true fracture energy (GF ). Detailed information
information can be found in Elices et al. (2002) [17]. In the graph below, point 1 (ft) can be estimated
can be found in Elices et al. (2002) [17]. In the graph below, point 1 (ft ) can be estimated through
through splitting tensile test, and, afterwards, point 2 (crack width (wc) and stress at the kink point)
splitting tensile test, and, afterwards, point 2 (crack width (wc ) and stress at the kink point) and point 3
and point 3 (point where stress become zero due to complete crack formation) can be estimated
(point where stress become zero due to complete crack formation) can be estimated through fracture
through fracture energy test. If a specimen in the size of this present study were utilized in an
energy test. If a specimen in the size of this present study were utilized in an experiment, experimental
experiment, experimental results would be net of size effect [11,14,16,18–23].
results would be net of size effect [11,14,16,18–23].
The basic theory was presented by Planas et al. (1999) and Guinea et al. (1994), who developed
the theory of Hillerborg (1979) [19,20,24].
Based on such experiment methods and theories, the present study analyzed changes in the final
bilinear curve of concrete interfaces accumulated by 3D printing technology in various environmental
conditions compared to normal plain concrete body.
strength (ft), the size-effect fracture-energy (Gf), and the true fracture energy (GF). Detailed
information can be found in Elices et al. (2002) [17]. In the graph below, point 1 (ft) can be estimated
through splitting tensile test, and, afterwards, point 2 (crack width (wc) and stress at the kink point)
and point 3 (point where stress become zero due to complete crack formation) can be estimated
through fracture
Materials 2017, 10, 1349energy test. If a specimen in the size of this present study were utilized in
8 ofan
22
experiment, experimental results would be net of size effect [11,14,16,18–23].

Materials 2017, 10, 1349 8 of 23

The basic theory was presented by Planas et al. (1999) and Guinea et al. (1994), who developed
the theory of Hillerborg (1979) [19,20,24].
Based on such experiment methods and theories, the present study analyzed changes in the final
bilinear curve of concrete interfaces accumulated by 3D printing technology in various
environmental conditions compared to normal plain concrete body.
Figure
Figure 8.
8. Bilinear
Bilinear approximation
approximation of
of the
the softening
softening curve
curve (Coronado and Lopez 2008).
5. Obtained Results from Fracture Energy Test (Fracture Toughness Test)
5. Obtained
The resultsResults from Fracture
of three-point factureEnergy
energyTest
test(Fracture Toughness
implemented using Test)
the above-explained procedure
are represented
The results of inthree-point
a form of load-CMOD
facture energy graph, as shown in using
test implemented Figurethe9. above-explained
It should be noted that the
procedure
obtained results could be sensitive to fresh concrete properties related
are represented in a form of load-CMOD graph, as shown in Figure 9. It should be noted that to rheology. The data analysis
method
the obtainedpresented
results bycouldACIbe446, Elicestoetfresh
sensitive al. (1992),
concrete Bazant and related
properties Planas to (1997), RILEM
rheology. The(1990),
data
Planas et
analysis al. (1999),
method and Lee
presented by ACIand446, Lopez (2014)
Elices et al. was employed
(1992), Bazant and to determine
Planas (1997), theRILEM
final bilinear
(1990),
stress–crack
Planas opening
et al. (1999), and curve depending
Lee and uponwas
Lopez (2014) theemployed
elapsed time to meet athe
to determine new
finallayer [10,20,22,25,26].
bilinear stress–crack
To determine
opening such stress–crack
curve depending upon the opening
elapsedcurve,
time tothe load–CMOD
meet a new layergraphs in FigureTo
[10,20,22,25,26]. 9 determine
should be
analyzed first. All of the load–CMOD specimens were found to undergo
such stress–crack opening curve, the load–CMOD graphs in Figure 9 should be analyzed first. All of maximum load decrease in
the load–CMOD graph with increase in panel removal time (elapsed
the load–CMOD specimens were found to undergo maximum load decrease in the load–CMOD graph time to meet a new layer).
Excluding
with increase theinC-60
panel specimen,
removal time the three othertime
(elapsed specimens
to meet showed similar
a new layer). maximum
Excluding theloads, as shown
C-60 specimen,
the three other specimens showed similar maximum loads, as shown in Figure 9. It was expectedlayer
in Figure 9. It was expected that the longer the time elapsed to contact the accumulated concrete that
withlonger
the existingtheconcrete
time elapsedlayer, to
thecontact
larger reduction in maximum
the accumulated loadlayer
concrete was.with
Despite increase
existing in thelayer,
concrete plate
removing
the time, thein maximum
larger reduction maximum load loads forDespite
was. 0 min,increase
15 minin and 30 min
the plate were time,
removing similar. However,
the maximum
for C-60 (60 min), a large decrease in maximum load was observed.
loads for 0 min, 15 min and 30 min were similar. However, for C-60 (60 min), a large decrease Even though the maximum load
in
could be controlled
maximum load wasby notch area
observed. aggregate
Even thougharrangement
the maximum andload
any could
other heterogeneous
be controlled by state neararea
notch the
notch tip, arrangement
aggregate a large reduction and any factor
othercould be obtainedstate
heterogeneous from fracture
near energy
the notch tip, test of C-60
a large specimens.
reduction factor
From the conducted experiments, the initial and final setting time of
could be obtained from fracture energy test of C-60 specimens. From the conducted experiments,the concrete was 90 and 220 min,
the
respectively.
initial and final Therefore,
setting time it canofbethe
assumed
concretethat
was the90bonding
and 220ofmin,
interface betweenTherefore,
respectively. two concrete layers
it can be
before initial setting time might have been degraded.
assumed that the bonding of interface between two concrete layers before initial setting time might
have been degraded.

6 6
C-0
5 C-0 5
C-15
4 4
Load (kN)
Load (kN)

C-15 C-30
3 3
C-30
2 2 C-60
C-60
1 1

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
CMOD (mm) CMOD (mm)
(a) (b)
Figure 9.
Figure 9. (a)
(a) Load–CMOD
Load–CMOD curves
curves for
for C
C type
type specimens;
specimens; and
and (b)
(b) enlarged
enlarged graph.
graph.

Figure 10a shows critical crack opening displacement (wc) from various conditions. The C-0
specimen was found to have 746 μm. For the S-60 specimen, wc was recorded as 571 μm, which
demonstrated that the tendency of maximum crack width decreased as far as 77% of the maximum
value with respect to the concrete with 0-min plate removing time (regular concrete). Figure 10b
shows far tail constant (A) depending on the various elapsed times. The far tail constant, as explained
above, is to estimate additional fracture energy that was not measured in this experiment after its
termination at 2 mm of CMOD. Therefore, when the far tail constant becomes smaller, the final
Materials 2017, 10, 1349 9 of 22

Figure 10a shows critical crack opening displacement (wc ) from various conditions. The C-0
specimen was found to have 746 µm. For the S-60 specimen, wc was recorded as 571 µm, which
demonstrated that the tendency of maximum crack width decreased as far as 77% of the maximum
value with respect to the concrete with 0-min plate removing time (regular concrete). Figure 10b shows
far tail constant (A) depending on the various elapsed times. The far tail constant, as explained above,
is to estimate additional fracture energy that was not measured in this experiment after its termination
at 2 mm of CMOD. Therefore, when the far tail constant becomes smaller, the final fracture energy
drops. The far-tail constant, A, of plain concrete (C-0) was found to be 506.9 N-mm2 , which is the
maximum value. On the other hand, C-60 specimen recorded 108 N-mm2 , showing a huge fall to 21.3%
Materials 2017, 10, 1349 9 of 23
of the maximum value of plain concrete.

1000 600

A(Far tail constant) N-mm2

900 507
800 746 500
728
700 670
571 400 354
Wc(µm)

600 321
500 300
400
300 200
108
200 100
100
0 0
0min 15min 30min 60min 0min 15min 30min 60min
Control specimen Control specimen
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 10.
10. (a)
(a) Obtained
Obtained results
results for
for far
far tail
tail constant,
constant, A;
A; and
and (b)
(b) critical
critical crack
crack opening
opening displacement,
displacement, Wc.
Wc.

The experiment found the longer the elapsed time to meet a new layer (accumulation time), the
The experiment found the longer the elapsed time to meet a new layer (accumulation time),
smaller the maximum crack width (wc) and far tail constant (A). This might cause structural integrity
the smaller the maximum crack width (wc ) and far tail constant (A). This might cause structural
reduction and structural performance decrease, particularly shear capacity.
integrity reduction and structural performance decrease, particularly shear capacity.
The final bilinear stress-crack opening displacement is shown in Figure 11 with a bilinear graph
The final bilinear stress-crack opening displacement is shown in Figure 11 with a bilinear graph
based on CEB-FIP (2010) [23]. The calculated true fracture energy (GF) and size effect fracture energy
based on CEB-FIP (2010) [23]. The calculated true fracture energy (G ) and size effect fracture energy
(Gf) have been compared in Figure 12 and Table 2. Both true fractureF energy and size effect fracture
(Gf ) have been compared in Figure 12 and Table 2. Both true fracture energy and size effect fracture
energy showed decrease in energy with elapsed time to meet a new layer. For C-15 and C-30, 16.4%
energy showed decrease in energy with elapsed time to meet a new layer. For C-15 and C-30, 16.4%
and 24.1% of fracture energy decreased when compared to the C-0 specimen. However, for C-60,
and 24.1% of fracture energy decreased when compared to the C-0 specimen. However, for C-60, 72.6%
72.6% decrease in fracture energy was observed.
decrease in fracture energy was observed.
On the other hand, size effect fracture energy for C-15 and C-30 showed a small decreased
On the other hand, size effect fracture energy for C-15 and C-30 showed a small decreased fraction
fraction of the fracture energy. At 15 and 30 min, 3.86% and 19.7% decremented fraction of fracture
of the fracture energy. At 15 and 30 min, 3.86% and 19.7% decremented fraction of fracture energy
energy was observed. However, for C-60, 98.46% decrease in energy was observed which was a large
was observed. However, for C-60, 98.46% decrease in energy was observed which was a large fraction
fraction compared to C-15 and C-30.
compared to C-15 and C-30.
Therefore, the relation between elapsed time and decremented fraction of true fracture energy
Therefore, the relation between elapsed time and decremented fraction of true fracture energy was
was found to be linear, as shown in Figure 13a. However, the relation between size effect fracture
found to be linear, as shown in Figure 13a. However, the relation between size effect fracture energy
energy and elapsed time was found to be nonlinear and was well fitted with quadratic equation, as
and elapsed time was found to be nonlinear and was well fitted with quadratic equation, as shown in
shown in Figure 13b.
Figure 13b.
The result is deemed because the longer the accumulation
2.5 2.5 time at the concrete layer interface,
the harder the lower layer became to undermineC-0 its integrity with the upper layer. Initially,
C-0 integrity
C-15 C-15
2
reduction was expected to be remarkable C-30if the interface formation
2 time exceeded the initial concrete
C-30
set time. However, in this study, huge reduction in fracture energy was found within 1 hC-60when the
stress (MPa)

stress (MPa)

C-60
1.5 1.5
initial concrete set time was longer thanCEB-FIP
1 h (90 min). These experimental observationsCEB-FIP show it is
important
1 to accumulate new layer far earlier than the initial1 concrete set time if the concrete interfaces
would be accumulated by 3D printing technology.
Since fracture energy decreased with increased elapsed
0.5 0.5 time, some bridge materials such as
aggregates, retarders and steel fibers were considered, as previously mentioned. The obtained
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 20 40 60 80 100
Crack Opening (micro m) Crack Opening (micro m)
(a) (b)
Figure 11. (a) Bilinear approximation of the softening curve for C type specimens; and (b) enlarged graph.

Table 2. Results of fracture tests for (C type of specimens).

 72.6% decrease in fracture energy was observed.
On the other hand, size effect fracture energy for C-15 and C-30 showed a small decreased
fraction of the fracture energy. At 15 and 30 min, 3.86% and 19.7% decremented fraction of fracture
energy was observed. However, for C-60, 98.46% decrease in energy was observed which was a large
fraction compared to C-15 and C-30.
Materials 2017, 10, 1349 10 of 22
Therefore, the relation between elapsed time and decremented fraction of true fracture energy
was found to be linear, as shown in Figure 13a. However, the relation between size effect fracture
load–CMOD data are time
energy and elapsed shown in found
was Figure to
14.be
Specific test plan
nonlinear regarding
and was application
well fitted of bridging
with quadratic materials
equation, as
has already been
shown in Figure 13b. listed in Table 1.

2.5 2.5
Materials 2017, 10, 1349 C-0 C-0
10 of 23
C-15 C-15
2 2
The result is deemed because the longer C-30 the accumulation time at the concrete layerC-30 interface,
stress (MPa)

stress (MPa)
C-60 C-60
the harder
1.5 the lower layer became to undermine CEB-FIP
its integrity
1.5 with the upper layer. Initially, integrity
CEB-FIP
reduction was expected to be remarkable if the interface formation time exceeded the initial concrete
1 However, in this study, huge reduction in fracture
set time. 1 energy was found within 1 h when the

initial concrete set time was longer than 1 h (90 min). These experimental observations show it is
0.5 0.5
important to accumulate new layer far earlier than the initial concrete set time if the concrete
interfaces
0 would be accumulated by 3D printing technology. 0
Since
0 fracture200 energy 400 decreased
600 with800 increased
1000 elapsed 0 time,20some 40 bridge 60materials
80 such 100 as
Crack Opening (micro m) Crack Opening (micro m)
aggregates, retarders and steel fibers were considered, as previously mentioned. The obtained load–
(a) (b)
CMOD data are shown in Figure 14. Specific test plan regarding application of bridging materials has
already been
Figure
Figure 11.listed
11. (a) in Table
(a) Bilinear
Bilinear 1.
approximation
approximation of the
of thesoftening
softeningcurve
curvefor
forCCtype
typespecimens;
specimens;and
and(b)
(b)enlarged
enlargedgraph.
graph.

140
Table 2. Results of fracture tests 140
for (C type of specimens).
123.7
120 120 Size Effect
Fracture Energy (N/m)

Bridging103.4
Fracture Energy (N/m)

Plate Removing A (Far Tail True Fracture

Specimen
100 93.9 Wc (µm) 100 Fracture Energy
Materials Time (Min) Constant, N-mm2) Energy (N/m)
80 80
(N/m)
C-0 0 746 507 25.9 123.7
60 60
C-15 NA (Control 15 670 354 24.9 103.4
40 33.9 40
C-30 Specimens) 30 728 321
25.9 24.9 20.8 20.8 93.9
C-60
20 60 571 20 108 0.4 33.9
0.4
0 0
C-0 C-15 C-30 C-60 C-0 C-15 C-30 C-60
End Point (mm) End Point (mm)

(a) (b)
Figure 12. Comparison of GF, Gf: (a) true fracture energy (GF); and (b) size effect fracture energy (Gf).
Figure 12. Comparison of GF , Gf : (a) true fracture energy (GF ); and (b) size effect fracture energy (Gf ).

100 Table 2. Results of fracture tests for 100(C type of specimens).

90
Decremental fraction (%)

90
Decremental fraction (%)

GF 80 Gf y = 0.032x2 - 0.2822x
80
Bridging Plate Removing A (Far Tail Size Effect Fracture True Fracture
Specimen
70 2 Wc (µm) 70 2
Materials y = 0.0093x
Time + 0.6409x
(Min) Constant, N-mm ) Energy (N/m) Energy (N/m)
60 60
50C-0 0 746 50 507 25.9 123.7
C-15
40
NA (Control 15 670 40 354 24.9 103.4
C-30 Specimens) 30 728 321 20.8 93.9
30 30
C-60 60 571 108 0.4 33.9
20 20
10 10
0 0
For0 the S10type20specimen,
30 40increased 50 fracture
60 70 energy was
0 significant
10 20 (653.8%)
30 40and 50a procedure
60 70for
obtaining stress–crack opening
Elapsed of steel fiber reinforced concrete should
time (min) follow
Elapsed other experimental
time (min)
standards, such as RILEM TC 162-TDF [27]. The obtained fracture energies for S-30 and S-60 types
(a) (b)
were 328.0 N/m and 286.7 N/m, respectively. Therefore, by applying steel fibers at interfaces, better
Figureperformances
structural 13. Elapsed timecan versus decremented
be expected andfraction
it wasof concluded
fracture energy:
that(a)degraded
true fracture energy (G
interface F);
material
and (b)
character cansize
beeffect fracture
improved energy (Gf).
successfully.
Final true and size effect fracture energies for A and R types were compared with others, as shown
in Table 3 and Figure 15. According to the summarized results shown in Table 3, when bridging
8 9
materials
7
wereA-30
used, fracture energy such as A-30 increased 8 up to the original level (95.0%) of fracture
energy 6(C-0), indicating that the aggregate prevented decrease in facture energy successfully within
7
C-30 S-30 6 S-60
elapsed5 time less or equal to 30 min. However, the retarders did
A-60 not prevent the decrease in fracture
Load (kN)

Load (kN)

5
4
energy successfully;
R-30 instead, smaller fracture energy (55.9 4 N/m) was observed compared to the control
C-60
3 R-60
type (C-30, 93.9 N/m). 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
CMOD (mm) CMOD (mm)
(a) (b)
Figure 14. Comparison of Load–CMOD curves: (a) elapsed time to meet new layer (30 min);
 20 20 0.4
0 0 0.4
0 C-0 C-15 C-30 C-60 0 C-0 C-15 C-30 C-60
C-0 End
C-15Point (mm)C-30 C-60 C-0 End
C-15Point (mm)C-30 C-60
End Point (mm) End Point (mm)
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 12. Comparison of GF, Gf: (a) true fracture energy (GF); and (b) size effect fracture energy (Gf).
Materials 10, 1349
2017, 12.
Figure Comparison of GF, Gf: (a) true fracture energy (GF); and (b) size effect fracture energy (Gf11
). of 22

100 100
100 100
90

(%)(%)
(%)(%) 90
90 GF 90
80 Gf y = 0.032x2 - 0.2822x
80

fraction
fraction

GF 80 Gf y = 0.032x2 - 0.2822x
80
70 70

fraction
y = 0.0093x2 + 0.6409x
fraction

70
60 70
60
y = 0.0093x2 + 0.6409x
60
50 60
50

Decremental
Decremental

50 50
40

Decremental
40
Decremental

40
30 40
30
30
20 30
20
20
10 20
10
100 100
0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0 10 20 Elapsed
30 time40(min) 50 60 70 0 10 20 Elapsed
30 time40(min) 50 60 70
Elapsed time (min) Elapsed time (min)
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 13. Elapsed time versus decremented fraction of fracture energy: (a) true fracture energy (GF);
Figure 13.
13. Elapsed
Elapsed time
time versus
versus decremented
decremented fraction
fraction of
of fracture
fracture energy:
energy: (a)
(a) true
true fracture
fracture energy
energy (G
(GF);
Figure
and (b) size effect fracture energy (Gf). F );
and (b) size effect fracture energy (Gf).
and (b) size effect fracture energy (Gf ).

8 9
87 A-30 98
A-30
76 87
65 C-30 S-30 76 S-60
(kN)

(kN)
C-30 A-60
S-30 65 S-60
(kN)

(kN)

54 A-60
C-60
Load

54
Load

R-30
43
C-60
Load

Load

R-30 43 R-60
32 R-60
32
21 21
10 10
0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
0 0.5 CMOD
1 (mm)
1.5 2 2.5 0 0.5 CMOD
1 (mm)
1.5 2 2.5
CMOD (mm) CMOD (mm)
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 14.Comparison
Comparison of Load–CMODcurves: curves: (a) elapsed time to meet new layer (30 min);
Figure
Figure 14.14. Comparison ofofLoad–CMOD
Load–CMOD curves:(a)(a)elapsed time
elapsed to meet
time newnew
to meet layerlayer
(30 min); and
(30 min);
and (b) elapsed time to meet new layer (60
(b) elapsed time to meet new layer (60 min). min).
and (b) elapsed time to meet new layer (60 min).

To sum up, when steel fiber, aggregates and retarder were utilized, the fracture energy values were
328%, 95.0% and 45.2%, respectively when C-0 was set as 100%. This indicated that improved structural
integrity with multiple interfaces could be achieved from bridging materials such as steel fiber and
aggregates if the elapsed time to meet new layer is less than 30 min. However, if the elapsed time
exceed 60 min, only steel fiber can maintain the original fracture energy under time effect. These final
values of the obtained fracture energies of interfaces were used as input data of contact surface of
Vector 2 development model presented in the next section.

Table 3. All Results obtained from fracture energy test.

Plate Removing Size Effect Fracture True Fracture

Specimen Bridging Materials
Time (Min) Energy (N/m) Energy (N/m)
C-0 0 25.9 123.7
C-15 15 24.9 103.4
NA (Control Specimens)
C-30 30 20.8 93.9
C-60 60 0.4 33.9
A-30 30 35.3 117.5
Aggregate (8 mg/mm2 )
A-60 60 13.8 60.5
R-30 Retarder agent 30 15.6 55.9
R-60 (1.75 g/1 kg Concrete) 60 9.7 42.5
S-30 30 - 328.0
Steel fiber (1%)
S-60 60 - 286.7
 were 328%, 95.0% and 45.2%, respectively when C-0 was set as 100%. This indicated that improved
structural integrity with multiple interfaces could be achieved from bridging materials such as steel
fiber and aggregates if the elapsed time to meet new layer is less than 30 min. However, if the elapsed
time exceed 60 min, only steel fiber can maintain the original fracture energy under time effect.
These final values of the obtained fracture energies of interfaces were used as input data of contact
Materials 2017, 10, 1349 12 of 22
surface of Vector 2 development model presented in the next section.

140 140
123.7 123.7
117.5 GFGF
Fracture Energy(N/m) 120 120 GF
GF

Fracture Energy(N/m)
93.9 GfGf GfGf
100 100

80 80
55.9 60.5
60 60
42.5
40 35.3 40 33.9
25.9 25.9
20.8
20
15.6 20 13.8 9.7
0.4
0 0
C-0 C-30 A-30 R-30 C-0 C-60 A-60 R-60
End Point(mm) End Point(mm)

(a) (b)
Figure 15. Comparison of GF and Gf: (a) C-0, C-30, A-30 and R-30; and (b) C-0, C-60, A-60 and R-60.
Figure 15. Comparison of GF and Gf : (a) C-0, C-30, A-30 and R-30; and (b) C-0, C-60, A-60 and R-60.
Table 3. All Results obtained from fracture energy test.
6. Estimation of Reduction of Shear Strength Due to Addition of Interfaces
Plate Removing Time Size Effect Fracture Energy True Fracture Energy
Specimen Bridging Materials
Based on measured fracture energy of the interface between
(Min) concrete layers, reduction
(N/m) (N/m) in shear
C-0 0 25.9
strengths of various RC beams with multiple interfaces were estimated. RC beam 123.7
with multiple
C-15 NA (Control 15 24.9 103.4
interfaces
C-30could be also regarded as 3D printed
Specimens) 30 RC beam, as shown
20.8 in Figure 16. The 93.9
basic material
modelsC-60
selected for this study are listed in Table
60 4. 0.4 33.9
A-30 30 35.3 117.5
Aggregate (8 mg/mm2)
A-60 60
Table 4. Selected material models for estimating13.8
shear strength. 60.5
R-30 Retarder agent 30 15.6 55.9
R-60 (1.75 g/1 kg Concrete) 60 9.7 42.5
S-30 Material Selected
30 Models - Notes 328.0
Steel fiber (1%)
S-60 60 Hognestad - Prepeak 286.7
Modified Park and Hent Post-peak
6. Estimation of Reduction of Shear Strength Due1992-A
Vecchio to Addition of Interfaces
Softening Compression
Strain based custom input Softening Tension
Based on measured fracture energy of the interface between concreteConfined
Kupfer/Richardt layers, reduction
strength in shear
strengths of Concrete
various RC beams with multiple interfaces
Variable Kupfer were estimated. RCDilation
beam with multiple
interfaces could be also regarded as 3DMohr-Coulomb
printed RC beam, as shown in Figure
(stress) 16. The
Cracking basic material
Criterion
DSFM/MCFT
models selected for this study are listed in Table 4. Crack stress calculation
Agg./2.5 maximum crack width Crack width check
Walraven Crack slip
Bauschinger effect Hysteretic
Steel Rebar Tassios (crack slip) Dowel action
Refined Dhakal-Maekawa Buckling
Interface between layers Bilinear Shear Stress–Slip Behavior Contact material properties

For the pre-peak response of concrete, Hognestad curves for the compression behavior of concrete
was utilized and for the post-peak response of the concrete, modified Park and Kent models were used.
For accurately estimating shear strength, modified compression field theory (MCFT) was considered.
Since MCFT consider the cracked concrete subject to shear, it is appropriate for this study. In the
present study, Vecchio’s 1992-A model was selected and this model was developed based on the results
of extensive panel tests conducted by Vecchio and other researchers [28–30]. By using this model,
overestimation of softening effects can be avoided when the principal tensile strains are significant.
To model the tensile behavior of the concrete, the final forms of the stress–crack opening bilinear curves
measured were used (see Figure 11).
For rebar, elasto-plastic behavior with hardening effects was considered. Truss elements were
used for the rebars. In our study, smeared reinforcement was not considered. Instead, the bar elements
for the rebar were considered separately.
For modeling the interface between the layers of concrete, contact elements were used. A contact
element is a non-dimensional element and it needs two nodes at same location. For tangential behavior,
Mode II fractured behavior such as shear stress–slip was used as the input parameter. Since Mode I
Materials 2017, 10, 1349 13 of 22

fracture tests were conducted and found decremented fracture energy depending on elapsed time in
this study, reduction of Mode II fracture energy was estimated based on reduction of Mode I fracture
energy (normal stress–crack opening) obtained from fracture energy tests.
Detailed material behavior and MCFT implemented concrete models can be found in Wong et al.
(2013) [31].
The selected element size for the concrete and reinforcement was 10 mm. According to Bazant
(1986), an element of size two to three times larger than the maximum aggregate size is recommended
for the modeling of cohesive cracking [32]. In the current study, the maximum aggregate size was
20 mm, therefore 50 mm would be adequate element size according to Bazant’s recommendation
(1986) [32]. However, if 50 mm element size were used, the model could become too coarse to accurately
predict the behavior of crack formation. Therefore, an element size of 10 mm using plane stress elements
with aspect ratios of approximately 1.0 was used to refine the model. For effective computational time,
a symmetric model was used. One node was selected as a support, where boundary condition for the
support was restraint only in vertical direction, and horizontal displacement was allowed. The rebar
was embedded into the concrete body as the nodes were shared with the concrete.
Monotonic loading was applied to the loading point with 1.0 kN increment. Displacement-based
finite element method was used for Vector 2. Convergence was determined based on displacement
values, with2017,
Materials limit
10,set
1349to 1.00001. Weighted average displacement was used for the convergence
13 ofcriteria.
23

Figure 16. Modeling of interface between two concrete layers.

Figure 16. Modeling of interface between two concrete layers.
7. Shear Stress–Slip for Contact Elements
7. Shear Stress–Slip for Contact Elements
For interfaces between two concrete layers formed before initial setting, contact elements were
used,interfaces
For as previously described,
between and between
two concrete layerstwo contact
formed surfaces,
before initialshear stress–slip
setting, contactrelationship
elements were
used,(Figure 17) were described,
as previously entered as contact properties
and between twoin contact
Vector 2surfaces,
program. shear
First, stress–slip
when there relationship
was no
reduction in contact properties, normal shear stress–slip curves, which were estimated from
(Figure 17) were entered as contact properties in Vector 2 program. First, when there was no reductionprevious
studies, were used. The maximum shear stress of P.1, shown in Figure 17, was estimated from the
in contact properties, normal shear stress–slip curves, which were estimated from previous studies,
equation of CEB-FIP model code (2010), as shown below [23]. The first term was related to adhesive
were used. The maximum shear stress of P.1, shown in Figure 17, was estimated from the equation
bond strength, while the second term was related to the frictional behavior, and the last term was
of CEB-FIP model
related to codeaction.
the dowel (2010), as shown below [23]. The first term was related to adhesive bond
strength, while the second term was related to the frictional behavior, and the last term was related to
the dowel action. τ =τ + ∙ ∙ + + ∙ ∙q ∙


τu = τc + µ ρ·k· f y + σn + α·ρ· f y · f cc
where τ represents ultimate shear strength of the concrete to concrete interface load; τ is frictional
coefficient; is yield strength of the rebar; is reinforcement ratio; is interaction factor 1; is
interaction factor 2; and is compressive strength of concrete under uniaxial stress.
Shear stress was estimated by adding frictional effect from dowel action as well as applied
compressive stress to the adhesive bond stress of the interface. However, in the current study,
frictional effect was ignored since analyses were conducted for the beam without stirrups and
compressive stress acting at the interfaces. Therefore, adhesive bond stress was only considered and
Materials 2017, 10, 1349 14 of 22

where τu represents ultimate shear strength of the concrete to concrete interface load; τu is frictional
coefficient; f y is yield strength of the rebar; ρ is reinforcement ratio; k is interaction factor 1; α is
interaction
Materialsfactor
2017, 10,2; and f cc is compressive strength of concrete under uniaxial stress.
1349 14 of 23

Figure
Figure 17.17. Shearstress–slip
Shear stress–slip curve
curve for
forcontact
contactelements in Vector
elements 2. 2.
in Vector

The slip at maximum shear stress in P.1 (see Figure 17) was estimated from Casal (2011) [33].
Shear
In the stress
presentwas estimated
study, the maximumby addingvalue frictional
of adhesion effect
was from dowel
achieved action ofasslip
at values wellbetween
as applied
compressive
0.02 and stress
0.05 mm.to the adhesive
In this bondmm
study, 0.035 stress
was ofselected
the interface. However,
as slip at maximuminshear the current study,
stress. The Modefrictional
II
effectfracture
was ignored
energy after maximum stress was estimated following the report of Shilang and Reinhardtstress
since analyses were conducted for the beam without stirrups and compressive
acting(2005)
at the[34].
interfaces.
The Mode Therefore, adhesive
II fracture energy bond
is the stress
shadedwas areaonly
underconsidered
the curveand the adhesive
shown in Figure 17.stress is
Therefore, stress
the maximum P.2 could be determined
in Figure 17. The after estimation
maximum shear of Mode
stress II(P.1
fracture energy.
in Figure 17)For
for sound concrete was
plain concrete
interfaces
estimated of MPa
as 2.0 concreteunderbody, Modeinterface
rough II fracture energy was
condition of assumed
CEB-FIPto(2010)
be 2783 N/m
[23]. referring
The interfaceto Xu and by
formed
Reinhardt’s (2005) recommendation [34]. Decreased ratio of Mode
3D printing technology was considered better or comparable bonding condition to the sand blasted II fracture energy due to
environmental conditions such as elapsed time was predicted based on obtained results from Mode
condition, since the interface is normally formed before the initial setting time of the concrete.
I fracture tests. For example, if Mode I fracture energy decreased to 70% of original energy due to
The slip at maximum shear stress in P.1 (see Figure 17) was estimated from Casal (2011) [33].
environmental effect such as the elapsed time compared to original concrete body, it was assumed
In thethat
present
Modestudy, the energy
II fracture maximum value
would also of adhesion
decrease wasofachieved
to 70% the originalat values
energy. of slip between 0.02 and
0.05 mm. For In this study, 0.035 mm was selected as slip at maximum
the stress at P.2, it was assumed that 1% of the residual shear stress shear stress. The Mode
was present evenIIafter
fracture
energy after maximum
complete fracture ofstress was By
interface. estimated
assuming following
that therethe wasreport of Shilang
residual andcomplete
stress after Reinhardt (2005) [34].
fracture,
The Mode
stable II fracture energy
computation is the shaded
and convergence area
rate wasunder the curve shown in Figure 17. Therefore, P.2 could
obtained.
be determined after estimation of Mode II fracture energy. For sound concrete interfaces of concrete
body,8.Mode
Model II Verification
fracture energy was assumed to be 2783 N/m referring to Shilang and Reinhardt’s (2005)
recommendation
To verify [34]. Decreased
the selected modelratio of Mode shear
for estimating II fracture
strengthenergy
of thedue to environmental
RC beam, specimens shown conditions
in
such Figure 18 were
as elapsed time made.
was Ordinary
predictedRC beamon
based and layered results
obtained RC beam withMode
from multiple interfaces
I fracture were
tests. Formade
example,
using
if Mode several removing
I fracture plates. Two
energy decreased D10 of
to 70% rebars wereenergy
original embedded.due to The interface was first
environmental effectmade
suchasas the
elapsed time compared to original concrete body, it was assumed that Mode II fracture energythe
shown in Figure 18b, and after 60 min the plates were removed to generate interfaces between would
new layers and old layer before setting the initial time. Depth (d1) and width (d2) of layers were
also decrease to 70% of the original energy.
30 mm and 35 mm, respectively.
For the stress at P.2, it was assumed that 1% of the residual shear stress was present even after
The obtained results are shown in Figure 19. Normal control RC beam (N-Control) showed
complete
maximumfracture
loadof of interface.
78.9 kN (shear By assuming
strength: 39.5 that
kN).there
The was residual
layered beams stress
showedafterlowercomplete fracture,
failure loads
stablecompared
computation to theand convergence
N-Control rate was
as expected. The obtained.
horizontal types (H-60 and H-150) with elapsed time
60 min and 150 min showed 59.2 kN and 46.9 kN, respectively, indicating that strength decrements
8. Model
were Verification
24.9% and 40.6% from the horizontal interfaces. Likewise, the vertical types (V-60 and V-150)
with
To elapsed
verify thetime 60 min
selected and 150
model formin showed 42.6
estimating kNstrength
shear and 24.7 kN, respectively,
of the RC beam,indicating
specimens thatshown
the in
strength decrements were 46.0% and 68.7% from the vertical interfaces. Therefore, strength
Figure 18 were made. Ordinary RC beam and layered RC beam with multiple interfaces were made
decrement was higher for the vertical type than the horizontal type, while the area of interface for
using several removing plates. Two D10 rebars were embedded. The interface was first made as shown
vertical type was approximately equivalent to the horizontal type. The horizontal types showed
in Figure 18b,
higher andstrength
shear after 60than
minthe
thevertical
platestypes
weresince
removed to generate interfaces
the superimposed between
load (self-weight the new
of each layer)layers
Materials 2017, 10, 1349 15 of 22

Materials 2017, 10, 1349 15 of 23

and old layer

of the before type
horizontal setting
wasthe
moreinitial time. applied
effectively Depth (d ) and
at 1the width during
interfaces (d2 ) ofcuring
layersofwere 30 mm and
the concrete
35 mm, respectively.
than that of the vertical type. Model verification was done using the experimental data.

Materials 2017, 10, 1349 15 of 23

of the horizontal type was more effectively applied at the interfaces during curing of the concrete
than that of the vertical type. Model verification was done using the experimental data.

FigureFigure 18. Two

18. Two types
types of specimen
of specimen forfor model
model verification:
verification: (a)(a)Ordinary
OrdinaryRC
RCbeam;
beam ;(b)
(b)Molds
Molds and
and removing
removing plates before removing; (c) RC beam w/ interfaces (Horizontal Type); (d) RC beam w/
plates before removing; (c) RC beam w/interfaces (Horizontal Type); (d) RC beam w/interfaces (Vertical Type).
interfaces (Vertical Type).

The obtained results

45 are shown in Figure 19. Normal control RC beam (N-Control) showed
39.5 39.6
maximum load of 78.9 40kN (shear strength: 39.5 kN). The layeredExp. beamsResults
showed lower failure loads
Shear Strength (kN)

35
compared to the N-Control as expected. 29.6The horizontal types (H-60 andResults
Analytical H-150) with elapsed time
30
60 min and 150 min showed 59.2 kN and 46.9 kN,23.5 respectively, indicating that strength decrements
25 21.3
were 24.9% and 40.6%20 from the horizontal interfaces. Likewise, the vertical types (V-60 and V-150) with
14.7
elapsed time 60 min and 15 150 min showed 42.6 kN and 24.7 kN, respectively, 12.9 indicating that the strength
12.4
decrements were 46.0% 10 and 68.7% from the vertical interfaces. Therefore, strength decrement was
higher for the vertical 5type than the horizontal type, while NA the area of interface NA for vertical type was
approximately equivalent 0 to the horizontal type. The horizontal types showed higher shear strength
N-Control H-60 H-150 V-60 V-150
than Figure
the vertical types
18. Two typessince the superimposed
of specimen load (self-weight
for model verification: of each
(a) Ordinary layer)
RC beam of Molds
; (b) the horizontal
and type
was more effectively
removing applied
plates before at Figure
the (c)
removing; interfaces
beamduring
RCObtained
19. w/ curing
interfaces
results of the concrete
(Horizontal
of shear strength. Type); than
(d) RCthat of w/
beam the vertical
type.interfaces
Model verification was done using the experimental data.
(Vertical Type).
As previously explained, interface property of the layers was designed using Mode II fracture
behavior employing
45 Vector 2 program. As shown in Figure 19, considering reduction in fracture
strength39.5
energy, shear 40
39.6
decrement was predicted. Since the measured Exp.fracture
Resultsenergy was Mode I,
it was assumed that ratio of reduction in fracture energy in Mode II is same as reduction in fracture
Shear Strength (kN)

35 Analytical Results
energy in Mode I. From the fracture29.6
energy under the curve of bond–slip behavior of sound interface
30
condition (100%), decreased fracture energy ratio 23.5
of interfaces was estimated using the experimental
25 21.3
fracture energy. For example, the obtained experimental fracture energy of interface was 72.6% of the
20
original fracture energy of normal concrete,14.7as shown in Figure 8. Therefore,
12.9 72.6% fracture energy
15 12.4
was considered at the interfaces of layered beam. The obtained results are shown in Figure 8. In the
case of normal10concrete, good agreement between experimental and analytical results was obtained.
However, in the5 case of layered concrete beams, such as NAH-60 and V-60, shear strength
NA decrements
0
due to the degraded interfaces could not be estimated well. H-150 and V-150 could not be predicted
N-Control
since the fracture energy with elapsedH-60
time 150 minH-150 V-60
were not measured. V-150
It was thought that this
difference came from different behaviors between Mode I and Mode II fracture energies. Even though
Figure 19. Obtained
Obtained results of shear strength.

As
As previously
previously explained,
explained, interface
interface property
property of
of the
the layers
layers was
was designed
designed using
using Mode
Mode II
II fracture
fracture
behavior employing Vector 2 program. As shown in Figure 19, considering reduction in
behavior employing Vector 2 program. As shown in Figure 19, considering reduction in fracture fracture
energy, shear strength decrement was predicted. Since the measured fracture energy was Mode I,
it was assumed that ratio of reduction in fracture energy in Mode II is same as reduction in fracture
energy in Mode I. From the fracture energy under the curve of bond–slip behavior of sound interface
condition (100%), decreased fracture energy ratio of interfaces was estimated using the experimental
fracture energy. For example, the obtained experimental fracture energy of interface was 72.6% of the
Materials 2017, 10, 1349 16 of 22

energy, shear strength decrement was predicted. Since the measured fracture energy was Mode I,
it was assumed that ratio of reduction in fracture energy in Mode II is same as reduction in fracture
energy in Mode I. From the fracture energy under the curve of bond–slip behavior of sound interface
condition (100%), decreased fracture energy ratio of interfaces was estimated using the experimental
fracture energy. For example, the obtained experimental fracture energy of interface was 72.6% of the
original fracture energy of normal concrete, as shown in Figure 8. Therefore, 72.6% fracture energy
was considered at the interfaces of layered beam. The obtained results are shown in Figure 8. In the
case of normal concrete, good agreement between experimental and analytical results was obtained.
However, in the case of layered concrete beams, such as H-60 and V-60, shear strength decrements due
to the degraded interfaces could not be estimated well. H-150 and V-150 could not be predicted since
the fracture
Materials energy
2017, 10, 1349 with elapsed time 150 min were not measured. It was thought that this difference 16 of 23
came from different behaviors between Mode I and Mode II fracture energies. Even though Mode I
Mode
fractureI fracture
energy wasenergy was diminished
diminished up toMode
up to 72.6%, 72.6%, Mode II energy
II fracture fractureofenergy of thedid
the concrete concrete did not
not change as
change
Mode I.as Mode I.
Since
Since thethedeveloped
developed model
modelused
usedMode
ModeIIIIfracture
fracturefor
forfailure
failureof ofthe
theinterfaces,
interfaces,decrement
decrement ratio
ratio of
of
Mode II fracture
Mode II fracture energy was predicted by performing several reverse analyses, by adjusting
was predicted by performing several reverse analyses, by adjusting the level of the level
of Mode
Mode II fracture
II fracture energy
energy at interfaces,
at interfaces, the calculated
the calculated shear were
shear strengths strengths werewith
compared compared with
experimental
experimental
data and the data casesand the showed
which cases which showed the
the smallest errorsmallest error were
were selected. Theselected.
selectedThe selected
levels levelsII
of Mode
of Mode II
fracture fracture
energy forenergy for H-60,
H-60, H-150, H-150,
V-60 V-60 and
and H-150 wereH-150
75%,were
45%,75%,
50%45%,
and 50%
26%and 26% of original
of original Mode II
Mode
fractureII fracture energy, respectively,
energy, respectively, and the obtained
and the obtained results areresults
shown areinshown
Figurein20.Figure 20.

45
39.5 39.6
40 Exp. Results
35
Shear Strength (kN)

29.6 30.0 Analytical Results

30
25 23.5 23.1
21.3 21.4
20
15 12.4 12.2
10
5
0
N-Control H-60 H-150 V-60 V-150

Figure20.
Figure Obtainedresults
20.Obtained resultsof
ofshear
shearstrength.
strength.

Since
Since the
thea/d
a/dwas
wasabout
about1.8
1.8and
andrebar
rebarwaswasused
usedtotoreinforce
reinforcethetheflexural
flexuralcapacity,
capacity,the
theshear
shearfailure
failure
modes
modes were
were obtained
obtained fromfrom all
allbeams
beamsas asintended.
intended.Crack
Crackpatterns
patternsfrom
fromexperiments
experimentsandandanalysis
analysiswere
were
compared, as shown in Figure 21. In the figure, it can be found that the interface
compared, as shown in Figure 21. In the figure, it can be found that the interface with diminished with diminished
fracture
fracture energy affected the
energy affected thecrack
crackpattern,
pattern,andandfor
forlayered
layeredRC RC beam,
beam, thethe cracks
cracks were
were alsoalso formed
formed at
at the
the interfaces.
interfaces. In Figure
In Figure 21, cracks
21, cracks formed
formed at interface
at interface werewere indicated
indicated by red byline.
red line. However,
However, overall
overall crack
crack
patternpattern
observedobserved from layered
from layered concrete
concrete beam beam aresimilar
are still still similar withofthat
with that of ordinary
ordinary RC beamRC under
beam
under
shear. shear. This indicates
This indicates thatthough
that even even though the weakest
the weakest link is in
link is located located in interface,
interface, majorcould
major cracks cracksbe
could be formed in interlayer body
formed in interlayer body between interfaces.between interfaces.

Center

(a) (b)
Center
 modes were obtained from all beams as intended. Crack patterns from experiments and analysis were
compared, as shown in Figure 21. In the figure, it can be found that the interface with diminished
fracture energy affected the crack pattern, and for layered RC beam, the cracks were also formed at
the interfaces. In Figure 21, cracks formed at interface were indicated by red line. However, overall
crack pattern observed from layered concrete beam are still similar with that of ordinary RC beam
under
Materials 2017,shear.
10, 1349This indicates that even though the weakest link is located in interface, major cracks
17 of 22
could be formed in interlayer body between interfaces.

Center

(a) (b)
Center

Materials 2017, 10, 1349 17 of 23

(c) (d)
Center

(e) (f)
Center

(g) (h)

Figure 21. Crack patterns from experiments and analysis: (a) H-60 (experiment); (b) H-60 (analysis,
Figure 21. Crack patterns from experiments and analysis: (a) H-60 (experiment); (b) H-60 (analysis,
scale 20); (c) H-150 (experiment); (d) H-150 (analysis, scale 20); (e) V-60 (experiment); (f) V-60
scale (analysis,
20); (c) H-150 (experiment); (d) H-150 (analysis, scale 20); (e) V-60 (experiment); (f) V-60 (analysis,
scale 20); (g) V-150 (experiment); and (h) V-150 (analysis, scale 20).
scale 20); (g) V-150 (experiment); and (h) V-150 (analysis, scale 20).
9. Obtained Results Regarding Shear Strength Reduction
9. Obtained Results Regarding Shear Strength Reduction
To estimate the reduction in shear strength of the general RC beam with interfaces, previous
shear
To tests on
estimate theRC beams from
reduction otherstrength
in shear researchofwork were collected,
the general RC beamand specimens
with designed
interfaces, previous byshear
Xie et al. (1994), Yang et al. (2007) and Mihaylov et al. (2010) were modeled
tests on RC beams from other research work were collected, and specimens designed by Xie [35–37]. Particularly, in et al.
the present study, short beams, viz. a/d between 1.0 and 2.0, without stirrups were considered in
(1994), Yang et al. (2007) and Mihaylov et al. (2010) were modeled [35–37]. Particularly, in the present
order to see the pure shear strength of the concrete with dowel action from tension rebar. Therefore,
study, short beams, viz. a/d between 1.0 and 2.0, without stirrups were considered in order to see the
no additional effects from stirrups on shear strength was considered in this study, indicating that the
pure obtained
shear strength of the consisted
shear strength concrete of with dowel
concrete action
shear fromwith
strength tension
smallrebar. Therefore,
aggregate no additional
interlocking effect
and dowel action with no stirrup condition. Finally, shear strengths of the RC beam with and without
interfaces were predicted and compared with experimental results.
For ordinary RC beam without multiple interfaces, the average percent difference between
experiments and analysis was 8.67% and the developed model predicted the shear capacities of the
RC beam very well. After verification, it was assumed that the selected beam was made by 3D
Materials 2017, 10, 1349 18 of 22

effects from stirrups on shear strength was considered in this study, indicating that the obtained shear
strength consisted of concrete shear strength with small aggregate interlocking effect and dowel action
with no stirrup condition. Finally, shear strengths of the RC beam with and without interfaces were
predicted and compared with experimental results.
For ordinary RC beam without multiple interfaces, the average percent difference between
experiments and analysis was 8.67% and the developed model predicted the shear capacities of the RC
beam very well. After verification, it was assumed that the selected beam was made by 3D printing
technology, resulting in the formation of multiple interfaces. The previously found level of Mode II
fracture energy (75%, 45%, 50% and 26%) were next applied to the beams with horizontal and vertical
interfaces with 60 min and 150 min elapsed time. The obtained results for prediction of shear strength
as well as other important parameters are summarized in Table 4. For horizontal interfaces (H type)
with 60 and 150 min elapsed time, the average shear strength reductions were predicted to be 33%
and 48%, respectively. Likewise, for vertical interfaces (V type) with 60 and 150 min elapsed time,
the average shear strength reductions were predicted as 65% and 80%, respectively.
Based on the obtained results shown in Table 5, the decreased fracture energy affected the shear
strength of RC beam with multiple interfaces, as seen in Table 5. To find a relationship between fracture
energy and shear strength of RC beam with multiple interfaces, we defined the level of fracture energy
(%) as decreased fracture energy divided by original fracture energy. Likewise, the level of shear
strength (%) was defined as decreased shear strength due to the existence of interfaces with time effects
divided by shear strength from normal RC beam. The level of fracture energy (%) versus the level of
shear strength (%) is shown in Figure 22. For horizontal types, the shear strength reductions were
smaller than the reduction in fracture energy except one case (a specimen of Xie et al. (1994) with an
assumption of 60 min elapsed time) [35]. Therefore, for horizontal types with less than 60 min elapsed
time, it can be conservatively concluded that the level of shear strength reduction is equivalent to the
reduction in fracture energy. Reverse analysis showed that, in 60 min, 75% level of fracture energy
remained at the interfaces. Hence, 75% shear capacity of layered RC beam with horizontal interfaces
compared to the normal RC beam was expected. However, for vertical types, the shear strength
reductions were smaller or larger than the reduction in fracture energy depending on a/d, as shown
in Figure 22b. For shorter beams (1.0 < a/d < 1.2), reduction in shear strength was more significant
compared to the other beams (1.5 < a/d < 1.9). Therefore, short beams with a/d range less than 1.2
will undergo large reduction if it is made by 3D technology. However, other beams with a/d range
more than
Materials 2017,1.5
10, showed
1349 less reduction in shear strength compared to the reduction in fracture energy.
20 of 23

100 80
Level of Shear Strength (%)

V type 150 min. 60 min.

H type
Level of Shear Strength (%)

90 70
80 60 1.5 < a/d < 1.9
70
60 50 1.0 < a/d < 1.2
1.0 < a/d < 1.9
50 a/d =1.0
40
40 30
30
20 20
10 150 min.
10
60 min.
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Level of Fracture Energy (%) Level of Fracture Energy (%)
(a) (b)
Figure 22. Fracture energy vs Shear strength: (a) horizontal type; and (b) vertical type.
Figure 22. Fracture energy vs Shear strength: (a) horizontal type; and (b) vertical type.

10. Proposed Shear Reduction Factor for RC Beam with Interfaces Formed
by 3D Printing Technology
Based on the obtained results shown in Figure 22, shear reduction factors for RC beam with
multiple interfaces formed by 3D printing technology were proposed, as shown in Table 6.
Depending on the interface type, such as horizontal and vertical types, and elapsed time, such as 60
and 150 min, the reduction factors are calculated. Elapsed time is normalized by initial setting time.
It should be noted that the following factors could be used for estimating shear strength of short RC
beam (1.0 < a/d < 2.0) with dowel action due to the existence of rebars, but without any stirrups.
Interfaces were formed before final setting time (220 min) of the concrete. The proposed shear
Materials 2017, 10, 1349 19 of 22

Table 5. Obtained results for predicting shear strength of normal and layered RC beams.

Rebar in Comp. Normalized Exp. Vu Predicted Differences

Authors Test Specimen a/d fc 0 (MPa) GF (N/m) ft (MPa)
Tension Zone Rebar Elapsed Time (%) (kN) Vu (kN) (%)
Ordinary RC beam 1 46.9 150 3.9 2@D19 NA NA 156 140 10.3
RC beam w/interfaces (Horizontal) 1 46.9 150 3.9 2@D19 NA 67 NA 83 NA
Yuliang et al. (1994) RC beam w/interfaces (Horizontal) 1 46.9 150 3.9 2@D19 NA 167 NA 64 NA
RC beam w/interfaces (Vertical) 1 46.9 150 3.9 2@D19 NA 67 NA 35 NA
RC beam w/interfaces (Vertical) 1 46.9 150 3.9 2@D19 NA 167 NA 17 NA
Ordinary RC beam 1.17 32.1 142 3 3@D19 3@D19 NA 440 410.5 6.7
RC beam w/interfaces (Horizontal) 1.17 32.1 142 3 3@D19 3@D19 67 NA 326 NA
Yang et al. (2007) RC beam w/interfaces (Horizontal) 1.17 32.1 142 3 3@D19 3@D19 167 NA 229 NA
RC beam w/interfaces (Vertical) 1.17 32.1 142 3 3@D19 3@D19 67 NA 101 NA
RC beam w/interfaces (Vertical) 1.17 32.1 142 3 3@D19 3@D19 167 NA 52 NA
Ordinary RC beam 1.55 34.2 143 3.1 6@D25 6@D25 NA 710 646 9
RC beam w/interfaces (Horizontal) 1.55 34.2 143 3.1 6@D25 6@D25 67 NA 527 NA
Boyan et al. (2010) RC beam w/interfaces (Horizontal) 1.55 34.2 143 3.1 6@D25 6@D25 167 NA 443 NA
RC beam w/interfaces (Vertical) 1.55 34.2 143 3.1 6@D25 6@D25 67 NA 423 NA
RC beam w/interfaces (Vertical) 1.55 34.2 143 3.1 6@D25 6@D25 167 NA 255 NA
Materials 2017, 10, 1349 20 of 22

10. Proposed Shear Reduction Factor for RC Beam with Interfaces Formed by 3D
Printing Technology
Based on the obtained results shown in Figure 22, shear reduction factors for RC beam with
multiple interfaces formed by 3D printing technology were proposed, as shown in Table 6. Depending
on the interface type, such as horizontal and vertical types, and elapsed time, such as 60 and 150 min,
the reduction factors are calculated. Elapsed time is normalized by initial setting time. It should
be noted that the following factors could be used for estimating shear strength of short RC beam
(1.0 < a/d < 2.0) with dowel action due to the existence of rebars, but without any stirrups. Interfaces
were formed before final setting time (220 min) of the concrete. The proposed shear reduction factors
were dependent on many environmental conditions, such as humidity, temperatures and cement
properties. Further experimental studies are necessary for accurately selecting the reduction factor.

Vc_layered = αVc

where Vc is the Shear strength of RC beam without stirrup; α is the Shear reduction factor (refer to
Table 6); and Vc_layered is the Shear strength of RC beam with interfaces.

Table 6. Proposed shear reduction factors.

Normalized Elapsed Shear Reduction Factor

Interface Type Range of a/d
Time (%) (a)
67 1.2 < a/d < 1.9 0.75
Horizontal
167 1.0 < a/d < 1.9 0.45
67 1.5 < a/d < 1.9 0.5
167 1.5 < a/d < 1.9 0.26
Vertical
67 1.0 < a/d < 1.2 0.25
167 1.0 < a/d < 1.2 0.12
Normalized elapsed time: Elapsed time divided by initial setting time (90 min) of the concrete.

11. Conclusions
From the results of concrete fracture energy tests and developed shear strength model,
the following conclusions can be derived.

1. The elapsed time for the new layers to form concrete structures reduces the total fracture energy
significantly (72.6%) especially when the elapsed time (60 min) is shorter than the initial setting
time (90 min) of the concrete.
2. Bridging materials such as steel fibers and aggregates improved the overall structural integrity by
increasing the fracture energy at interface between two layers. The maximum improvement was
realized on addition of steel fibers, as expected. Aggregates prevented any reduction in fracture
energy due to the elapsed time and finally could maintain the original level of fracture energy.
However, retarders did not successfully prevent decrease in fracture energy with increased
elapsed time to form a new layer.
3. A model to predict the shear strength of RC beam was developed using Vector 2 software
following the MCFT theory. Model verification was conducted and it was found that the shear
strength of different scales of the RC beam could be satisfactorily predicted with approximately
less than 10% margin.
4. By using the newly developed model, the reduction in shear strength of RC beams with multiple
interfaces and without stirrups were estimated from the results of the fracture test. It was found
that, at the initial setting time of the concrete, the fracture energy diminished, which affected
the overall behavior of the general RC beam. Finally, the average reduction in shear strength
Materials 2017, 10, 1349 21 of 22

for horizontal interfaces at 67% of initial setting time was 33%. Likewise, the reduction in shear
strength for vertical interfaces at 67% of initial setting time was 65%.
5. Shear reduction factors depending on span to depth ratio (a/d) and elapsed time to meet new
layers were also proposed. The vertical interfaces showed larger reduction in shear than the
horizontal ones.
6. In the present study, the reduction of Mode II fracture energy at interface of layered concrete
structure was estimated by reserve analysis using the newly developed model. In future studies,
Mode II fracture energy of interfaces will be measured.

Acknowledgments: This research was supported by a grant (16CTAP-C114626-01) from Technology Advancement
Research Program (TARP) funded by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport of Korean government.
Author Contributions: Kyeongjin Kim worked on the numerical analysis, Sangmin Park actively worked on
the experiments and data analysis, Wooseok Kim and Yoseok Jeong are experts regarding this title and actively
worked on data analysis and ideas, Jaeha Lee contributed research concept, analyze the obtained results, composed
and revised the paper as a corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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