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The use of a VRS-Based pioneer 3-AT robot in pavement inspections

Article  in  Journal of Testing and Evaluation · September 2011

DOI: 10.1520/JTE103423

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 Journal of Testing and Evaluation, Sept 2004 Vol XX, No. X
Paper ID:
Available online at: www.astm.org
Published XXXX
1 JOURNAL ARTICLE

2 Jia-Ruey Chang1, Feng-Chi Yu2, Tsun-Cheng Huang3, Shih-Chung Kang4, and Shang-Hsien
3 Hsieh5
4

5 The Use of a VRS-Based Pioneer 3-AT Robot in Pavement

6 Inspections

8 ABSTRACT: This study proposed a framework of the Pioneer 3-AT (P3-AT) autonomous robot for
9 pavement inspection that was integrated with a highly accurate virtual reference station (VRS)
10 positioning technique. The two test sites were 60 km apart; one was rigid pavement, the other was
11 flexible pavement. Two VRS systems were adopted: (1) a VRS system developed by Taiwan Control
12 Signal Company Limited, and (2) Virtual Base Station Real-Time Kinematic (VBS-RTK) (also called e-
13 GPS system) from Taiwan National Land Surveying and Mapping Center. Firstly, the tire pressure and
14 horizontal movement of the P3-AT were calibrated on the two test sites. Then the accuracy of positioning
15 data provided by VRS to guide the P3-AT was investigated, under both static and dynamic conditions at
16 distances of movement from 0.25 m to 20 m, to verify the stability and feasibility of this framework. We
17 observed that standard deviations in positioning were less than 0.03 m and root mean square (RMS)
18 values were close to prescribed distances in static tests. The reproducible errors were less than 0.03 m in
19 dynamic tests. The results showed that the two VRS systems were able to provide the P3-AT with
20 accurate positioning data on the two test sites. This study also successfully demonstrated the use of the
21 P3-AT in autonomously surveying surface distresses and manholes and its ability to accurately plot slabs
22 on a rigid pavement. Since the P3-AT possesses the properties of low volume, slow speed, flexible
23 modules and low price, this study confirms that the P3-AT integrated with the VRS positioning technique
24 has the potential to provide significant assistance in automatic pavement inspections of specific areas,
25 such as airports, and for particular purposes such as Quality Control/Quality Assurance testing.

26 KEYWORDS: pavement inspection, virtual reference station (VRS), autonomous robot, surface distress

1
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering and Environmental Informatics & Department of Leisure
Management, MingHsin University of Science & Technology, No.1, Hsin-Hsing Road, Hsin-Fong, Hsin-Chu, 304,
Taiwan.
2
Assistant Professor, Institute of Service Industries and Management, MingHsin University of Science &
Technology, No.1, Hsin-Hsing Road, Hsin-Fong, Hsin-Chu, 304, Taiwan.
3
Master, Institute of Civil Engineering, MingHsin University of Science & Technology, No.1, Hsin-Hsing Road,
Hsin-Fong, Hsin-Chu, 304, Taiwan.
4
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road,
Taipei, 106, Taiwan.
5
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei,
106, Taiwan.

Copyright © 2002 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 14928-2959.
 2

27 Introduction
28 Amongst the various types of public infrastructures, roads are subject to various weather,
29 geographic and traffic conditions and are the most difficult to maintain. The pavement, that is,
30 the surface of the road, is often worn due to traffic, changing temperatures, and random impacts
31 with vehicles, along with other factors. Different deterioration rates in the road network, and
32 randomly occurring surface distresses on pavements greatly increase the complexity of
33 maintaining and managing pavements. Since road users can easily perceive pavement defects,
34 most road authorities around the world periodically inspect pavements and maintain pavement
35 conditions above an acceptable serviceability by performing appropriate and timely maintenance
36 and rehabilitation (M&R) activities. Appropriate M&R activities not only prolong pavement life,
37 but also provide comfortable and safe pavements for road users [1].
38 The serviceability of pavements is highly related to their surface conditions. In general, the
39 surface conditions are monitored by collecting pavement performance data using manifold
40 commercial equipment [2]. Traditional pavement inspections are generally conducted using
41 manually operated instruments, which are very labor-intensive. These inspections usually include
42 repetitive and tedious procedures and often require very time-consuming post-analyses. It is a
43 challenge for most road authorities to allocate their limited inspection resources efficiently.
44 Considering the advanced developments and capabilities of robots, this study proposed the
45 use of a Pioneer 3-AT (P3-AT) autonomous robot integrated with the highly accurate virtual
46 reference station (VRS) positioning technique to perform pavement inspections in specific areas,
47 such as airports and for particular purposes, such as quality control/quality assurance (QC/QA)
48 testing. For verifying the stability and feasibility of an autonomous robot framework for
49 pavement inspections, the accuracy of positioning data provided by VRS to the robot was
50 investigated under both static and dynamic conditions on the two testing sites - a flexible
51 pavement site and a rigid pavement site - located 60 km apart. In-situ inspections were
52 demonstrated by using the P3-AT to autonomously survey surface distresses, and judge its ability
53 to plot slabs on a rigid pavement.

54 Pavement Inspections
55 Pavement performance is a function of a pavement’s relative ability to serve traffic over a
56 period of time [3]. Pavement performance is largely defined by evaluation in the following
57 categories: roughness (often called “smoothness”), surface distress, skid resistance, and
58 deflection.
59 On flexible pavements, roughness and rutting are defined by the variations of longitudinal
60 and transversal profiles, respectively. Both are important for comfortable driving or riding. In the
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61 past, the instruments developed to inspect roughness were improved from manual to automatic.
62 Rod and level surveys, dipstick profilers, profilographs, response type road roughness meters
63 (RTRRMs), and profiling devices are the broad categories of roughness measuring equipment
64 [4]. Most manual roughness inspections require the inspector to haul an inspection machine
65 along both wheel paths within the speed limit, for example, at less than 800 meters per hour for
66 an Australian Road Research Board (ARRB) walking profiler. Most manual roughness
67 inspections, due to their slow speeds, can provide a more accurate measurement of the pavement
68 profile, but they are impractical and prohibitively expensive for use on large projects. For large-
69 area and long-distance inspections, commercial equipment such as inertial profilometers are
70 typically employed.
71 Surface distress is “any indication of poor or unfavorable pavement performance or signs of
72 impending failure; any unsatisfactory performance of a pavement short of failure.” Generally, all
73 distress types fall into three groups: fracture, in the form of cracking or spalling; distortion, in the
74 form of deformation such as rutting, corrugation and shoving; and disintegration, in the form of
75 stripping or raveling [5]. Thus, surface distress will be somewhat related to roughness, in that a
76 rougher pavement has more cracks, distortion and disintegration; as well as structural integrity,
77 in that surface distresses can be a sign of impending or current structural problems. Surveys of
78 distress can be either subjective or objective. A simple example of a subjective survey may be a
79 rating of high, medium, or low based on a brief visual inspection. Objective surveys, which are
80 generally more expensive to conduct, use different types of automated distress survey equipment
81 [6, 7].
82 Most roughness and surface distress inspections on broad pavements are performed using
83 human-operated or driven equipment, and hence are very labor intensive, time-consuming, and
84 lack intelligent inspection approaches. Nowadays, a well-developed multi-functional inspection
85 vehicle such as the Fugro Roadware’s Automatic Road Analyzer (ARAN) is commonly utilized
86 to collect large-area and long-distance pavement performance data, including roughness and
87 surface distress. However, the vehicle is not suitable for small projects such as the QC/QA
88 testing of a pipeline excavation and recovery because of its expense (more than USD 300,000 for
89 ARAN, for example), its large volume and time limitations. To overcome these problems, this
90 study proposed the application of an autonomous robot integrated with the VRS positioning
91 technique to collect pavement performance data for some limited areas, such as airports, or for
92 particular purposes, such as the QC/QA testing.

93 The Development of Autonomous Robots for Pavement Inspections

94 Motivated by problems of quality control of construction works, lack of experienced labor,
95 low productivity, frequent accidents, and high demand, the first ideas for construction robots
 4

96 appeared in the 1970s, in Japan. Since then more than 200 construction robots and service robots
97 for buildings have been developed, although only about 10% of them have been successfully
98 introduced to the construction market [8-10]. The development of on-site robots in the 1980s
99 peaked with the development of integrated automated building construction sites in the 1990s. In
100 the beginning of the 21st century, humanoid robots were researched and tested. In the future, we
101 will see robots that care for the elderly and the handicapped as a further development of
102 construction robots [11]. The large-scale paver is one example of a construction robot in
103 pavement practice. Over the years, slipform concrete paving operations have become
104 increasingly automated. Automatic grade control, for example, is now a virtually standard
105 feature for most slipform pavers. Monitoring vibrator functionality and frequency is also
106 common [12]. In 2005, RoboTex (Robotic Texture Measurement System) was developed to
107 measure pavement texture in three dimensions and to allow the characterization of the anisotropy
108 inherent with most concrete pavement textures [13].
109 Labor-intensive tasks have been replaced by automatic systems or equipment in recent years.
110 Due to rapid advances in robot technology, we believe that autonomous robots may replace the
111 present automatic approaches in the coming decades. In this study, we proposed the use of an
112 autonomous robot for pavement inspections. Considering the feasibility and limitations of a
113 robot, the autonomous robot framework for pavement inspections proposed in this study focused
114 on surface distress surveys.

115 The Framework

116 The general framework for a pavement inspection system is configured as shown in Fig.
117 1(A). The conveyer (such as a vehicle) carries various inspection instruments and is controlled
118 by an inspector to collect vast amounts of pavement performance data. For a multi-functional
119 inspection vehicle, both roughness and rutting can be automatically and immediately analyzed
120 during inspection, although Pavement Condition Index (PCI) computation must be done in post-
121 processing using a computer. PCI computation requires the same or more time than the
122 inspection itself.
123 An autonomous robot consists of three parts, as shown in Fig. 1(B): (1) a sensor unit; (2) an
124 actuator unit; and (3) a logic unit [14]. The sensor unit works using instruments, such as an
125 ultrasonic sensor [15], a laser range finder [16], image capturing equipment [17] and an
126 odometer in the pavement inspection system. The actuator unit [18] is responsible for the robot’s
127 motion and works as a conveyer in the pavement inspection system. The logic unit has
128 computational power, which is similar to data analysis modules in the pavement inspection
129 system, and is able to perform real-time computation and decision-making.
 5

130 One autonomous robot framework for pavement inspections is proposed as in Fig. 1(C). The
131 sensor unit of the robot is combined with pavement inspection instruments and mounted on the
132 robotic platform. By integrating the results from the logic unit of the robot and pavement data
133 analyses, the robot is capable of intelligently planning its behavior. Because the sensing and
134 computing are synchronized, the time required for the processes of data collection and analysis
135 can be significantly reduced. The concurrent process also can reduce data storage requirements.

136 The Advantages and Disadvantages of the Framework

137 The future advantages of a well-developed autonomous robot applied to pavement inspection
138 are as follows.
139 • The autonomous robot is program-controlled, and can operate without human control to
140 perform inspections. It can greatly reduce labor costs in the inspection process, especially for
141 routine inspections of limited areas and for specific purposes.
142 • Through its scanning laser sensor, the robot can gather data on an entire traffic lane in a
143 single operation.
144 • Traditional inspections cannot be easily integrated with intelligent control. A developed
145 autonomous robot can receive the pavement conditions in real-time, intelligently choose
146 inspection paths, and adjust sampling frequency, sampling interval and other parameters.
147 • For most inspection equipment, some analyses such as roughness or rutting can be conducted
148 simultaneously. Others, such as distress recognition or PCI computation, must be post-
149 processed. A well-developed autonomous robot can complete all of the analytical tasks
150 simultaneously during inspection. Once the inspection is finished, evaluation results can be
151 obtained without delay.
152 • Currently, apart from the expensive multi-functional inspection vehicle, inspection
153 equipment for roughness, rutting and surface distress is sold separately. Autonomous robots
154 have the benefits of flexible and various modules. They would be much cheaper than the
155 vehicle (around USD 15,000 for the P3-AT base), while being capable of performing
156 multiple pavement inspection tasks simultaneously.
157 However, due to limitations from the current state of robot technology and energy
158 consumption, using autonomous robots to assist pavement inspections has the following
159 drawbacks:
160 • Power and load capacity still limit the life and work time of autonomous robots.
161 • Autonomous robots cannot carry out large-scale and long-distance operations.
162 • Due to safety reasons, autonomous robots cannot work in normal traffic flow. However, the
163 closure of roads is already required for acceptance of newly completed roads, QC/QA testing
164 of M&R activities, and inspections for special fields or purposes.
 6

165 • The accuracy and stability of robot control and the integration of various sensors with the
166 robots will affect the results of the pavement inspection tasks that require high accuracy.

167 The GPS Virtual Reference Station (VRS) System

168 Global positioning systems (GPS) and real-time kinematic (RTK) positioning are both
169 becoming increasingly important for many industries requiring a high degree of precision, with
170 examples including surveying, construction, precision farming and high accuracy geographic
171 information systems (GIS). RTK positioning in conjunction with GPS can reach a high degree of
172 accuracy, on the order of centimeters, and is one of the most widely used surveying techniques
173 today. However, RTK has some problems due to the effect of the troposphere and ionosphere,
174 causing systematic errors in raw data. Additionally, the distance between a rover (mobile)
175 receiver and its reference (base) station has to be quite short, in fact less than 10 km, in order to
176 ensure centimeter-level accuracy. Radio communication problems also arise in urban areas.
177 Recently, in many countries, multiple reference station networks have been installed to
178 overcome the limitations of standard RTK systems. The concept of the Virtual Reference Station
179 (VRS), also called network RTK, is one of the more feasible approaches for relaying network
180 correction information to the network RTK users. The use of VRS has been proposed by many
181 researchers as a more feasible approach for relaying network correction information to
182 networked RTK users [19-24] and has proven to be an efficient technology for high accuracy
183 GPS positioning over the last few years. This approach does not require a physical reference
184 station. Instead, it allows the user to access data of a non-existent virtual reference station at any
185 location within the network coverage area and allows modeling of the systematic errors to
186 provide the possibility of an error reduction. An example of a VRS network operation is shown
187 in Fig. 2 [24, 25]. The advantages of the VRS technique include the following:
188 • An increase in the allowable distance between the rover receiver and the reference station;
189 • Removal of large portions of ionospheric and geometric errors through network corrections;
190 • An increase in the reliability and productivity of ambiguous resolution and the positioning
191 accuracy of rovers; and
192 • A reduction in the initialization time of RTK.
193 The VRS approach is quite flexible, and users can use their current receivers and software
194 without any need for specific software to manage corrections from a series of reference stations.
195 Users within the reference station network can operate reliably at greater distances without
196 degrading its accuracy. However, VRS needs a reliable data communication link for the
197 transmission of data from a control centre to a user’s receiver [26]. There are several practical
198 ways to transfer VRS data to users in real-time, such as through TV audio data broadcasts, the
 7

199 internet, the global system for mobile communications (GSM), general packet radio service
200 (GPRS) and so on [27, 28].
201 For accurately positioning the robot on pavements, a positioning system with high accuracy
202 is mandatory. In this study, a Leica GPS receiver was equipped on the P3-AT. A high-speed
203 downlink packet access (HSDPA) broadband wireless modem (3.5 G) was utilized as the
204 transmission device for positioning information. HSDPA (3.5 G) provided an “always-on”
205 service, and thus was more preferable than GSM or GPRS. It also provided a more stable and
206 reliable connection with latencies of less than 1 second. Fig. 3 shows the architecture for linking
207 the control centre to the user receiver using the HSDPA (3.5 G) scheme [26]. For our study, the
208 PDA shown in Fig. 3 was replaced with an onboard laptop on the P3-AT. This study also
209 demonstrated in-situ data collection to confirm the feasibility of this architecture for pavement
210 inspections.

211 The Two VRS Systems

212 In this study, two types of VRS systems were adopted: the VRS system developed by a
213 private enterprise, Taiwan Control Signal Company Limited (CSCL) [29], and the Virtual Base
214 Station Real-Time Kinematic (VBS-RTK) system (also called e-GPS system) developed by
215 Taiwan National Land Surveying and Mapping Center (NLSC) [30]. A comparison of the two
216 VRS systems is summarized in Table 1.
217
218 TABLE 1—The comparison of the two VRS systems adopted in this study.
219
Item Reference Range of Convergence
Owner Payment
VRS System Stations Services Time
CSCL 11 North Taiwan private enterprise nil relatively slow
USD 10
e-GPS 76 Taiwan nation relatively fast
per day
220

221 The VRS Operation - The Example of Control Signal Company Limited (CSCL)
222 Server Software, SpiderNET, was installed on the control-centre server located at CSCL.
223 SpiderNET was responsible for generating and broadcasting VRS data via the Internet. The
224 software opened the necessary ports and waited for the P3-AT connection. There was a requisite
225 login procedure in order to gain access to the data. The software handled incoming logins and
226 generated VRS data for the P3-AT according to the P3-AT’s approximate position.
 8

227 The P3-AT was equipped with a Leica SR530 GPS receiver (Fig. 4) capable of performing
228 positioning. The Leica SR530 was connected to a HSDPA (3.5 G)-enabled laptop via the RS232
229 port (COM 1). Client software, Ntrip Client, was installed on the PC environment as shown in
230 Fig. 5(A). After inputting the IP port, User-ID, and password into the Ntrip Client, the laptop
231 established communication with the receiver through another RS232 port (COM 2), as shown in
232 Fig. 5(B). The P3-AT connected to the server of the control centre through a HSDPA (3.5 G)
233 connection at its location. The positioning quality could be within 0.01 m (centimeter-level
234 accuracy) in a relatively short time, as shown in Fig. 5(C). The coordinate formats provided by
235 the GPS receiver could be latitude/longitude, Taiwan Grid and others. The Taiwan Grid was
236 adopted in this study.
237 Test Sites, Robot, and Testing Preparations

238 Test Sites

239 The study was carried out at two test sites. One was a flexible pavement in MingHsin
240 University of Science & Technology (MUST) in Hsinchu County (Fig. 6(A)); the other was a
241 rigid pavement in National Taiwan University (NTU) in Taipei City (Fig. 6(B)). Both sites lie
242 within vast areas that have low population density with no high-rise objects in the surroundings
243 to interrupt GPS reception. Therefore, they served as ideal locations for the P3-AT to conduct
244 pavement inspections. A comparison between the two test sites is found in Table 2. By choosing
245 these two test sites, the following parameters were investigated:
246 • VRS qualities at different locations: Hsinchu County vs. Taipei City. The two test sites were
247 60 km (36.93 miles) apart, which far exceeded the 10 km optimum working range of RTK.
248 • Differences in terrain: mesa (MUST) vs. basin (NTU)
249 • Differences in pavement type: flexible pavement (MUST) vs. rigid pavement (NTU)
250 • Accuracies between the two VRS systems: CSCL vs. e-GPS
251
252 TABLE 2—A comparison of test sites in MUST and NTU.
253
Item Pavement Latitude and
Location Terrain CSCL e-GPS
Site Type Longitude
N 24°85'97.47"
MUST Hsinchu Mesa Flexible Receivable Receivable
E 120°98'80.76"
N 25°01'80.41"
NTU Taipei Basin Rigid Receivable Receivable
E 121°54'71.15"
 9

254

255 The MobileRobots Pioneer 3-AT (P3-AT)

256 Being powerful, easy-to-use, reliable, and flexible, the P3-AT used in this study is a highly
257 versatile all-terrain robotic platform particularly suited for pavement inspections. Fig. 4 provides
258 a picture of the P3-AT. The P3-AT is manufactured by MobileRobots Inc. and is equipped with a
259 control laptop, onboard Pan-Tilt-Zoom (PTZ) camera system, Ethernet-based communications,
260 SICK laser, eight front and eight rear sonar sensors which are able to sense obstacles from 15 cm
261 to 7 m away, and other autonomous functions [31]. The P3-AT’s powerful motors and four
262 robust wheels can reach speeds of up to 0.8 m/sec and can carry a payload of up to 30 kg. The
263 P3-AT can climb steep 45% grades and sills of 9 cm. It uses 100-tick encoders with inertial
264 correction recommended for dead reckoning to compensate for skid steering. It also boasts
265 sensors extending far beyond ordinary laser-based navigation options, and is equipped with
266 inertial correction to compensate for slippage. Additional features include bumpers, a gripper,
267 vision, stereo rangefinders, a compass and a rapidly growing suite of other options [31].
268 The Microsoft Visual Programming Language (MVPL) in Microsoft® Robotics Developer
269 Studio (MSRDS) [32] was used in this study to program and control the P3-AT’s behavior on
270 pavements, as shown in Fig. 7. The MVPL in MSRDS is a visual programming and dataflow
271 programming language developed by Microsoft. The MVPL is distinguished from other
272 Microsoft programming languages such as Visual Basic and C#, in that it is the only Microsoft
273 language that is a true visual programming language.

274 Tire Pressure Calibration Tests of the P3-AT

275 The tire pressure of the P3-AT is a vital determining factor of its travel distance and
276 positioning. The tire pressure was calibrated by commanding the P3-AT to move 500 cm
277 autonomously in a horizontal direction using an MVPL program at six different tire pressures:
278 10, 20, 25, 30, 40 and 50 psi (where 50 psi is the upper limit for the P3-AT’s tire pressure). The
279 flowchart of the P3-AT’s movement control is shown in Fig. 7. The actual distance travelled by
280 the P3-AT was then measured and compared against the prescribed value of 500 cm. Three tests
281 were conducted under each tire pressure, the results of which are shown in Table 3. The results
282 in Table 3 show an error between 0.14 to 2.63%, indicating that increasing tire pressure led to an
283 increase in the actual distance travelled by the P3-AT from below 500 cm to over 500 cm. At a
284 tire pressure of 25 psi, the actual travel distance was closest to the prescribed distance of 500 cm.
285 We then set the tire pressure at 25 psi to carry out the subsequent tests. It should be noted that the
286 pressure should be adjusted for the robotic platform used.
287
 10

288 TABLE 3—P3-AT tire pressure calibration tests (cm).

289
Tire Pressure
10 20 25 30 40 50
Number of Tests
1 487.30 499.40 500.70 505.90 509.80 511.30
2 486.90 499.20 500.80 505.80 509.50 511.40
3 486.40 499.10 500.60 505.60 509.30 511.40
Average 486.87 499.23 500.70 505.77 509.53 511.37
Standard deviation 0.368 0.125 0.082 0.125 0.205 0.047
Difference with 500 cm 13.13 0.77 0.70 5.77 9.53 11.37
Error (%) 2.63 0.15 0.14 1.15 1.91 2.27
290

291 Horizontal Movement Calibration Tests of the P3-AT

292 The tire pressure of the P3-AT was set to 25 psi and was controlled by the MVPL program to
293 autonomously move distances of 25, 100, 300, 500 and 1000 cm on both flexible and rigid
294 pavements. After the P3-AT had completed each move and stopped, the actual distance travelled
295 was measured. The results of the calibration tests are tabulated in Table 4 for the flexible
296 pavement site and in Table 5 for the rigid pavement site. The results indicated that, under a fixed
297 tire pressure of 25 psi, the actual travel distances were very close to the prescribed distances
298 regardless of pavement types on the two test sites. Therefore, under the 25 psi tire pressure, it
299 was concluded that pavement type did not affect P3-AT’s movements, and that the P3-AT could
300 move according to prescribed distances correctly.
301
 11

302
303 TABLE 4—P3-AT movement calibration tests (flexible pavement).
304
Distance (cm)
25 100 300 500 1000
Test Number
1 25.90 100.50 300.40 500.10 1000.60
2 25.50 100.90 300.90 500.00 1000.60
3 25.00 100.30 300.80 500.60 1000.70
4 24.90 99.90 299.90 499.90 1000.30
5 25.70 100.50 300.00 500.40 1000.60
6 25.60 100.60 300.30 500.00 1000.20
7 25.10 99.90 300.20 500.30 1000.00
8 25.00 100.00 300.30 500.30 999.90
9 25.80 100.60 300.10 500.70 999.80
10 25.90 100.40 300.40 500.50 1000.60
Average 25.44 100.36 300.33 500.28 1000.33
Standard Deviation 0.38 0.32 0.30 0.26 0.32
Difference with
0.44 0.36 0.33 0.28 0.33
Prescribed Distance
Error (%) 1.76 0.36 0.11 0.06 0.03
305
306
 12

307
308 TABLE 5—P3-AT movement calibration tests (rigid pavement).
309
Distance (cm)
25 100 300 500 1000
Test Number
1 25.30 100.90 299.50 500.40 999.40
2 25.60 100.60 300.60 500.20 1000.90
3 24.50 100.70 300.50 499.60 1000.30
4 25.20 99.80 300.90 500.90 1000.50
5 25.80 99.80 300.30 500.70 1000.70
6 24.60 100.70 299.90 500.80 999.80
7 25.90 100.30 300.40 499.80 1000.40
8 25.80 100.30 300.80 500.30 1000.90
9 25.10 100.90 299.60 500.70 999.90
10 24.80 99.90 300.80 500.90 1000.60
Average 25.26 100.39 300.33 500.43 1000.34
Standard Deviation 0.49 0.41 0.48 0.43 0.47
Difference with
0.26 0.39 0.33 0.43 0.34
Prescribed Distance
Error (%) 1.04 0.39 0.11 0.09 0.03
310

311 Testing the P3-AT Guided by the VRS System

312 The coordinates provided by VRS were used to guide the movement of the P3-AT. Prior to
313 pavement inspections by the P3-AT, it needed to be verified that, in both static and dynamic
314 states of the robot, coordinates could be constantly and correctly delivered from VRS to the P3-
315 AT. Therefore, we first tested whether or not the displacement calculated with the coordinates
316 provided by VRS was consistent with the actual displacement of the P3-AT in the static state
317 (static tests). After that, we tested whether or not the coordinates constantly provided by VRS
318 were sufficient to correctly guide the P3-AT’s movement (dynamic tests).

319 Experimental Design

320 A series of tests designed as shown in Table 6 were performed using CSCL and e-GPS VRS
321 systems. For each of the flexible pavement and rigid pavement sites, the following static and
322 dynamic tests were planned:
 13

323 • Static tests: Using the MVPL program to make the P3-AT autonomously travel five
324 prescribed distances of 0.25, 1, 3, 5 and 10 m, and then analyze the positioning data from the
325 two VRS systems after the P3-AT has stopped.
326 • Dynamic tests: Using the MVPL program to make the P3-AT autonomously travel four
327 prescribed distances of 3, 5, 10 and 20 m, then analyze the positioning data from the two
328 VRS systems throughout the duration of the movements.
329
330 TABLE 6—Experimental design.
331
Test Sites VRS System State Horizontal Movement (m)
Static 0.25, 1, 3, 5, 10
CSCL
Dynamic 3, 5, 10, 20
Flexible Pavement
Static 0.25, 1, 3, 5, 10
NLSC
Dynamic 3, 5, 10, 20
Static 0.25, 1, 3, 5, 10
CSCL
Dynamic 3, 5, 10, 20
Rigid Pavement
Static 0.25, 1, 3, 5, 10
NLSC
Dynamic 3, 5, 10, 20
332

333 Static Testing

334 In static testing, the P3-AT was controlled by the MVPL program to autonomously move
335 over five prescribed distances (0.25, 1, 3, 5 and 10 m) on both flexible and rigid pavements,
336 stopping after each move. Fifteen measurements were conducted for each distance. The
337 difference between the prescribed distance and the actual distance of movement was assessed.
338 The actual distance of movement was calculated from the Taiwan Grid (X (mE), Y (mN))
339 coordinates provided by the VRS systems before and after the P3-AT’s movement. It is worth
340 noting that the VRS positioning data should be used after the accuracy of positioning is within 1
341 cm according to the GPS receiver. However, since the accuracy of positioning may be subject to
342 minor fluctuations due to a number of factors, positioning data within an accuracy of 3 cm were
343 considered acceptable in static tests. Table 7 presents the results from 20 static tests with various
344 combinations of two pavement types, two VRS systems and five prescribed distances. It also
345 tabulates the root mean squares (RMS) and standard deviations of fifteen measurements for each
346 distance. The sample plots of fifteen measurements for the 0.25 m movement on the flexible
347 pavement (MUST test site) using the e-GPS system and the 5 m movement on the rigid
 14

348 pavement (NTU test site) using the CSCL system are given in Fig. 8(A) and Fig. 8(B),
349 respectively.
350 From the results in Table 7, the P3-AT guided by the VRS systems performed with standard
351 deviations of less than 0.03 m and RMS values close to the prescribed distances in the static tests,
352 regardless of the test sites (Hsinchu site (mesa) vs. Taipei site (basin), 60 km apart), pavement
353 types (flexible vs. rigid pavement) and VRS systems (CSCL vs. e-GPS). This confirms that the
354 VRS system was able to provide the P3-AT with highly accurate positioning data. Pavement
355 inspections require a high level of accuracy when attempting to position rutting and surface
356 distresses on large areas of pavement and in positioning rigid slabs. With the ability to produce
357 accurate positioning data, VRS has the potential to provide significant assistance in applying the
358 P3-AT to automatic pavement inspections.
359
 15

360
361 TABLE 7—Results of static tests.
362
Prescribed Root Mean Standard Deviation of
Test Site and VRS system
Movement (m) Square (RMS) 15 Measurements (m)
0.25 0.249 0.011
1 1.001 0.008
Flexible Pavement
3 2.996 0.018
CSCL
5 4.997 0.008
10 9.993 0.016
0.25 0.245 0.010
1 1.002 0.017
Flexible Pavement
3 2.998 0.011
e-GPS
5 4.992 0.020
10 9.997 0.015
0.25 0.247 0.018
1 0.998 0.013
Rigid Pavement
3 2.997 0.009
CSCL
5 4.998 0.010
10 10.002 0.020
0.25 0.256 0.005
1 0.990 0.011
Rigid Pavement
3 2.989 0.012
e-GPS
5 4.988 0.028
10 10.001 0.027
363

364 Dynamic Testing

365 In dynamic testing, positioning data provided by the VRS systems were recorded
366 continuously by the MVPL program when the P3-AT had traveled four prescribed distances: 3,
367 5, 10 and 20 m. Three measurements were conducted for each distance. The positioning path of
368 the P3-AT can be plotted by adding together its displacements every second from start to finish.
369 An example is given in Fig. 9, where the 5 m movement was performed on the flexible pavement
370 (MUST test site) with the CSCL system. Fig. 9 shows that it took approximately 10 seconds for
371 the P3-AT to travel 5 m. In the first 2 seconds, it was accelerating. After this, it entered a
 16

372 constant speed phase for 3 seconds. It traveled with a maximum speed of 2.7 km/hr (approx. 0.7
373 m/sec). It then decelerated in the last 2 seconds. Because the P3-AT went through a cycle of
374 starting up, acceleration, constant speed and deceleration, the shape-positioning path appeared to
375 produce a slight S curve.
376 Table 8 summarizes the reproducible errors from 16 dynamic tests with various combinations
377 of two pavement types, two VRS systems and four different distances to travel. The results
378 showed that the P3-AT guided by the VRS systems exhibited a reproducible error of less than
379 0.03 m in dynamic tests, regardless of test site (Hsinchu site (mesa) vs. Taipei site (basin), 60 km
380 apart), pavement type (flexible vs. rigid pavement) and VRS system (CSCL vs. e-GPS). The
381 results demonstrate that VRS system has the ability to provide the P3-AT with accurate
382 positioning data under the dynamic condition of the P3-AT. As robots are generally under
383 moving conditions when collecting data on pavements, it is essential for them to know their
384 positions at all times. The potential of VRS to supply such positioning data correctly is of great
385 assistance in the use of the P3-AT in automatic pavement inspections.
386
387 TABLE 8—Reproducible error in the results of dynamic tests.
388
Test Site and VRS System Distances (m) Reproducible Error of Three Tests (m)
3 0.005
Flexible Pavement 5 0.014
CSCL 10 0.006
20 0.006
3 0.008
Flexible Pavement 5 0.010
e-GPS 10 0.009
20 0.029
3 0.010
Rigid Pavement 5 0.009
CSCL 10 0.008
20 0.008
3 0.009
Rigid Pavement 5 0.006
e-GPS 10 0.016
20 0.015
 17

389

390 Discussion
391 Here we provide a discussion on the use of two VRS systems as follows:
392 • When the GPS receiver showed that the accuracy level of positioning had reached the
393 centimeter level and the satellite signals appeared to be stable, measurements were of
394 especially high accuracy with no differences in the result of either VRS system.
395 • As there were 76 e-GPS reference stations around Taiwan as compared against only 11 for
396 CSCL, the e-GPS’s convergence time was faster than that of the CSCL and its stability in
397 maintaining a centimeter level of accuracy was also better. However, the e-GPS service costs
398 USD 10 per day and must be used in accordance with government related research. It may
399 not be used for private purposes.
400 In order to achieve a centimeter level of accuracy utilizing the VRS system, attention needs
401 to be drawn to the following factors:
402 • Weather: The best time for using the VRS system is on a fine and cloudless day, because
403 under cloudy weather, clouds in the troposphere will interrupt satellite signals, leading to a
404 reduction in positioning accuracy. Even though the VRS system is a technique that was
405 developed to eliminate sources of error, excessive cloud cover can reduce the ability of VRS
406 to resolve such problems. It may make the positioning accuracy fluctuate on the order of tens
407 of centimeters, and the accuracy will be unable to reach the centimeter level.
408 • Environment: Open areas with no obstacles in the surroundings are preferred. The ideal
409 number of available satellites is between 5 and 7. An insufficient number of satellites may
410 lead to unsuccessful positioning; likewise, an excessive number of satellites may decrease the
411 accuracy due to the existence of satellites with weak signals.
412 • Time: It was noticed that when conducting VRS positioning at both sites in this study, the
413 most stable time was in the evening. At this time, the VRS system could always reach the
414 centimeter level of accuracy in a very short time and maintain this level of accuracy.
415 Afternoons were the next best choice. Around noon, the conditions were quite unstable; even
416 though it occasionally achieved centimeter accuracy, stability was hard to maintain.
417 Therefore, all tests in this study were performed in the time between afternoon and evening.
418 • Network: The VRS system works in such a way that the mobile station, i.e. the P3-AT,
419 delivers approximate coordinates to the control center through wireless transmission. Upon
420 receiving these coordinates, the control center then sends corrections to the mobile station in
421 order for it to correct its coordinates. Throughout the process, in order to achieve centimeter
422 level position accuracy, the P3-AT must continuously receive information and make
423 corrections. If the transmission is interrupted, coordinate correction will terminate
 18

424 immediately. Therefore, the speed of the coordinate correction depends on the stability and
425 speed of the network. In this study, a HSDPA broadband wireless modem (3.5 G) was
426 adopted as the transmission medium. The stability of this modem was higher compared to
427 that of GSM or GPRS, so the desired centimeter level of accuracy could be quickly reached
428 with a higher level of stability.

429 Pavement Inspections Using the P3-AT

430 The P3-AT Autonomously Surveys Distresses and Manholes

431 The pavement inspection practice was demonstrated using the P3-AT in autonomously
432 surveying surface distresses and manholes. Firstly, the Taiwan Grid (X (mE), Y (mN))
433 coordinates of existing distresses (pothole and alligator cracking) as well as manholes on the
434 flexible pavement (MUST test site) were obtained using of a static positioning method, which is
435 the most precise technique for positioning purposes. Considering the requirements of photos
436 taken by the P3-AT, the coordinates were obtained at an approximate distance of 3 m to the
437 distresses and manholes. The coordinates of distresses and manholes are summarized in the
438 “Taiwan Grid” column of Table 9 and marked on Fig. 10.
439 Through the control of MVPL programs, the P3-AT was guided by the VRS system to
440 autonomously surveying surface distresses and manholes. The flowchart of the autonomous
441 surveys of distresses and manholes is shown in Fig. 11. The P3-AT started from survey number 1
442 on Fig. 10 and autonomously moved on to the next target in order according to the prescribed
443 positions delivered through VRS system. When the P3-AT arrived at each target and stopped, the
444 P3-AT triggered its PTZ Camera to take photos. The P3-AT rotated in a circle and the PTZ
445 Camera took shots continuously in 360 degrees to ensure that photos of the distresses and
446 manholes were taken. The development of an image recognition technique for distresses and
447 manholes is currently in progress. Through a well-developed image recognition technique,
448 the P3-AT will be able to autonomously search, recognize and position the distresses and
449 manholes and exactly take their photos in the future.
450 From the “Coordinates of P3-AT” column of Table 9, it is noticeable that the P3-AT stopped
451 at the prescribed positions within an error of 0.03 m. Fig. 12 shows photos of survey numbers 1,
452 4 and 5 taken by the P3-AT. This demonstration can be applied to surveys of historic distresses
453 within specific areas or regions with potential hazards. Routine surveys conducted by
454 autonomous robots can assist pavement engineers in acquiring current pavement conditions and
455 mitigate the requirements for labor. In the current study, the P3-AT was only requested to
456 complete surveys according to the survey number sequence, but did not optimize its moving
 19

457 path, which is why the total time spent surveying all distresses and manholes has not been
458 discussed.
459
460 TABLE 9—Distresses and manholes on the MUST test site.
461
Taiwan Grid Coordinates of Distance
Survey Pavement (Prescribed Position) P3-AT Arrived to
Number Condition Targets
X (mE) Y (mN) X (mE) Y (mN)
(m)
pothole + alligator
1 248738.038 2750255.672 248738.043 2750255.648 0.02
cracking
rectangular
2 248800.946 2750295.591 248800.968 2750295.599 0.02
manhole
pothole + alligator
3 248795.146 2750324.048 248795.142 2750324.035 0.01
cracking
4 circular manhole 248779.276 2750305.713 248779.251 2750305.699 0.02
5 alligator cracking 248767.908 2750317.509 248767.899 2750317.499 0.01
rectangular
6 248764.296 2750329.395 248764.301 2750329.417 0.02
manhole
pothole + alligator
7 248765.448 2750338.671 248765.468 2750338.683 0.02
cracking
462

463 The P3-AT Plots Slabs

464 The P3-AT was also operated manually to travel along the joints of 6 m x 5 m rigid pavement
465 slabs. The Taiwan Grid coordinates of the corners of slabs were delivered through the VRS
466 system and recorded by the MVPL program, as shown in Table 10. These coordinates were then
467 used to produce the drawing in Fig. 13 with points that marked the corners of slabs. By
468 calculating the corner coordinates of the slabs, it was found that the size of the slab was
469 extremely close to 6 m x 5 m. This demonstrates the positioning capability of the VRS system
470 with remarkably high accuracy to engineering drawings. In the future, when the P3-AT possesses
471 an image recognition technique, it will be able to autonomously recognize, position, and plot
472 desired objects under suitable inspection conditions without intervention from engineers.
473
 20

474
475 TABLE 10—Rigid pavement slabs recorded by the P3-AT through VRS.
476
Point Number X (mE) Y (mN) Distance between Points (m)
1 248664.356 2750401.119
2 248658.343 2750401.715 1-2 (6.04)
3 248658.842 2750406.749 2-3 (5.06)
4 248664.872 2750406.151 3-4 (6.06) / 1-4 (5.06)
5 248665.445 2750411.213 4-5 (5.09)
6 248659.393 2750411.784 5-6 (6.08) / 3-6 (5.06)
7 248659.944 2750416.818 6-7 (5.06)
8 248665.956 2750416.223 7-8 (6.04) / 5-8 (5.04)
9 248666.467 2750421.233 8-9 (5.04)
10 248660.471 2750421.852 9-10 (6.03) / 7-10 (5.06)
477

478 Conclusions
479 This study proposed the idea and framework of using autonomous robots in pavement
480 inspections. Two test sites situated 60 km apart, one with rigid pavement and the other with
481 flexible pavement, were studied. Through the control of MVPL programs, the ability of two VRS
482 systems, developed by Taiwan Control Signal Company Limited (CSCL) and Taiwan National
483 Land Surveying and Mapping Center (e-GPS), to provide an autonomous robot (P3-AT) with
484 positioning data on the two test sites was studied. This was done under static and dynamic
485 conditions whilst it traveled various distances of between 0.25 m to 20 m. Observations and
486 conclusions are given as follows:
487 • The tire pressure of the P3-AT was a vital determining factor for travel distance and
488 positioning. We set the tire pressure at 25 psi to carry out the static and dynamic tests.
489 However, the pressure should be adjusted for various robotic platforms adopted.
490 • In static testing, the difference between the prescribed distance and the actual distance of
491 movement was investigated. The actual distance of movement was calculated from Taiwan
492 Grid (X (mE), Y (mN)) coordinates provided by the VRS systems before and after the P3-
493 AT’s movement. The results showed that the standard deviations of fifteen measurements
494 were less than 0.03 m and RMS values were close to the prescribed distances regardless of
495 two VRS systems on the two test sites.
 21

496 • In dynamic testing, positioning data delivered from the VRS systems were recorded
497 continuously when the P3-AT traveled over prescribed distances. The results showed that the
498 two VRS systems were able to guide the P3-AT along an accurate moving path with a
499 reproducible error of less than 0.03 m on the two test sites.
500 • Pavement inspections require a high level of accuracy when attempting to position rutting,
501 surface distresses, and manholes on large areas of pavement. This study successfully
502 deployed the P3-AT to autonomously surveys distresses and manholes and to accurately plot
503 slabs on a rigid pavement.
504 • The P3-AT has a small volume and a low speed, and is suitable for small area inspections. In
505 addition, the P3-AT has the benefits of flexible and various modules, and is much cheaper
506 than the multi-functional inspection vehicle. This study confirms that the use of a P3-AT
507 integrated with the VRS positioning technique has the potential to provide significant
508 assistance in automatic pavement inspections in some specific areas, such as airports, and for
509 particular purposes, such as the QC/QA testing.

510 Acknowledgements
511 The authors would like to thank the National Science Council of Taiwan for their financial
512 support provided under the project of NSC 96-2628-E-159-002-MY3, and the VRS systems
513 support received from the Taiwan National Land Surveying and Mapping Center and the Taiwan
514 Control Signal Company Limited.

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565 2009, pp. 204–212.

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585 positioning using virtual reference stations,” Proc. 13th Int. Tech. Meeting of the Satellite
586 Division of the U.S. Inst. of Navigation, ION GPS-2000, Salt Lake City, September 19–22,
587 2000, pp. 123–131.
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595 [32] Microsoft Corporation, “Microsoft Robotics,” http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-
596 us/robotics/default.aspx, 2010.
597
 24

598 List of Figures

599

600 FIG. 1— The systematic framework: (A) Present pavement inspection system. (B) Autonomous
601 robot. (C) The autonomous robot framework for pavement inspections.
602 FIG. 2— VRS network operation [23].
603 FIG. 3— The architecture of the VRS system via GPRS [24].
604 FIG. 4— The MobileRobots P3-AT.
605 FIG. 5— The VRS system operation: (A) The Ntrip Client software. (B) VRS data access by
606 Ntrip Client. (C) P3-AT positioning quality reaches 0.01 m (centimeter-level accuracy).
607 FIG. 6— Test sites: (A) The flexible pavement site in MingHsin University of Science &
608 Technology (MUST) (N 24°85'97.47", E 120°98'80.76"). (B) The rigid pavement site in National
609 Taiwan University (NTU) (N 25°01'80.41", E 121°54'71.15").
610 FIG. 7— The flowchart of P3-AT’s movement control programmed by MVPL in MSRDS.
611 FIG. 8— Results from static VRS positioning tests (15 tests): (A) Flexible pavement (MUST), e-
612 GPS system, 0.25 m movement. (B) Rigid pavement (NTU), CSCL system, 5 m movement.
613 FIG. 9— Results from dynamic VRS positioning tests (3 tests): Flexible pavement (MUST),
614 CSCL system, 5 m positioning path.
615 FIG. 10— Schematic diagrams indicating locations of distresses and manholes on the MUST test
616 site.
617 FIG. 11— The flowchart of the autonomous surveys of distresses and manholes.
618 FIG. 12— Photographs of distress and manhole taken by the P3-AT (survey number 1, 4 and 5).
619 FIG. 13— The P3-AT positioning of rigid pavement slabs through VRS.
620
 25

621 (A)

622 (B)

Sensors

Inspection
Instrument

Data Analyses

Logic Unit

Actuators

Concurrent Process
623 (C)
624
625 FIG. 1— The systematic framework: (A) Present pavement inspection system, (B) Autonomous
626 robot, (C) The autonomous robot framework for pavement inspections.
627
628
 26

629
630
631 FIG. 2— VRS network operation [23].
632
 27

633
634
635 FIG. 3— The architecture of the VRS system via GPRS [24].
636
 28

SICK Laser
Rangefinder GPS Antenna

Leica SR530

HSDPA Broadband PTZ Camera

Wireless Modem System
(3.5 G)

Sonar Sensors

637
638
639 FIG. 4— The MobileRobots P3-AT.
640
 29

641 (A)

642 (B)

643 (C)
644
645 FIG. 5— The VRS system operation: (A) The Ntrip Client software, (B) VRS data access by Ntrip
646 Client, (C) P3-AT positioning quality reaches 0.01 m (centimeter-level accuracy).
647
 30

648
649 (A) (B)

650
651
652 FIG. 6— Test sites: (A) The flexible pavement site in MingHsin University of Science &
653 Technology (MUST) (N 24°85'97.47", E 120°98'80.76"), (B) The rigid pavement site in National
654 Taiwan University (NTU) (N 25°01'80.41", E 121°54'71.15").
655
 31

656
657
658 FIG.7— The flowchart of P3-AT’s movement control programmed by MVPL in MSRDS.
659
 32

0.30 Prescribed distance (m)

0.29 Actual distance of movement calculated from VRS (m)
0.28 0.270
0.27 0.262 0.258
Distance (m)

0.26 0.254
0.248 0.248
0.25
0.236
0.24 0.248 0.247
0.23 0.239 0.238 0.2410.243 0.240
0.235
0.22
0.21
0.20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Number of tests
660 (A)
5.05 Prescribed distance (m)
5.04 Actual distance of movement calculated from VRS (m)
5.03
5.02 5.007 5.0105.006
Distance (m)

5.008
5.01 4.998 5.001
5.00 5.009 4.993
4.99 5.000 4.997 5.001
4.98 4.993
4.989
4.97 4.977 4.976
4.96
4.95
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Number of tests
661 (B)
662
663 FIG. 8— Results from static VRS positioning tests (15 tests): (A) Flexible pavement (MUST), e-
664 GPS system, 0.25 m movement, (B) Rigid pavement (NTU), CSCL system, 5 m movement.
665
 33

6.00 First test

4.9366
4.6292
5.00
3.9921
Distance (m) 4.9702
4.00 3.2255
3.00 2.4655
1.6985
2.00
0.9434
1.00 0.3504
0.0438
0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Seconds
666
6.00 2nd test
4.9723
4.6770
5.00 4.0637
4.9825
Distance (m)

4.00 3.2934
2.5534
3.00
1.7862
2.00 1.0197
1.00 0.3841
0.0519
0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Seconds
667
6.00 3rd test
4.9927
4.7162
5.00 4.1443
5.0047
Distance (m)

4.00 3.3872
2.6175
3.00
1.8600
2.00 1.0902
1.00 0.4366
0.0753
0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Seconds
668
669
670 FIG. 9— Results from dynamic VRS positioning tests (3 tests): Flexible pavement (MUST),
671 CSCL system, 5 m positioning path.
 34

672
2750350
2750340 7

2750330 3
6
2750320 5
2750310 4

y (mN)
2750300 2
2750290
2750280
2750270
2750260 1

2750250
248730 248740 248750 248760 248770 248780 248790 248800 248810
x (mE)
673
674
675 FIG. 10— Schematic diagrams indicating locations of distresses and manholes on the MUST test
676 site.
677
 35

678
679
680 FIG.11— The flowchart of the autonomous surveys of distresses and manholes.
681
 36

682
683
684 FIG. 12— Photographs of distress and manhole taken by the P3-AT (survey numbers 1, 4 and 5).
685
 37

2750425
10
9
2750420
7
8
2750415
y (mN)

6
5
2750410
3 4
2750405
2 1
2750400
248657 248658 248659 248660 248661 248662 248663 248664 248665 248666 248667
x (mE)
686
687 FIG. 13— The P3-AT positioning of rigid pavement slabs through VRS.

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