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Advances in fibre optic based geotechnical monitoring systems for

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Article  in  International Journal of Mining Science and Technology · June 2018

DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmst.2018.06.007

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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Mining Science and Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijmst

Advances in fibre optic based geotechnical monitoring systems for

underground excavations
Hongkui Gong, Mehmet S. Kizil ⇑, Zhongwei Chen, Moe Amanzadeh, Ben Yang, Saiied M. Aminossadati
School of Mechanical and Mining Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Geotechnical stability is a major concern for the long-term safety and integrity of underground infras-
Received 17 August 2017 tructures such as tunnels, railway stations, mine shafts and hydraulic power chambers. An effective
Received in revised form 13 April 2018 geotechnical monitoring system is able to provide adequate warning to underground personnel prior
Accepted 11 June 2018
to any unexpected major geotechnical failure. This paper reviews the conventional geotechnical monitor-
Available online xxxx
ing sensors and the emerging Fibre Optic Sensing (FOS) techniques, pointing out their unique features
and major differences. Recent advances in various FOS based monitoring systems, including Brillouin
Keywords:
time domain distributed optical sensors and fibre Bragg grating (FBG) sensors, are investigated through
Underground geotechnical monitoring
Conventional geotechnical instruments
a critical review of the laboratory studies and field applications used for underground geotechnical mon-
Distributed optical fibre sensors itoring. Particular emphasis is given to fibre packaging, temperature compensation, installation methods
Fibre Bragg grating and instrumentation performance in the underground environment. A detailed discussion of the advan-
Brillouin optical analysis tages and limitations of each FOS monitoring system is also presented in this paper.
Ó 2018 Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of China University of Mining & Technology. This is an open
access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction
Underground infrastructures such as tunnels, mine roads,
power stations and oil storage facilities play a critical role in the
economy of any country. Due to the inherent uncertainty and com-
plexity of the geological conditions in an underground environ-
ment, rock stability is one of the major concerns during the
design and construction phase of any underground excavation.
Without an effective geotechnical monitoring scheme, unexpected
rock failure due to excessive rock deformation may lead to catas-
trophic injuries, fatalities and significant financial loss. For exam-
ple, roof failures alone account for 44% of the fatal accidents and
42% of the total fatalities in Indian coal mines between 1995 and
2000 [1]. Similar accidents have also occurred in civil infrastruc-
tures such as: West Virginia railroad tunnel collapse in 2009,
Hangzhou tunnel collapse, China in 2008 and the subway tunnel
collapse in Cologne, Germany in 2009 [2].
Conventionally, rock mass monitoring is based on mechanical
and electrical sensors, whereby the desired physical quantity being
measured is translated and transmitted as electric signal. This is
typically an advantageous method of sensing as these techniques
are well established, have proven reliability records and known
manufacturing costs [3]. However, these sensors can only provide
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: m.kizil@uq.edu.au (M.S. Kizil).
limited number of sensing points and the accuracy of the strain
measurements may be subject to electromagnetic interferences
from those mining machinery used underground. For the safety
concerns, the use of electrical components are likely to trigger
gas explosion in underground where combustible environment is
present without proper explosion-proof measures. In addition,
manually-read strain sensors such as extensometers and load cells
lack the capability to provide frequent and real time measure-
ments, and the necessity of manual reading unavoidably exposes
mine personnel to hazardous environment.
Over the past decade, fibre optic sensing (FOS) techniques have
been investigated as a superior alternative to electrical sensing for
a number of advantages: (a) immune to electromagnetic interfer-
ence and radio frequency interference; (b) intrinsically safe due
to the use of non-electrical sensor components; (c) light weight
and compact; (d) suitable for real time automated data acquisition
and (e) large number of sensing points [4,5]. FOS has proved to be
successful in structural monitoring for a wide range of civil engi-
neering applications such as bridges, dams, underground tunnels
and mines [6]. Innovative structural monitoring FOS systems allow
distributed measurement of strain at high spatial sampling rate
over a large monitoring area. Furthermore, these sensors provide
the ability to simultaneously measure a range of parameters on
the same network such as strain, temperature and deformation.
This paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of the
instrumentation of FOS techniques for underground excavations.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmst.2018.06.007
2095-2686/Ó 2018 Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of China University of Mining & Technology.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article in press as: Gong H et al. Advances in fibre optic based geotechnical monitoring systems for underground excavations. Int J Min Sci
Technol (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmst.2018.06.007
2 H. Gong et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology xxx (2018) xxx–xxx

The conventional geotechnical monitoring instruments are dis-

cussed in Section 2. This is followed by an overview of the FOS
technologies and their applications for underground geotechnical
monitoring in Sections 3 and 4, respectively. Some practical
aspects of FOS systems field implementation such as fibre encapsu-
lation methods, temperature compensation techniques and strain
transfer loss are covered in Section 5. Finally, a recommendation
on future research opportunities and gaps are provided.

2. Conventional geotechnical monitoring instruments

Generally, underground geotechnical monitoring involves mea-

suring multiple parameters such as strain/deformation, displace-
ment, stress and seismicity for rock mass stability. However, this
paper will only focus on strain and displacement sensors as exces-
sive rock mass movement is one of the major concerns in the sta-
bility of underground excavations. The choice and layout of
geotechnical monitoring instruments depend on the functions of
the roadway, the rock mass properties and the ground control
methodology in use. Fig. 1 illustrates some of the most widely used Fig. 2. Convergence indicators-suspension spring type (left); telescopic rod type
(right) [8].
rock mass monitoring instruments in underground coal mines.

2.1. Convergence stations

Convergence stations are designed to measure the relative

displacement between any two reference points around an excava-
tion. Some of typical types of convergence indicators are shown in
Fig. 2. Ghose and Ghosh investigated the daily roof-floor closure
rate using telescopic convergence rods in a freshly excavated
roadway for one month until the roof convergence rate decelerated
significantly [7]. Through back analysis of convergence measure-
ments, a mathematical expression was derived to predict the crit-
ical roof convergence based on the rock mass rating, roadway span
and roof density. Convergence stations have the advantage of easy
installation. However, only surface displacement around tunnel
can be measured, which ignores the strain changes within the rock
mass. Also, installation of these devices often block access way for
excavation activities.

2.2. Extensometers

Rock mass embedded monitoring devices such as rod, wire,

magnet extensometers can monitor relative displacement between
anchored points at various depths in large volume rock mass. Fig. 3
shows two types of extensometer widely used in underground coal
mines. In a field study at an underground coal mine in New South
Wales, Australia, the mechanical behavior of laminated coal mine
Fig. 1. Typical instrumentation for strata monitoring for underground coal mines.
Fig. 3. Multi-point extensometers - wire (left); magnet (right).
roof strata and its implications for roof support design was inves-
tigated using a combination of wire and sonic extensometers.
These instruments were installed across the roof span to provide
roof deformation at different horizons as well as the height to
which roof softening occurred during different mining stages [9].
Wire extensometers are also routinely used to monitor roof strata
movement for underground coal mines in Australia. In UK and
Canada, two-anchor wire extensometers (tell-tales) are installed
at every 20 m in roadways and in all intersections [10]. Sonic probe
extensometers with up to 20 anchors are installed immediately
after the roof bolting as part of the roof monitoring program in
South Africa [11].
For multi-anchor rod extensometers, the increased number of
anchors will normally require a larger sized borehole. This reduces
the measurement accuracy of rock movements caused by the per-
turbed stress field between the rock mass and the extensometer
[12]. Wire extensometers usually require smaller boreholes. How-
ever, the steel wires will have difficulty in maintaining tension
levels due to the kinking effect, resulting in lower accuracy for wire
extensometers over the long term. [13]. Roof displacement with

Please cite this article in press as: Gong H et al. Advances in fibre optic based geotechnical monitoring systems for underground excavations. Int J Min Sci
Technol (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmst.2018.06.007
 H. Gong et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology xxx (2018) xxx–xxx
mechanical multi-point extensometers requires periodic manual
recording, resulting in difficulty in reading the values for high mine
roadway.
2.3. Instrumented rock bolts
Instrumented rock bolts rely on strain gauges installed in the
roof bolts to measure the axial load and strain along the bolts, as
shown in Fig. 4. The strain gauges, such as vibrating wire strain
gauges can be installed inside a short length of standard threaded
rock bolt or rebar, which is then connected via a coupling to a
longer length of the same material. Other commercial instru-
mented bolts have electrical strain gauges attached in pairs along
surface slots that are further sealed by resin. Shabanimashcool
et al. [14] conducted a field investigation to study the effect of
chain pillar and disturbed zone such as the fractured and cave-in
zones on the loading of roof bolts at gates. The load and bending
moment along the roof bolts were calculated using the strain mea-
surements along 2.5 m long instrumented bolts with seven pairs of
strain gauges. Laboratory analysis was also reported using strain
gauged roof bolts to investigate the bolt response to shear stress,
in terms of the distributed axial and bending strain along the
length of the bolts [15].
There are several practical issues in using strain gauge instru-
mented roof bolts. Electrical strain gauges are very vulnerable to
deterioration by water and they must be properly protected from
damp environment [16]. Also, due to the thermal expansion, the
thermally induced strain needs to be compensated for if only
mechanical strain is desired. Instrumented rock bolts are often
not compliant with surround rock mass because the steel bolts
are generally much stiffer than the rock, causing slip to occur
between the bolt and rock. This reduces the strain recorded by
the rock bolts [17].
2.4. Integrated real time remote monitoring
In most cases, underground geotechnical monitoring involves
monitoring large geological structures such as faults. Therefore,
the present monitoring systems incorporate the information and
networking technologies that enable continuous and remotely
controlled automatic monitoring of the structure to improve oper-
ation safety and data accuracy. Automatic data recording exten-
someters were firstly introduced to underground coal mines
using electric transducers [18]. To understand the roof behavior
and failure process in coal mines, Shen et al. conducted a field
experiment using an integrated real time monitoring system with
extensometers, stress-meters, and a seismic sensor to measure
rock mass deformation, stress change, and seismicity in roadway
roofs during mining-induced failure [19], as shown in Fig. 5. Qiao
et al. [20] proposed a geotechnical monitoring system for the sta-
bility of the stability of an underground oil storage cavern during
construction phase. Surface rock movement such as convergence
and crown settlement was monitored by electronic total station
and extensometers. Vibration-string displacement meter and rock
bolts, which were installed through the surrounding access tun-
nels, were used to measure the internal rock displacement and
stress induced in the bolts. The layout of the monitoring points
Fig. 4. Illustration of an instrumented rock bolt.
Please cite this article in press as: Gong H et al. Advances in fibre optic based geotechnical monitoring systems for underground excavations. Int J Min Sci
Technol (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmst.2018.06.007
3
Fig. 5. Integrated real time roof monitoring for underground coal mines [19].
was determined by taking into account the engineering character-
istics and geological conditions of the cavern.
3. Fibre optic strain sensing technologies
Fibre optic sensors can generally be categorized into extrinsic
and intrinsic sensors, based on whether the sensing region is
where the optical signal leaves the cable and is modulated in
another medium; or into distributed, quasi-distributed and point
sensors, based on the continuity of the sensing points. Table 1 lists
the FOS sensors used in underground geotechnical monitoring.
3.1. Distributed fibre optic sensors
Distributed FOS systems use low cost telecom-grade fibre optic
cable as an intrinsic sensing material for both sensing and trans-
mission purposes. It provides an efficient means of obtaining a
large number of point measurements along the fibre based on
the optical properties of scattered light. Fig. 6 shows the main com-
ponents in the backscattered light when a section of optical fibre is
deformed, including Rayleigh, Raman and Brillouin scattering. Ray-
leigh and Brillouin scattering are capable of detecting temperature
or strain changes, which are modulated by intensity and frequency
of the scattered light respectively. Raman scattering is only
induced by the temperature change and it is modulated by the
intensity of the light. The working principle of Brillouin scattering
sensing have been widely discussed in the literature [21,22]. There
are two broad categories of Brillouin sensing systems: Brillouin
optical time domain reflectometry (BOTDR) and Brillouin optical
time domain analysis (BOTDA). A BOTDR instrument launches an
input pulse from one end into a single mode fibre and observes
the spontaneous backscattered light generated by the pulse at
the same end of the fibre. BODTA system, in contrast, requires a
looped fibre configuration where a continuous laser pump is prop-
agated in the opposite direction of the pulsed probe light. The
interaction between the probe and pump light results in simulated
scattering that leads to a larger scattering efficiency and an ampli-
fied probe signal [23]. BOTDR has an obvious advantage over
BOTDA because it only requires the access to one end of the fibre.
If the fibre breaks somewhere, measurements can still be obtained
along the fibre up to that breaking point. For BOTDA, a break in the
optical fibre at any point will inevitably blind the entire system.
The main disadvantage of BOTDR is the significantly low Brillouin
backscattering signal relative to the incident light, which leads to
poor signal-to-noise ratio and longer data acquisition time for
BOTDR compared to BOTDA. Due to the inherent lifetime of pho-
ton, Brillouin scattering system can provide a spatial resolution
of 1 m. In recent years, the newly developed Pulse-Pre-Pump
4 H. Gong et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology xxx (2018) xxx–xxx

Table 1
Fibre optic sensors for underground geotechnical monitoring.

Sensing method Sensors Parametersa Resolutionb Rangec Modulation method

Point Fabry-Perot Strain/Temperature 0.01% gauge length 10,000 le Phase
Quasi-distributed FBG Strain/Temperature 1–2 le/0.1 °C 5000 le Wavelength
Distributed Rayleigh (OTDR) Strain/Temperature 1 m/1°C 2000 m Intensity
Rayleigh (OFDR) Strain/Temperature 1 cm/0.1 °C 100 m Frequency
Brillouin (BOTDA) Strain/Temperature 0.1 m/0.3 °C 1000 m Frequency
Raman Temperature 1 °C 8000 m Intensity
a
Can be configured to measure displacement, pressure, vibration, acceleration and acoustic.
b
Represents accuracy for point and quasi-distributed sensors and spatial resolution for distributed sensors, respectively.
c
Represents sensing distance for distributed sensors. Resolution deteriorates with increasing sensing distance.

and thermal-elastic constant of the fibre core, which defines the

Fig. 6. Spectrum of the backscattered light in an optical fibre [25].
BOTDA (PPP-BOTDA) sensing technique improves largely the spa-
tial resolution to the order of 0.1 m [24]. Given such high spatial
resolution, PPP-BOTDA technique is able to detect local strain con-
centration within a relatively small scale structure.
3.2. Quasi-distributed FBG sensors
Quasi-distributed optic systems include fibre Bragg grating
(FBG) and long period grating (LPG). They use some local fibre sec-
tions along the fibre to act as sensing elements in structure health
monitoring. The working principle and interrogation method of
FBG is illustrated in Fig. 7. FBGs are sections of periodic refractive
index variation written in the optical fibre core, resulting in the
reflection of light with a specific wavelength from the propagating
optical signal. Any environmental disturbance such as temperature
and load alters period of refractive index variation with wave-
length shift. The wavelength shift is linearly correlated with the
strain and temperature change, and is expressed as [26]:
thermal sensitivity, respectively. With a central wavelength of
1550 nm, the strain and thermal sensitivity of an FBG is approxi-
mately 1.2 pm/le and 13 pm/°C [27].
FBG can be multiplexed based on time division or wavelength
division. The sensing ability of wavelength division multiplexed
FBG array is limited by the operating wavelength range of the laser.
The gratings in each channel have to share one wavelength spec-
trum, there is a trade-off between the number of gratings and
the dynamic range (strain and temperature variations) of each
grating to avoid the overlapping of shifted wavelength peaks
[29]. Time division multiplexing (TDM) employs a pulsed broad-
band light source and distinguishes gratings by the time taken to
return to the detector [30]. The time for the return pulses is gov-
erned by the distance from the detector, which is specified by its
integrated position in the fibre or through use of fibre delay lines.
The main restriction in a TDM system is that the sensors must be
sufficiently far apart in the order of 1 m for pulses returning from
adjacent sensors to be separated temporally [31]. In contrast to
FBG, LPG has a period grating that considerably exceeds the wave-
length of radiation propagating in the fibre. The physical parame-
ters such as strain and temperature are interrogated by analyzing
the spectrum of transmitted light, rather than that of reflected light
for FBG.
4. Applications of FOS in underground mine geotechnical
monitoring
4.1. Distributed fibre optic sensors

DkB The focus of this section is to present the published geotechni-

¼ ða þ nÞDT þ ð1  pe Þe
kB
where DkB is the wavelength shift induced by strain e and temper-
ature DT; pe is the photo-elastic coefficient defining the strain sen-
sitivity of FBG; a and n represent the thermal expansion constant
Fig. 7. Spectrum, wavelength shift and working principle of FBG sensors [28].
ð1Þ
cal applications using distributed scattering sensors in under-
ground rock mass monitoring. In 2006, a six-month geotechnical
monitoring trial was conducted in a Chile mine by a BOTDR-
based strain sensing system to monitor the mining induced
changes in the state of underground roadway [32]. Two groups of
optical fibre sensors are fixed to the rock bolts from the ceiling
and tunnel wall respectively with 3 m interval. The undercut min-
ing zone is located 60 m above the tunnel, as shown in Fig. 8. Elon-
gation strain up to 2500 me was measured in the optical fibre
during the undercutting and ore extraction activities. The main
limitation of this system is that it could only qualitatively detect
the rock deformation. To obtain quantitative horizontal and verti-
cal rock movement, a proper geometrical algorithm needs to be
developed.
An innovative BOTDR-based distributed strain sensing network
was evaluated qualitatively by Wang and Luan [33] for the moni-
toring and detection of mine roof collapse. The sensing fibre is fully
attached to the structure with epoxy resin and the entire roof
sensing area is partitioned into various 1 m grids by an orthogonal
fibre layout, as shown in Fig. 9. This design can fully separate the
four strain gage signals which are reflected by optical fibre sensor

Please cite this article in press as: Gong H et al. Advances in fibre optic based geotechnical monitoring systems for underground excavations. Int J Min Sci
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 H. Gong et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology xxx (2018) xxx–xxx
Fig. 8. Sketch of BOTDR distributed underground mine tunnel convergence
monitoring system [32].
Fig. 9. Instrumentation layout of BOTDR based mine roof monitoring grid [33].
in different time so as to improve the measurement accuracy.
However, positioning of each fibre segment means it is challenging
to map the strain distribution across the entire monitoring surface.
The BOTDA scattering technique has been applied extensively
in a wide range of civil structure heath monitoring (SHM) projects
including tunnels, piles, pipelines and bridges [34–36]. In the min-
ing industry, a very limited number of case studies on underground
rock mass monitoring have been identified so far. In 2012, a field
investigation was conducted in an underground metalliferous
mine where temperature compensated strain sensing fibres were
installed in monitoring breakthrough holes drilled through 25 m
thick, 1000 m deep sill pillars [37]. A BOTDA system with looped
fibre configuration monitored the mining-induced strain in five sill
pillars with optical fibre grouted in each borehole, as seen in
Fig. 10. The field strain response measured by the FOS system is
qualitatively consistent with the deformation readings obtained
from the benchmark extensometers, although details and absolute
Fig. 10. BOTDA underground mine pillar monitoring system [37].
Please cite this article in press as: Gong H et al. Advances in fibre optic based geotechnical monitoring systems for underground excavations. Int J Min Sci
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5
magnitude differ. The authors suggested such quantitative discrep-
ancy was partly due to strain transfer factor among the fibre-grout-
rock mass system as well as the large signal noise (up to 400 me)
that conceals the true rock deformation with the similar magni-
tude. Madjdabadi et al. simulated the borehole-grout-fibre interac-
tion to investigate the strain transfer between the rock mass and
the optical fibre [38]. A number of factors that affect the strain
transfer are examined including borehole diameter, grout stiffness,
rock mass plasticity and the existence of joints. The authors further
evaluated the BOTDA for measuring extension and shear deforma-
tion in rock. For the extensional test with up to 5000 me, the results
showed a clear linear correlation between applied strain and
frequency shift for all strained lengths above half the spatial reso-
lution of the system [39]. However, the sensing cable is less sensi-
tive to lateral movement. A parabolic relationship between applied
strain and frequency shift resulted in small shear displacements
not being able to be detected by the instrument.
The applications of high spatial resolution PPP-BOTDA in strain
sensing have been primarily limited to laboratory settings so far.
Xu et al. investigated the performance of PPP-BOTDA for rock
deformation under deep mining conditions [40]. A physical simula-
tion model of 400 cm in length, 40 cm in width, and 144.5 cm in
height was created with a 12 m long optical fibre loop inclined at
25° laid in the rock strata. With this experimental set-up, a
dynamic roof deformation of up to 15,500 me as well as develop-
ment height of the caving and fissure zones in the roof can be char-
acterized during the advancement of the working face. Recently, a
PPP-BOTDA system was utilized in monitoring the internal move-
ment of roof and floor strata under simulated mining activities
for a two-seam coal mining physical model [41]. A tight buffed
sensing fibre with polyurethane jacket was installed in the vertical
grooves in the model using gypsum concrete. The similarity test
results showed that the strain distribution measurements from
the sensing fibre was in good agreement with those obtained using
photogrammetry method. The formation and development of char-
acteristic tensile zone can be identified during different mining
stages.
Alternative ways to improve spatial resolution of strain sensing
include using optical frequency domain techniques (OFDR). OFDR
based strain sensors are able to provide a spatial resolution in
the order of centimeters. However, their sensing distance is gener-
ally less than 100 m [42]. Very limited applications of geotechnical
monitoring using OFDR have been reported. Lanticq et al. evalu-
ated OFDR and BOTDR systems in detecting embedded cavity in
railway tunnels [43]. The results from the 1:1 scale laboratory
experiment demonstrated better strain sensing performance of
the OFDR system in determining the size of the embedded cavities.
With a high spatial resolution of the system, 5 mm embedded cav-
ities were detected.
Forbes and Spearing reported a laboratory strain monitoring
study along fully grouted rock bolts using a Rayleigh scattering
technique that provides spatial resolution of approximately 5
mm [44]. The standard telecom fibres are installed in diametrically
opposed grooves in the rebar samples, replacing the conventional
foil resistance strain gauges. Laboratory test results demonstrate
that the measured strain profile along the grouted bolts agreed
well with theoretical values under bending and axial pull loading,
with less than 5% deviation. However, for a simple three-block
shear test, the strain profiles were merely qualitatively similar to
those predicted by theory and numerical modelling.
By integrating the telecom-grade optical fibre to the geotechni-
cal structure, a large number of highly sensitive and spatially
resolved strain measurements can be obtained. Automated data
acquisition and remote control can be realized, minimizing the
underground personal exposure for data collection. However,
several open questions still remain. First of all, the strain limit of
6 H. Gong et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology xxx (2018) xxx–xxx
fused-silica fibre used for long distance sensing is approximately
3–5% [45], limiting its applications in macrostrain environment.
Secondly, with a spatial resolution of 1 m, only the average strain
along any 1 m segment along the fibre can be measured using con-
ventional Brillouin sensors. This makes it unsuitable to character-
ize the strain distribution over small scale structure such as
crack detection on concrete pile or underground coal mine roof
separation monitoring where a local strain concentration is
expected. PPP-BOTDA and Rayleigh scattering sensors are able to
achieve a sub-cm spatial resolution, however, the maximum sens-
ing range limits their applications in large scale structures.
4.2. Quasi-distributed FBG sensors
In the past few decades, various FBG based optical sensors have
been developed and successfully used for measuring displacement
and strain in geotechnical structures. The FBG sensing system was
proposed for the first time in long term geotechnical monitoring in
underground excavations of mines [46]. As detailed in Fig. 11, three
FBG arrays with ten gratings each were mechanically anchored to
the ultimate roof, hanging wall and foot wall respectively. These
were used to monitor load and displacement changes in rock mass
during the sub-level stopping.
Gage et al. developed fibre optically instrumented rock strain
and temperatures strips (FROSTS) to measure in-situ strain and
temperature profile depth in a deep underground metalliferous
mine [47]. A FBG array of six FBG strain and six temperature FBG
sensors was glued to six steel strip sections 30 cm apart, which is
the effective gauge length of each strain FBG. The strip was
installed in the borehole via a two stage grouting process and it
monitored temperature and temperature-compensated strain
simultaneously 2 m into the roof. During the grout curing and field
monitoring, dynamic changes in the strain and temperature were
recorded with a maximum strain of 1500 me induced. The perfor-
mance of the FROSTS was further validated in a laboratory setting
Fig. 11. Layout of FBG sensing arrays in underground roof and hanging wall
monitoring system [46].
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using electrical strain gauges attached to the same testing instru-
ment. Stress-strain curves obtained from two instrumented strips
attached with electrical strain gauges and FBG sensors demon-
strated well agreement. [48]. Li et al. developed an FBG instru-
mented 3D displacement sensor for monitoring the deformation
of an underground cavern group during deep excavations [49]. In
it, four optical fibres are adhered into the orthogonal grooves of a
plastic sensing bar and covered with epoxy resin. The authors
determined the relations between the axial strain measurements
from the FBG array and the 3D transverse deflection along the
sensing bar.
Application of FBG strain sensors for long-term surveillance of
tunnels was presented by Nellen et al. [50]. The FBGs were embed-
ded in glass fibre reinforced polymers (GFRPs) of two different
diameters. The rock bolts were made of this GFRP and tested in a
tunnel in Switzerland for a period of 1 year. Maximum range of
strain that could be measured was 1.6%.
The main limitation of the FBG strain sensing system is that typ-
ical bare FBG fibre can only withstand 5000 me. To address this
issue, a FBG strain sensing system with novel sensor heads has
been developed in recent years using the concept of sensitivity-
increasing, which is based on variation of stiffness for different
materials. A number of FBG based roof separation sensors using
this design principle have been developed and tested recently in
underground coal mines in China. Zhao et al. reported a wide strain
range FBG sensor for coal mine roof monitoring [51]. This FBG-
based instrument is developed on the concept proposed for surface
mine large crack monitoring [52]. The sensor head consists of two
sets of polyethylene FBG fibre and a spring connection. In this
structure, most of the total strain is taken by the spring and the
FBG feels only a very small part of the strain, which is proportional
to the total strain. The ratio can be quantified by the difference in
the elastic modulus between the optical fibre and the spring. The
experimental results show that the sensor has excellent linearity
and repetition, with a maximum deformation of 50 mm and a res-
olution of 0.06 mm. Another field application was reported using
single anchor FBG-based displacement sensors to monitor coal
mine roadway roof separation [53]. Five sensors were installed
along the centerline of the roof with 10 m interval where the exca-
vation blasting is about 500 m away. Roof separations between the
upper competent and lower soft strata during three major excava-
tion blasting were recorded in Fig. 12.
Fig. 13 shows an improved sensor design that includes three
independent FBG units coupled in parallel in one circular steel
panel [54]. When the roof separation occurs, the steel wire pulls
the spring, resulting in stress applied to the FBG sensor fixed on
the steel panel. Prior to field measurement, the roof separation
needs to be calibrated against wavelength shift of the FBGs by
transverse load applied. These sensors can be easily recycled by
removal of the steel wire and redeployed in other mine locations.
5. Applications of FOS in geotechnical monitoring for
underground civil structures
Underground civil infrastructures such as transportation tun-
nels, railway stations and oil storage caverns are characterized by
sophisticated design and long service lifetime. Continuous aging
of these underground infrastructures potentially increases the dif-
ficulty in structure monitoring and maintenance. This has moti-
vated civil engineers to implement reliable, real time and long
term structure health monitoring (SHM) systems. While for most
mining applications the optical fibres are embedded in the rock
mass for monitoring internal rock mass deformation or displace-
ment, civil engineers are more focused on the overall convergence
 H. Gong et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology xxx (2018) xxx–xxx
Fig. 12. Roof displacement during 4000 min monitored by four FBG displacement sensors [53]
Fig. 13. Multi-anchored FBG roof separation sensor and its field instrumentation
[54].
of tunnel lining. In this case, sensing fibres are often attached to the
tunnel surface.
Klar et al. [55] incorporated analytical and empirical models with
strain inputs derived from horizontally laid distributed optical fibre
to present 2D and 3D profiles of tunneling induced ground displace-
ment. Metje et al. [56] presented a FBG-instrumented smart rod for
monitoring surface deformation of underground tunnel lining. Four
FBG arrays were grooved into each face of the square fibre glass rod
which further fixed to the structure surface. Laboratory testing
showed that the sensing system was able to measure the rotation
and lateral movements of 0.5° and 0.1 mm between fixing points.
Li et al. [57] successfully combined the FBG and BOTDR techniques
into one network to record the strain fluctuations on tunnel wall
caused by the wall pressure alternation between dry and wet sea-
sons. The monitoring system consisted of single end distributed
fibre and ten FBG arrays encapsulated in the grooved copper sheet.
Each FBG array monitored the surface strain from various points at
tunnel circumference, as seen in Fig. 14. Another novel application
of FOS in tunnel displacement monitoring was reported using mul-
ticore FBG cable, which was designed to monitor the shape of the
optical cable fixed between two tunnel lining sections [58]. Curva-
ture of the cable induced by the tunnel surface movement was deter-
mined by the differential strain from pairs of concentric FBGs. In
Fig. 14. Layout of surface mounted FBG and BOTDR sensing network for tunnel
structure monitoring [57].
Please cite this article in press as: Gong H et al. Advances in fibre optic based geotechnical monitoring systems for underground excavations. Int J Min Sci
Technol (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmst.2018.06.007
7
recent years, there is an increasing trend for the industry to use
low cost distributed optical sensors to monitor the large scale under-
ground civil structures. Mohamad et al. introduced the BOTDR sens-
ing system in monitoring twin tunnel interaction [59]. Continuous
sensing cables were fixed to tunnel lining with pulley wheels and
the deformation of tunnel lining due to the adjacent tunneling activ-
ities was measured by the distributed circumferential strains along
the optical cable. With this configuration, the tunnel deformation
was assumed to be a result of pure bending, ignoring any potential
axial thrust. The author highlighted future work was necessary to
embed the optical cable in the tunnel lining so that both axial strain
and bending strain can be measured. A similar BOTDR based fibre
optic strain sensing system was reported in a case study of a tunnel
lining deformation induced by nearby construction in London [60].
For temperature compensation, separate loose tube optical cables
were running along the tight buffed strain sensing cable in the
tunnel lining.
6. Technical issues in the FOS instrumentation
6.1. Encapsulation techniques for optical sensing fibres
Although there are a number of strain sensing applications in
which the bare FBG fibre is attached directly to the structure and
covered by epoxy resin [61,62], extra care should be taken during
installation because the bare fibres are fragile under excessive
external loading and bending. In most cases, suitable encapsulation
is required for the bare FBG fibre to survive the harsh installation
and operating environment in the field. Fig. 15 includes some inno-
vative FBG encapsulation techniques have been used to protect the
bare fibres.
Zhou et al. [63] demonstrated a metal slice based encapsulation
FBG strain sensor, in which the bare FBG is glued to the mental
base. Such sensors can be easily attached to the surface of metal
or concrete bodies. Another common FBG encapsulation method
is to enclose bare FBG fibre with a metal tube supported by anchor-
age holders. By mounting the encapsulated sensor on the structure
surface, the FBGs effectively measure the average strain between
adjacent anchorage holders. Schulz et al. developed a long gauge
FBG sensor designed for surface applications with large strain
value [64]. The FBGs are encapsulated in a steel tube with two
fixing points that define the effective gauge length and can be used
to monitor average strain between two mounting points on the
structure surface. These encapsulated sensors need to be calibrated
before use since the sensitivity of the bare FBG may be changed by
the encapsulation materials. Improvement has been made by using
fibre reinforced polymer as encapsulation material [63]. Experi-
mental results showed this method can lead to the same strain
sensibility factor being achieved between FRP-FBG bar and the
bare FBG, with the measurement precision of 1–2 me. In addition
to the surface mounting methods, sensing fibres can also be inte-
grated within a structure such as load bearing cables during the
manufacturing process to monitor the material aging and stress
8 H. Gong et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology xxx (2018) xxx–xxx
Fig. 15. Encapsulation techniques for optical strain sensing fibres: (a) Metal slice encapsulated FBG sensor [63]; (b) Long gauge FBG sensor [64]; (c) Smartprofile temperature
compensated distributed strain sensing fibre [37]; (d) FBG integrated structural cable [65]; (e, f) Customised distributed strain sensing fibre [2].
distribution [65]. Ngoi et al. [66] incorporated the FBG coaxially in
a cylindrical silicone rubber tube. Such packaging makes it useful
for sensing transverse loading characterized by the wavelength
peak. Sham evaluated the impact of coating material of distributed
optical fibre on the strain transfer loss for underground tunnel rock
deformation [2]. The author tested five different tight buffed opti-
cal cables in the laboratory setting under incremental load and the
results showed that the sensing cable with a combination of PA
protective outer coat, stainless steel metal tube and high bonding
inner coat can achieve the highest long-term durability and strain
transfer rate.
6.2. Cross-sensitivity between temperature and strain
Since both frequency shift in Brillouin scattering and wave-
length shift in FBG systems are subject to strain-temperature
cross-sensitivity, a number of researchers have presented a num-
ber of temperature compensation techniques for cases when only
the pure mechanical strain is desired.
Temperature compensation can be achieved with different
instrumentation methods. One of the solutions is to use two clo-
sely spaced FBG arrays in the same fibre. Song et al. [67] developed
an FBG based sensor head with two FBGs closely embedded in ser-
ies in a hollow glass tube. As shown in Fig. 16, both ends of FBG G1
were attached to the inner wall of the glass tube with epoxy and
thus the strain induced elongation of G1 is negligible, while FBG
G2 responded to both temperature and strain. For this technique,
as the two FBGs share the same optical spectrum, the nominated
Bragg wavelength should be allowed for sufficient space to avoid
the peak overlap.
Fig. 17 presented a roadside slope monitoring system using
structural soldier pile and two independent FBG arrays. The FBG
strain array is glued directly to the beam while the FBG strain free
temperature array is firstly packaged in steel tube and then glued
paralleled to the strain array [68]. Similar instrumentation meth-
ods were reported in measuring the far end bending deformation
of a cantilever beam [69]. Since this technique utilizes separate
channels for temperature compensation, it is ideal for strain sens-
ing system with more FBGs required in each fibre.
Fig. 16. Temperature compensated strain sensor using one FBG array [67]
Please cite this article in press as: Gong H et al. Advances in fibre optic based geotechnical monitoring systems for underground excavations. Int J Min Sci
Technol (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmst.2018.06.007
Fig. 17. Temperature compensated strain sensor using two FBG array [68].
Another innovative solution for temperature compensation is to
combine an FBG with an LPG. With a longer period gratings written
on the fibre during the manufacturing process, LPG sensors are
more sensitive to temperature compared to FBG. By using this fea-
ture, the pure strain measurement on the FBG can be derived using
the large difference in temperature responses between LPG and
FBG [70]. In a BOTDA based rock monitoring system in an under-
ground metalliferous mine, a multi-fibre optic cable was used to
provide temperature compensated distributed strain within 25 m
long mine pillars [37]. The sensing cable consists of two bonded
and two free single-mode optical fibres embedded in a polyethy-
lene thermoplastic jacket. The bonded fibres were used for strain
monitoring while the other two were isolated from external strain
for temperature measurements.
6.3. Strain transfer loss between structure and optical fibre
The use of multiple layers of protective coating materials will
generally result in the full strain on the structure not passed
through to the fibre core. A portion of strain is absorbed by these
protective coating and any bonding materials, resulting in a strain
transfer loss.
Researchers have focused on better understanding the strain
transfer mechanism and on developing analytical models to deter-
mine the strain transfer coefficient between the host structure and
the fibre core. Farhad and Yuan studied the mechanics of bond and
interface shear transfer within fibre coating layers [71]. The authors
derived and validated mathematical expressions relating the strain
transfer coefficient to the stiffness of glass core, coating materials
and the gauge length, based on the assumptions of perfect bonding
and linear elastic materials used. Further research extended this the-
oretical model to considering coating materials with non-linear
elastic behaviors, assuming elastic fibre core and elasto-plastic
coating [72]. Specific mathematical expressions have been derived
for four stress-strain stages of the plastic coating: elastic phase,
 H. Gong et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology xxx (2018) xxx–xxx
elasto-plastic phase, complete plastic phase, and post plastic phase.
Li et al. [73] recently introduced the mechanical properties (i.e.
Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio) of the bonding layers into the the-
oretical strain transfer model for the FBG sensors. The model valida-
tion experiments showed that metal welding as adhesive bonding in
surface mounting method can achieve a strain transfer coefficient of
99.2% compared to 89.8% for organic epoxy. The impact of thickness
and mechanical properties of bonding materials on strain transfer
rate was also investigated through numerical analysis for a multi-
layer-coated optical fibre design [74]. The simulation results
showed that the strain transfer loss is linearly related to the mechan-
ical properties of bonding and packaging materials. Specifically, the
strain loss was reduced to less than 2.5% when thin bonding layer of
400 me with low Poisson’s ratio of 0.1 was used.
Other practical issues of FOS in underground strain monitoring
include transverse load, bending strain, spectral degradation and
irradiation. Ding et al. [75] studied the long term effect of tight
buffed fibre jacket on distributed strain measurements and
observed creep deformation and stress relaxation on the sensing
fibres.
7. Conclusions
This paper presented the advances in underground geotechnical
monitoring technologies, particularly fibre optic sensing (FOS) sys-
tems and their applications. Limitations of conventional mechanical
and electrical sensors were discussed including the lack of real time
data acquisition, measurement inaccuracy due to electromagnetic
interference, and limited number of sensing points required for
large-scale underground infrastructures. In order to address these
issues, various laboratory and field studies using FOS techniques
have been undertaken to investigate their suitability and reliability
in monitoring underground rock mass deformations. An FOS system
can be directly installed on the rock surface to monitor the surface
convergence, embedded in the rock mass to obtain internal strain
profile, or developed into a smart sensor head for large strain appli-
cations such as monitoring of roof separation in underground coal
mines. Three dimensional rock movements can be interpolated from
FOS strain measurements and geometric algorithms.
FOS systems have demonstrated many advantages over the con-
ventional sensors in providing reliable, real time and distributed
measurements, however, there are still some major concerns in
relation to their wider applications. These include: (a) the limited
strain measurement range due to the low strain limit of the widely
used silica fibres; (b) lack of standardized packaging techniques
resulting in varied calibration factors for different sensors; (c) com-
promise between spatial resolution and sensing distance for dis-
tributed FOS systems and; (d) the strain transfer loss due to the
interactions among the rock-grout-fibre system.
Future studies should focus on the development of FOS smart
sensor heads, which would be capable of providing distributed
measurements in large strain environments, optimisation of fibre
encapsulation and installation procedure to achieve better compli-
ance among the rock-grout-fibre system and improving the inter-
rogation technique for distributed sensing systems for higher
spatial resolution. In addition, the development of FOS systems
with wireless remote data retrieval technology should be pursued
for large scale underground structures.
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