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Survivability of integrated PVDF film sensors to accelerated ageing conditions

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DOI: 10.1088/0964-1726/22/6/065020

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Smart Mater. Struct. 22 (2013) 065020 (12pp) doi:10.1088/0964-1726/22/6/065020

Survivability of integrated PVDF film

sensors to accelerated ageing conditions in
aeronautical/aerospace structures
E Guzman1 , J Cugnoni1 , T Gmür1 , P Bonhôte2 and A Schorderet2
1
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), STI-LMAF, Bâtiment MEC, Station 9, CH-1015
Lausanne, Switzerland
2
Haute Ecole d’Ingénierie et de Gestion du Canton de Vaud (HEIG-VD), Route de Cheseaux 1,
CH-1401 Yverdon-Les-Bains, Switzerland

E-mail: thomas.gmuer@epfl.ch

Received 22 November 2012, in final form 12 April 2013

Published 8 May 2013
Online at stacks.iop.org/SMS/22/065020
Abstract
This work validates the use of integrated polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) film sensors for
dynamic testing, even after being subjected to UV-thermo-hygro-mechanical accelerated
ageing conditions. The verification of PVDF sensors’ survivability in these environmental
conditions, typically confronted by civil and military aircraft, is the main concern of the study.
The evaluation of survivability is made by a comparison of dynamic testing results provided
by the PVDF patch sensors subjected to an accelerated ageing protocol, and those provided by
neutral non-aged sensors (accelerometers). The available measurements are the time-domain
response signals issued from a modal analysis procedure, and the corresponding frequency
response functions (FRF). These are in turn used to identify the constitutive properties of the
samples by extraction of the modal parameters, in particular the natural frequencies. The
composite specimens in this study undergo different accelerated ageing processes. After
several weeks of experimentation, the samples exhibit a loss of stiffness, represented by a
decrease in the elastic moduli down to 10%. Despite the ageing, the integrated PVDF sensors,
subjected to the same ageing conditions, are still capable of providing reliable data to carry out
a close followup of these changes. This survivability is a determinant asset in order to use
integrated PVDF sensors to perform structural health monitoring (SHM) in the future of
full-scale composite aeronautical structures.
(Some figures may appear in colour only in the online journal)

1. Introduction to manufacture mechanically critical airframe components

Polymer-based composite materials belong to the family
of ultra-light structural materials, used massively in recent
years in military and civil aircraft, but in other fields
like civil and automotive engineering as well. In spite of
their exceptionally high mechanical performances, many
aspects of their behaviour, when confronted with natural
environmental ageing factors such as vibrations, impacts,
heat, cold, chemical corrosive atmosphere, moisture and
ultraviolet (UV) radiation, are not yet completely understood.
Under these circumstances, it is widely accepted that special
caution needs be observed when using these materials
inside a full-scale structure. Non-destructive surveillance
techniques have been developed over the years, mainly
encouraged by the constant search of enhanced safety in
the aeronautical industry. However, the standard methods
currently used are far from being optimal, and potential
improvements in the continuous monitoring techniques are
constantly being investigated. Structural health monitoring
(SHM) systems have thus emerged during the last 15 years
as an interesting option. In this field of research, sensors play
an essential role in the data handling chain. Indeed, it is vital
for an accurate structural identification and damage detection
to include reliable sensors in the data acquisition system.

0964-1726/13/065020+12$33.00 1 c 2013 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK & the USA


Smart Mater. Struct. 22 (2013) 065020
A SHM process is a non-destructive surveillance process,
using an integrated sensor (or a network of integrated sensors)
to characterize a structure or detect a structural damage.
Among the different methodologies of mechanical design,
SHM can be inscribed in the categories of damage-tolerant
and condition-based maintenance. The paradigm to solve
structural problems and uncertainties goes through by four
stages [1–5]: (1) operational evaluation, (2) data acquisition
and cleansing, (3) feature extraction and data compression,
and (4) statistical model development. Available scientific
literature is abundant in articles related to SHM data
acquisition techniques [6] using some recent technologies:
optical fibre Bragg gratings (FBG) [7–9], piezoelectric
sensors and actuators [10–12], wireless technology [13, 14],
etc (as opposed to classical hardware like strain gauges
and accelerometers). Each one of these modern technologies
carries on its own package of advantages and drawbacks, in
particular from economic, safety and practical points of view.
Most of the research concerning them has been centred around
the effects of mechanical fatigue and chemical corrosion [15,
16]. However, polymer-based composite behaviour remains
quite unpredictable in some other usual operating conditions:
high temperatures, thermo-mechanical fatigue, moisture
absorption, sub-zero temperatures, photo-oxidation, etc.
Among these new solutions, the use of polyvinylidene
fluoride (PVDF) piezoelectric patch sensors represents an
interesting alternative for in situ monitoring due to their low
cost of implementation (economic benefits) and relatively
high mechanical resistance (operational benefits). PVDF
technology is based on the piezoelectric properties of
PVDF, a thermo-plastic fluoropolymer that exhibits a glass
transition point around −35 ◦ C and a melting point around
177 ◦ C. Due to the lowness of the latter compared to other
classical piezoelectric sensor materials, it is legitimate to
lead a survivability study to verify the accuracy of dynamic
measurements provided by the PVDF sensors, and eventually
identify the operating limits. Moreover, PVDF sensors are
better suited for dynamic analysis methods than some classic
strain sensors like strain gauges or piezoresistive sensors
due to their short response time. However, because of
their polymer-based nature, the same factors leading to the
environmental ageing of composite panels could potentially
affect their performance. Industrial applications in monitoring
of full-scale aeronautical structures by such sensors are then
compromised. Results of artificial ageing protocols applied
to composite structures in previous works [17–20] show the
detectable extent of damage on polymer materials. These
documents focus in commonly evocated factors that con-
tribute to composite structures ageing, in particular vibrations,
impacts, high/low temperature, thermo-mechanical fatigue,
moisture and exposition to UV radiation. These factors,
alone or combined, have been observed to have an effect on
polymer-based pieces inside long-time operating aircraft and
rotorcraft.
The goal of this paper is to show experimental results
proving that PVDF sensors, with the proper manufacturing,
handling and integration to a composite structure, are capable
of providing accurate information about the constitutive
2
E Guzman et al
properties of a composite panel. The measurement method
is based on modal analysis, since the values of natural
frequencies are directly related to structural stiffness, and
so to the elastic properties (assuming an accurate model
is available). Although the survey of the mechanical and
electro-mechanical constants is a necessary part for a
complete study of PVDF ageing, it is not the main
object of this study. Rather than identifying explicitly
these constants, the object of this paper is centred on the
recovering of piezoelectric properties by PVDF film sensors,
verifying the quality of dynamic electric signals, consequently
leading to the extraction of the natural frequencies of
the composite specimens. The validation is carried out
by comparison of obtained measurements between PVDF
patch sensors to neutral non-aged sensors, even with the
former going through a demanding long-term accelerated
ageing process. ASTM standards for polymer structures
testing [21–26] show the guidelines to develop standardized
ageing protocols for such materials. In order to reveal any
loss of sensitivity or measure quality due the to exposition to
relatively aggressive ageing factors, progressively demanding
experimental campaigns take place. The variable weathering
factors include temperature, humidity and UV radiation
since they are frequently found in aeronautical/aerospace
applications.
On the contrary to static methods, dynamic methods
are generally much better suited for implementation in situ.
This is logical for the purpose of SHM, since continuous
and eventually real-time monitoring is aimed for. Modal
parameters, in particular natural frequencies, are extracted
from the frequency response functions (FRF). Moreover, this
constitutes a base for future development, since SHM may
require the use of only output dynamic measurements in order
to carry out an operational modal analysis (OMA), much
more adapted to in situ monitoring of full-scale aeronautical
structures. The notion of experimental mesh (known as a
multiple degree of freedom system, MDOF) is introduced
in [27]. The information provided by modal analysis is
enough to deduce the structural FRFs. After extraction of
the modal parameters, an inverse identification method allows
deducing the stiffness coefficients, and consequently the
mechanical properties of the materials. In order to do so,
mixed numerical–experimental identification methods have
proven to be an accurate and well adapted solution. Indeed, the
numerical models, based on the finite element method (FEM),
take into account more complex and non-linear interaction
phenomena between several deformation modes [28–30] than
analytical models. It has not been long since continuous
identification using this method has been possible, only thanks
to the currently available computing capacity of today’s
processors.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials and manufacturing
2.1.1. Composite panels. The most massively used
composite in aeronautical and automotive industries is the
Smart Mater. Struct. 22 (2013) 065020 E Guzman et al

Table 1. Nominal elastic properties after layup and curing of the epoxy matrix (1: longitudinal direction, 2: transverse direction, 3: normal
direction).
Young’s modulus (GPa) Poisson’s ratio (−) Shear modulus (GPa)
E1 E2 E3 ν12 ν13 ν23 G12 G13 G23
UD 96.00 7.67 8.70 0.38 0.3 0.03 3.60 3.59 2.24
CP 65.89 44.93 8.70 0.12 0.3 0.3 4.23 2.54 2.55

Table 2. Plate production features before entering the ageing process (CP = cross-ply; UD = unidirectional).
Curing protocol
Samples (temperature/time) Estimated degree of curing (%) Layup
◦ ◦
CI–II–III–IV–V 70 C/10 h + 80 C/8 h ∼85 CP: [0◦ /90◦ /90◦ /0◦ ]7s
DI–III–IV–V–VI 85 ◦ C/10 h + 90 ◦ C/4 h 90–95 UD: [0◦ ]28
EI–II 70 ◦ C/10 h + 85 ◦ C/10 h 85–90 UD: [0◦ ]28
FI–II 70 ◦ C/10 h + 85 ◦ C/10 h 85–90 UD: [0◦ ]28

Table 3. Sample geometry and initial mass.

Samples Length l (mm) Width w (mm) Thickness t (mm) Mass m (g)
CI–II–III–IV–V 300 39.7 4.5 76.43 ± 0.43
DI–II–III–IV–V–VI 150 99.0 4.0 ± 0.3 83.49 ± 5.25
EI–II 300 98.5 4.4 ± 0.1 188.5 ± 4.5
FI–II 300 81.6 3.8 ± 0.2 134.0 ± 2.0

carbon fibre/epoxy combination. Today’s most emblematic

examples in the civil aeronautical applications are the
Boeing 787 and the currently in development Airbus
350 XWB models. More specifically, the chosen material
for experimentation was Carbon Fibre/Epoxy PrePreg
PR-UD CST 125/300 FT109, manufactured by Suter-
Kunstoffe c AG (Switzerland). The FT109 was originally
a scroll of unidirectional (UD) carbon fibre tissue T700S,
pre-impregnated in unhardened epoxy polymer with a mass
density of 125 g m−2 . The elastic properties after layup
and curing of this material are given in table 1. A total
of four 30 × 30 cm2 surface plates were manufactured,
with a layup containing a constant number of 28 layers.
Each one of these square plates was divided, giving four
different series of specimens, named C to F. They have
been scheduled to be tested following the ageing protocols Figure 1. Experiment samples, from left to right: C, D, E and
described in section 2.2.1. The layup configuration included F-type shells.
purely UD (for D-, E- and F-series) and cross-ply (CP, for
amplify the PVDF sensors and accelerometer signals in a
C-series) orientations. The curing protocol and the layup for
frequency band of 0.1 Hz–10 kHz.
each of these plates are given in table 2. The dimensions
A PVDF sensor is considered glued (C series) if epoxy
and corresponding nominal masses of the plates are
or other chemical glue was used to patch up the PVDF sensor
summarized in table 3. They were measured using electronic
on the surface after the curing process (figures 2(c), 6(a)). On
Vernier and Mettler Toledo c weighing balances respectively
the other hand, it is considered embedded if the integration
(figure 1). took place during the layup process (D, E and F-series)
between two epoxy pre-impregnated (PrePreg) layers, before
2.1.2. PVDF film sensors and integration techniques. The the curing process (figures 2(d), 6(b)). In general, both cases
PVDF sensors used in the experimental campaign are are referred as integrated PVDF sensors. The second option
catalogued as DT1-028 K, manufactured by Measurement implies the surveillance of some additional measures in order
c Inc. (figure 2). The reference sensors were
Specialties for the PVDF to remain operational (section 3.1). The number
all Bruel&Kjaer c 4517C uniaxial accelerometers. A multi- of PVDF sensors glued or embedded per plate is shown in
channel conditioning amplifier B&K 2692-C was used to table 4.

3
Smart Mater. Struct. 22 (2013) 065020 E Guzman et al

Figure 2. (a) PVDF sensor dimensions: A = 16 mm, B = 12 mm, C = 41 mm, D = 30 mm, t = 40 µm. (Courtesy of Measurement
c (b) PVDF piezofilm sensor with lead attachments. (Courtesy of Measurement Specialties .)
Specialties .) c (c) Integration scheme of a
glued sensor. (d) Integration scheme of an embedded sensor.

Table 4. Number of sensors used simultaneously for each plate. brittle, polymer chemical weakening, inner stressing,
etc. The mass absorption is to be verified by weighing
Glued Embedded
Series Sample Accelerometer patch patch periodically the total mass of the samples, in order to
evaluate the diffusion coefficient.
C CI–II–III–IV–V 1 1 0
D DI–III–IV–V–VI 1 0 1 (d) High UV radiation is generally more specific to structures
EFI EI, FI 1 0 2 continuingly dwelling at high altitudes, leading to
EFII EII, FII 1 0 2 photo-oxidation and polymer chain dissociation, among
others.

2.2. Methods Finally, it was decided that a cyclic environment will be

2.2.1. Design of an ageing protocol with aerospace
standards. Mainly inspired by previous papers [15–20] and
ASTM standards [21–26], the following attributes for realistic
aeronautical/aerospace ageing protocols were considered.
(a) Thermal stress is chosen cyclic, that is more likely
to induce damage at molecular and macroscopic levels
than isothermal conditions, even at high temperatures.
Dilatation/contraction cycles induce a sort of thermo-
mechanical fatigue, probably leading to fibre pull-
out. Moreover, this is far closer to reality since
e.g. planes, spaceships and satellites are exposed to cyclic
environments (ground/air, daytime/nighttime state).
(b) Maximum temperature is fixed between the resin curing
temperature and the vitreous (or glass) transition point.
The latter is usually measured by some material tests
such as the dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) or the
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). In the
experiments run for this paper, those two temperatures
were estimated from documentation given by the supplier
and the corresponding curing process (see table 5).
Physically, vitreous transition and thermal oxidation are
likely to occur.
(c) Highly humid environments can contribute to composite
ageing as well, facilitating fibre debonding, delamination,
simulated. Every experimental campaign should include a
pre-conditioning period, the test counting a total duration up
to 7 weeks, as shown in figure 3 and table 5. It is important
to point out the fact that the maximum temperature is above
the Curie temperature of PVDF. Even though the loss of
piezoelectric properties is reversible, the objective is to check
that it does not affect the quality of dynamic measurements.
2.2.2. Modal analysis. After intervals of approximately
one hundred cycles, a modal analysis of the specimens
is performed at room temperature (∼20 ◦ C). Input (impact
hammer) and output (PVDF patches, accelerometers) signals
are treated by a dynamic analyzer (Hewlett Packard
HP35670A). Non-parametric frequency models are directly
obtained by dividing the corresponding Fourier transforms of
the signals. Each FRF links an impact point to a measurement
point, inside what is called an experimental mesh. A discrete
non-parametric model (a matrix of FRFs) is then available. A
picture of the complete equipment used for the modal analysis
is shown in figure 4. This includes an impulse hammer with
Force Transducer B&K 8200, the 4-channel conditioning
amplifiers B&K Nexus 2692-C, and the HP 35670A Dynamic
Signal Analyzer.
2.2.3. Dynamic models of a composite structure. As stated
above, the elastic properties of the composite can be computed

4
Smart Mater. Struct. 22 (2013) 065020 E Guzman et al

Figure 3. (a) Temperature (T), relative humidity (RH) and UV radiation intensity (UV) cycle profile for C- (without UV, 120 min) and D-
(with UV, 90 min) series. (b) Temperature, relative humidity and UV radiation intensity cycle profile for EFI- (with UV) and EFII- (without
UV) series. (c) Weiss Technik c (Germany) WK180/40 climatic chamber, with UV radiation lamps and required acquisition hardware.

Table 5. Summary of ageing protocol parameters, corresponding to profiles in figures 3(a) and (b).
T (◦ C) RH (%) UV (W m−2 )
Series Samples Max Min Max Min Max Period τ (min) Weeks Cycles
C CI–II–III–IV–V 95 5 95 0 0 120 7 588
D DI–III–IV–V–VI 95 5 95 0 300 90 5 560
EFI EI, FI 135 45 70 0 300 90 5 560
EFII EII, FII 135 45 70 0 0 90 5 560

from the extracted modal parameters, using in particular the
natural frequencies.
Analytical model. Starting with the simple case of a beam,
it is possible to estimate the lowest frequencies, which are
primarily flexural and torsional. The investigated specimens
can be fairly modelled as beams as long as t  w  l,
with t being the thickness, w the width and l the length of
c is used to process the signals and
the sample. In this particular case, the flexural and torsional
natural frequencies of a free-free beam can be estimated using
the following well-known equations:
s least square method applied to the FRFs and time-domain
Ewt3
fflex,i = αi
ml3
αi = 0.162, 1.013, 2.835, 5.543, 9.180 . . .
s available is to setup a multiple degree of freedom (MDOF)
Gt3
ftors,i = i i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 . . .
mwl
where m, E and G are the mass of the specimen, the
longitudinal Young’s modulus and the transverse shear
modulus. These formulae are the solutions of implicit
trigonometrical wave equations. Unfortunately, the beam
approximation starts diverging considerably from reality
when the aspect ratio w/l <0.1 is no longer satisfied.
Experimental and modal models. The modal extraction
program ME-Scope VES
find the modal parameters. Classical formulations available
include polynomial and complex exponential as extraction
methods. They allow obtaining parametric models using a
counterpart, respectively. For the results in this paper, the
model preferred was the polynomial one. The right approach
(1) to establish a parametric model when experimental data is
oscillator model. A non-parametric experimental model is
(2) obtained directly from these measurements, as expressed in
the following equation
FRF = Hrs (jω) (3)

5
Smart Mater. Struct. 22 (2013) 065020 E Guzman et al

Figure 4. Measurement equipment: (1) E-series composite plate;

(2) accelerometer; (3) PVDF integrated sensor; (4) impulse hammer
B&K 8200; (5) charge amplifiers B&K 2635; (6) HP 35670A
Dynamic Signal Analyzer.

where Hrs (jω) is the FRF measured at point r of the specimen

when excited at locations s, and ω is the excitation frequency.
The equivalent parametric model, after the parameterization
method chosen in ME-Scope
, c is based on the equation
below.
n
X βri βsi
Hrs (jω) = . (4)
i=1 (jω)2 + 2ηi ω0i (jω) + ω0i
2 thickness direction). Both UD and CP plates were modelled
In this equation, β i is the ith modal vector, ω0i is the ith
natural frequency of the corresponding conservative system
and ηi is the ith modal damping factor. For the structural
identification, the most important value is ω0i , since the
constitutive properties are directly related to it. The modal
vectors β i play a supportive role, in order to verify that
the experimentally measured modes correspond to the modes
derived from the numerical simulations.
Finite element model. Although analytical continuous
models provide a good approximation to establish the
theoretical basis of properties identification, it is clear
that a finite element model provides much more accurate
computations of the real plates, especially concerning
the influence of some deformation mechanisms (such as
interactions between bending and transverse shear) that
are not included in the analytical models presented in
equations (1) and (2).
A Matlab
c script based upon a non-linear least squares Abaqus
c is then established in order to find numerically the
method combined to Abaqus
c simulations was used in order natural frequencies stored in vector fi at the ith iteration. The
to minimize the error between estimated and experimental
frequencies, and to find the most suitable values for the
longitudinal Young’s modulus E1 , the transverse Young’s
modulus E2 and the transverse shear modulus G12 . The flow
diagram of the optimization loop is shown in figure 5.
Figure 5. Flow chart of the identification algorithm.
Structured meshes with 20-node solid hexahedral
elements of 2 mm were used, in order to have at least 2
elements through the thickness (5 degrees of freedom in the
by assuming a homogeneous orthotropic elasticity model in
which the parameters E1 , E2 and G12 are to be identified. The
remaining parameters have been assumed as constant and as
indicated in table 1.
2.2.4. Structural identification algorithm. The identification
algorithm is largely based on the one proposed by Cugnoni
et al [30], which uses the Levenberg–Marquardt optimization
algorithm to obtain a descent direction, in order to minimize
locally the estimation error function between the experimental
frequencies and the corresponding numerical predictions. A
sensitivity study has also been carried out to determine the
interval of validity for different initial conditions.
Let f be the vector containing the experimental
normalized natural frequencies. The initial values of E1 , E2
and G12 are roughly estimated by the analytical model
given by the equations (1) and (2). In general, vector
f has 7 or 8 components, corresponding to the lowest
natural frequencies of the panel. A finite element model in
error in frequency estimation is defined with respect to the
experimental results. The optimization problem is given by
the following expression
min εi = | f − fi | (5)
{E1 ,E2 ,G12 }

6
Smart Mater. Struct. 22 (2013) 065020 E Guzman et al

Figure 6. Examples of integrated PVDF sensors: (a) correctly glued (and aged) PVDF sensors; (b) correctly embedded PVDF sensors.

where εi is the error norm at the ith iteration. The optimization

algorithm is run until the error decreases below a given
tolerance. The only constraints of the optimization problem
are the positiveness of the variables E1 , E2 and G12 .

2.2.5. Experimental validation of PVDF sensors. Taking

into account the final goal of the piezoelectric sensor
integration inside the composite panel, a PVDF patch was
considered to survive the ageing protocol as long as the
differences between the normalized mechanical parameters
(E1 , E2 and G12 ) measured by PVDF patches and the
accelerometer are not significant. To evaluate the survivability
of PVDF sensors during ageing, the following qualitative and
quantitative criteria have also been considered.

• Visual inspection: the sensor remains attached properly to

the composite surface (surface patch only), the electrical
connections hold and the metallic connectors are not
oxidated.
• Sensing ability: the sensor is still able to provide signals
that are clear enough for modal analysis. The gain of
the pre-amplifier is however not restricted and may be
adjusted.
• A statistical ANOVA is carried out to demonstrate the in-
significance of the differences between the measurements
obtained by the PVDF sensors and the accelerometer.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Visual inspection of the PVDF sensors
During the visual inspection, the samples did not exhibit
particular problems threatening the acquisition of dynamic
measurements. The dimensions were strictly measured and
compared, although no significant changes in length, width or
thickness were noticed throughout time. The only noticeable
change was a progressive browning of all the exposed
surfaces, including the composite panel itself, as well as the
layer of epoxy glue in the case of surface-attached PVDF
sensors.
In the case of glued sensors, only a thin layer of epoxy
resin glue was used at first to stick the PVDF sensor to
the surface, and a second thin layer on top for protection.
Figure 7. Sensitivity analysis between engineering constants and
natural frequencies, for a D-series sample.
The result is shown in figure 6(a). A recurrent problem
in the case of the embedded sensors was the absence of
any electric signal after the curing process. This was due
to the electric-conductive nature of carbon fibres that lead
to the appearance of a short circuit between the electric
attachments of the PVDF sensors. If the lead attachments are
not well electrically insulated, the contact with carbon fibres
can establish a short circuit rendering any signal acquisition
impossible. Thus, a layer of electric insulator (e.g. epoxy)
should be applied to protect the electric attachments. Cables
should be protected as well, in order to avoid any metallic
fatigue leading to fracture. In our case, shrink sheaths
were used as reinforcement in addition to the electric cable
insulator. On the other hand, for the embedded PVDF sensors,
(figure 6(b)) no further problem inherent to the integration
technique occurred.
3.2. Sensitivity analysis and propagation of uncertainty
A simple sensitivity study has revealed that the lowest natural
frequencies are influenced almost exclusively by three factors:
E1 , E2 and G12 (figure 7). The other six mechanical variables
E3 , ν12 , ν13 , ν23 , G13 and G23 are kept constant and equal to

7
Smart Mater. Struct. 22 (2013) 065020 E Guzman et al

Figure 8. Evolution of mass m and Young’s modulus E1 in (a) C- and (b) D-series. Error bars represent the standard deviation.

Figure 9. Evolution of E1 , E2 and G12 in (a) D- and (b) EFI-series. Both series were subjected to UV radiation ageing.

the values obtained from the supplier’s datasheet and taken absolute value. Thus, non-dimensional magnitudes are used
over. At the end of the experimentation period, a slight but to the statistical handling of data as well as the optimization
noticeable change in the three principal mechanical properties algorithm.
of the composite could be detected in all cases.
It is important to check the error estimation for an 3.3. Results interpretation
elastic constant in function of the frequency and dimensional
errors. Based on formulas (1) and (2), uncertainty on E1 and 3.3.1. E1 and water diffusion. In the general case, the
G12 can be expressed in function of uncertainties coming increase of the total mass seems regular and not scattered
from instrumental errors in the measurement process of other (figure 8), and the shape of the graphs is approximately an
parameters exponentially increasing asymptotic curve, with a trend close
1E 1f 1m 1l 1t 1w to 0.7% for the C-, 1.0% for the D-, and 0.3% for the E- and
=2 ± ±3 ±3 ± (6) F-series with respect to the initial mass m0 . It is nevertheless
E f m l t w
difficult to determine how this additional mass is distributed
1G 1f 1m 1l 1t 1w across the thickness, and is thus assumed uniform.
=2 ± ± ±3 ± . (7)
G f m l t w On the other hand, E1 increases over the weeks (figure 8).
E represents either E1 or E2 , and G corresponds to G12 . The relative variation 1E1 /E10 (expressed in %) exhibits
Although equations (6) and (7) are only an approximation, a clear increasing trend in the first two weeks, followed
they give an idea about the relative influence of measurement by a much more irregular variation around a steady value.
errors. As an example, it can be seen that the estimation Globally, this means that there is an increase in the tensile
error is particularly sensitive to the thickness measurement modulus in the longitudinal direction of the plate, at least
error, since an uncertainty of 0.1 mm over a 4 mm thickness during the first phase of the ageing process. Although it is
propagates as a 7.5% uncertainty on both E2 and G12 . difficult to safely declare this since the scattering shown by
The estimation of E1 , E2 and G12 is thus very sensitive the results is quite significant.
to instrumental or systematic errors. To avoid this problem,
a simple approach can be adopted since the main interest 3.3.2. Loss of E2 and G12 . The evolution of E2 and G12 is
of the study is over the relative variation of E1 , E2 and G12 shown in figures 9(a) and (b). The trend is on the contrary of
with respect to a nominal value (the initial values, noted E1 , and shows a decrease of stiffness. However, the extent of
E10 , E20 and G120 respectively) than the determination of its the loss depends on the ageing parameters. It can be observed

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Smart Mater. Struct. 22 (2013) 065020 E Guzman et al

Figure 10. (a) FRF as measured by the accelerometer and the PVDF sensor on the CIII specimen after a 5 week ageing period. (b) FRF as
measured by the accelerometer and the PVDF sensor on the DVI sample after a 5 week ageing period. (c) [1E1 /E10 ; 1G12 /G120 ] versus
time graph as estimated by the accelerometer and the PVDF sensor in the CIII sample. (d) [1E1 /E10 ; 1E2 /E20 ; 1G12 /G120 ] versus time
graph as estimated by the accelerometer and the PVDF sensor in the DVI specimen.

that the percentage of loss is about 2% for the C-, 4% for the
D-, 8% for the EFI- and 7% for the EFII-groups after 5 weeks.
In all cases, the decrease in relative stiffness is much more
significant than the scattering (as shown by the error bars).
Although the following lines are not the main concern
in this paper, a brief interpretation can be stated. Specimens
in D-, E- and F-series are unidirectional, with carbon fibres
longitudinally oriented. The tensile modulus E1 is then
essentially defined by the tensile modulus of the fibres, while
E2 and G12 are defined by the constitutive properties of the
epoxy resin matrix. Physically, a post-curing phenomenon
reported in the literature [16, 31] can be cited as a cause of the
apparent hardening in the longitudinal direction. Concerning
the weakening of the polymer matrix, it can be attributed
to the breakup of some chemical links due to the action of
temperature, humidity, thermo-mechanical fatigue (residual
constraints), and UV radiation.
3.4. Measurement quality differences between PVDF film
sensors and accelerometer
Qualitatively, measured FRFs by both accelerometer and
PVDF sensors are very similar after the 5 week ageing process
as it can be verified in figures 10(a) and (b). In figure 10(a),
the position of the peaks is the same, but the amplitude is
different over the frequency band. In figure 10(b), the two
FRFs match almost perfectly. Differences in the measured
dynamic amplitude between the FRFs can be mainly
attributed to the fact that accelerometers measure a vectorial
field (acceleration) in one point, while PVDF measures a
distributed strain. Anyhow, in both cases the positions of
resonance peaks are observed by the accelerometer and the
PVDF sensor independently of the nature of the measurement.
It is important to point out that in some unusual cases
the pre-amplifier gain had to be adjusted to increase the
signal-to-noise ratio, to compensate the signal fading some
PVDF were objected to. As stated in section 2.2, this was
expected due to the loss of piezoelectric properties due
to the exposition to high temperatures above the Curie
point. Nevertheless, since the necessary information about the
position of the resonance peaks is not disturbed by changes
in the signal amplification, this has no repercussion on the
identification process.
A comparison between the parameter estimations
obtained with the accelerometer and the PVDF is shown
in figures 10(c) and (d), for specimens CIII and DVI.
In the first case, there are differences in some points in
estimations of both 1E1 /E10 and 1G12 /G120 , although
globally the measurements follow the same patterns. In the
second case, the results are even more satisfying since the
estimations match almost perfectly, just like the FRF shown
in figure 10(b).
These images are the most convincing proofs that
PVDF can perfectly keep measuring correctly the natural
frequencies, even if they are subjected to accelerated (or
natural) ageing conditions that affect their elastic properties.
The other samples in the C- and D-series, as well as in E-
and F-series, present similar results, although in some isolated
points, the estimations can disagree.

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Smart Mater. Struct. 22 (2013) 065020 E Guzman et al

Table 6. Equivalence table between real and non-dimensional factor after application of equation (9).
Maximum UV radiation Embedded Number of
temperature (◦ C) (W m−2 ) patch (−) cycles (−)
x1 x2 x3 x4
Variable Low High Low High Low High Low High
Absolute values 105 130 0 300 0 1 0 588
Normalized values −1 +1 −1 +1 −1 +1 −1 +1

3.5. Statistical data analysis: ANOVA Table 7. ANOVA tables for the three dependent variables
(SS = sum of squares, DF = degrees of freedom, MS = mean
square, F = Fischer’s quotient, P = Fischer’s probability function).
An analysis of variance (ANOVA) test was carried out
to demonstrate the significance (or insignificance) of y1 SS DF MS F P 1−P
environmental factors on a PVDF sensor measurement Model 8.09 16 0.51 0.49 90% 10%
quality. A multi-factorial model could be established, which Residual 9.30 9 1.03
included as basic factors: (a) the maximum temperature of Total 17.40 25
the cycle, (b) the UV radiation intensity, (c) the integration y2 SS DF MS F P 1−P
technique and (d) the number of cycles. The moisture level
Model 199.06 16 12.44 0.57 85% 15%
was coupled with the temperature cycle due to technical Residual 197.84 9 21.98
reasons. The linear model with interactions is based on the Total 396.90 25
following equation
y3 SS DF MS F P 1−P
4 4 X
4 4 X
4 X
4
X X X Model 112.44 16 7.03 0.58 83% 16%
y = a0 + ai xi + aij xi xj + aijk xi xj xk Residual 108.14 9 12.02
i=1 j=1 i=1 k=1 j=1 i=1 Total 220.58 25
+ a1234 x1 x2 x3 x4 = A · x (8)
A = [A0 A1 A2 · · · A15 ] = [a0 a1 a2 a3 · · · a1234 ]
x = [1x1 x2 x3 · · · x1 x2 x3 x4 ]. the significance level of measurement randomness on the
The four independent variables x1 , x2 , x3 and x4 represent obtained measurements. Thus, 1−P is the level of significance
the normalized ageing factors (table 6), while the dependent to reject the null hypothesis.
variable y represents also y1 = 1E1 /E10 , y2 = 1E2 /E20 and
y3 = 1G12 /G120 respectively. The normalization process, for 3.6. Comments on survivability of integrated PVDF sensors
the factors to vary non-dimensionally from −1 to +1, has
been carried out by applying equation (9) to the absolute Going back to equation (10), the null hypothesis can be
factors proved with an acceptable level of significance. Indeed, the
2(u − u) umax + umin ANOVA provides many numbers, but the most representative
x= , u= , are the values of the probability P in the three cases
1u 2 (9)
1u = umax − umin detailed in table 7, 90%, 85% and 83%, corresponding
to y1 (=1E1 /E10 ), y2 (=1E2 /E20 ) and y3 (=1G12 /G120 )
where u is the absolute value (e.g. the maximum cycle respectively. In conclusion, the ANOVA test demonstrated
temperature, measured in ◦ C) and x is the normalized value that it is highly probable that the linear model with
(maximum cycle temperature between −1 and +1, no units) interactions has little or nothing to do with the differences
of the factor. between estimations of the elastic properties from both
A set of the 16 modelling effects Ai can be established accelerometer and PVDF sensors, and that those are mostly
separately for each set of results. The test of hypothesis can due to measurement randomness.
be expressed as In summary, the final statements of section 3.1 proved
the possibility of survival to the ageing process, while the
H0 : A0 = A1 = · · · = A15 = 0
(10) ANOVA carried out in section 3.5 showed that PVDF sensors
H1 : ∃Ai 6= 0. provide statistically satisfying and reliable results in spite of
In other words, the null hypothesis H0 states that there is the harshness of testing conditions, and can then be trusted for
no significant statistical difference between elastic moduli further experimentation.
measured by the PVDF sensors and the accelerometer, while
the alternative hypothesis H1 states that there is at least one 4. Conclusions
environmental factor affecting the measurement quality of
the PVDF sensors. The decision is made based on Fischer’s It has been demonstrated in this paper that, in principle,
probability P (table 7): the values of P correspond to PVDF film sensors are able to survive the integration process,

10
Smart Mater. Struct. 22 (2013) 065020
as well as the natural ageing process within the limits
stipulated in the previous sections, as long as they are properly
handled and integrated. PVDF sensors provide reliable data
about the state of the elastic properties of a composite
material widely used in the aeronautical industry such as
the carbon fibre/epoxy composite. This conclusion is based
on comparisons strictly limited to dynamic measurements
obtained from PVDF and standard non-aged accelerometers.
The quality of the measurements is judged satisfying and
sufficient for the primary purpose of using PVDF sensors in a
dynamic non-destructive structural monitoring process.
Some recommendations in the future investigation of the
integration of PVDF sensors in aeronautical structures are
however worth mentioning. First, the survivability range of
temperatures at which the sensors were tested (+5–+135 ◦ C)
indicate the temperatures at which the PVDF sensors can be
stored for short periods of time without suffering irreversible
damage. This, combined with the safety storage range
of temperatures given by the manufacturer (−50–+80 ◦ C),
allows a safety range spanning from −50 to +135 ◦ C. An
exception made of some spots (especially those close to
the engines), this interval largely encompasses the range
of temperatures found commonly in airframes, in all flight
phases. However, the dynamic testing should still be carried
out only with PVDF inside the working temperatures given
by the manufacturer, in this case between −5 and +80 ◦ C.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to acknowledge the partial financial
support from the Swiss National Science Foundation, Grant
No. 200020-143968.
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