Ultrasonics

⚫ Ultrasonic waves are sound waves having frequency f>20 KHz

⚫ Human can not hear it but some animals can hear it

⚫ Propagation depends upon the elastic properties and density of the

medium
⚫ In a fluid they propagate as longitudinal waves whereas in solids they

can propagate as both longitudinal as well as transverse waves

⚫ Wavelengths are very small. Hence diffraction is less.

⚫ e.g. for single slit diffraction, condition for maxima

⚫ Sin θ = (2m+1)/2 λ/2

⚫ e.g. for grating, condition for maxima is

⚫ Sin θ = nλ/d
⚫ Ultrasonic waves are used in non destructive testing, marine
applications, medical diagnosis
⚫ Bats generate ultrasonic waves and use reflection of waves to find their

ways and avoid obstacles.

⚫ Sea animals use ultrasonic pulses to locate fish , to avoid obstacles.

⚫ The light is strongly absorbed by sea water and the radius of visibility is

limited
⚫ Ultrasonic waves are less absorbed seawater
 Production of ultrasonic waves
Magnetostriction: 20 KHz to 100 KHz
Piezo electric effect: 1MHz and above
 Magnetostriction
⚫ This effect was discovered by James Jule in 1847
⚫ For rods of ferromagnetic substances the length of the rod changes
when a magnetic field is applied parallel to its length
⚫ The change in the length is of the order of 1 ppm(parts per million)
⚫ The change of the length is independent of the direction of the applied
field
⚫ Nickel exhibits a large magnetostriction effect compared to other
ferromagnetic materials
⚫ A coil is wounded around a rod of ferromagnetic material
⚫ Alternating current of frequency f is passed through the coil. This
produces an alternating magnetic field of frequency f.
⚫ The length of the rod changes once in each half cycle
⚫ Vibrations set up in the rod are of frequency 2f.
⚫ If the rod is not magnetized initially then the changes in the length of
the rod are independent of the direction of the applied magnetic field.
⚫ When the frequency of the vibration of the alternating field is equal to
the natural frequency of the road, resonance takes place.
⚫ If the frequency ffield of the alternating field is in ultrasonic range,
ultrasonic waves with frequency 2ffield are produced
⚫ Resonant frequency of the rod
⚫ f = m/(2L) (Y/ρ)1/2
⚫ L is length of the rod, Y is Young’s modulus of the rod, ρ is density and
m = 1,2,3, …
⚫ To get f = ffield , a steady polarizing magnetic field must be applied by
passing a dc current through a second coil.
⚫ The magnitude of polarizing magnetic field must be greater than that of
alternating field
 Oscillator Circuit

Input Amplifier Output

Feedback circuit
Magnetostriction Ultrasonic generator
⚫ An NPN transistor is used to construct an oscillator circuit
⚫ The tank circuit has a variable capacitor 'C1' and an inductor 'L1'. It
decides the frequency of the electrical oscillations.
⚫ The rod is permanently magnetized in the beginning by passing direct
current.
⚫ Oscillator circuit takes energy from the DC supply and produces
electrical oscillations
⚫ The alternating current passing through inductor L1 produces alternating
magnetic field. So the length of the rod changes periodically
⚫ When the frequency of electrical oscillations is in the ultrasonic range
then ultrasonic waves are generated.
⚫ When the frequency of oscillation is matched with the natural frequency
of the rod then it will vibrate with maximum amplitude.
 Advantages
⚫ Magnetostrictive materials are inexpensive
⚫ Large output power can be produced

Limitations
⚫ Frequency higher than 300 KHz can not be generated
⚫ Single frequency oscillations can not be generated
 Piezoelectric effect
⚫ Pierre Curie and Paul Jean Curie discovered the Piezoelectric effect in
1880
⚫ A pair of opposite face of certain asymmetric crystals such as quartz
crystal is compressed, equal and opposite charges are appear on other
pair of opposite faces of crystal
⚫ If the crystal is subjected to tension, the polarity of charges is reversed
⚫ The development of charges as a result of mechanical deformation is
known as direct Piezoelectric effect
⚫ Crystals that exhibit Piezoelectric effect are called Piezoelectric crystal
⚫ Ammonium Phosphate, Quartz, PZT (Lead Zinchronate Titanate) are
examples of Piezoelectric materials.
 Inverse Piezoelectric effect
⚫ If an electric field is applied across one pair of faces of Piezoelectric
crystal, it gets deformed along the direction of other pair of opposite
faces.
⚫ If an alternating voltage is applied between two opposite faces of the
crystal, it vibrates with the frequency of the field.
⚫ The mechanical deformation of the piezoelectric crystal caused by an
external electric field is known as Inverse Piezoelectric effect
 Quartz crystal

⚫ Quartz is the most popular choice for fabrication of

piezoelectric transducer
⚫ The Natural quartz crystal has the shape of a hexagonal

prism with a pyramid attached to each end

⚫ It has to cut in particular direction and taken as thin slab to

fabricate a transducer.
⚫ The axis along the longest dimension is called optic axis or

z - axis
 ⚫ Three lines which passes the opposite
corners of the crystal constitute its x
axis or electrical axes
⚫ Three lines which are perpendicular to
Z the sides of the hexagon form its Y
axis or mechanical axes
⚫ Thin plates of the quartz crystal cut
perpendicular to one of the X-axes is
X known as X-cut plates
⚫ Thin plates of the quartz crystal cut
perpendicular to one of the Y-axes is
known as Y-cut plates
Y
⚫ X-cut plates generate longitudinal mode of ultrasonic vibration of
frequencies up to several hundred KHz
⚫ Y-cut plates generate transverse mode of ultrasonic vibration of

frequencies ranging from 1MHz to 10 MHz

⚫ The frequency of vibration of x-cut crystal is given by

⚫ f = m/(2L) (Y/ρ)
1/2

⚫ L is thickness of the crystal, Y is Young’s modulus along appropriate

direction, ρ is density of crystal plate and m = 1,2,3, …
 ⚫ Piezoelectric Ultrasonic generator
⚫ An NPN transistor is used to for oscillator circuit
⚫ The tank circuit has a variable capacitor 'C' and an
inductor 'L' which decides the frequency of the
electrical oscillations.
⚫ The alternating current is fed to the secondary circuit
and the piezoelectric crystal vibrates and produces
sound waves.
⚫ When the frequency of electrical oscillations is in the
ultrasonic range then ultrasonic waves are generated.
⚫ When the frequency of oscillation is matched with the
natural frequency of the piezoelectric slab then it will
vibrate with maximum amplitude.
 Advantages
⚫ High frequency waves up to 500 MHz can be generated
⚫ Single frequency output can be obtained
⚫ A range of frequency can be covered using different transducers
 Applications
SONAR : Sound Navigation And Ranging
⚫ Idea of Sonar was given by French physicist Paul Langevin and used in
world war I fro detecting enemies submarines
⚫ Ultrasonic beam is directed in different directions in sea
⚫ In absence of any obstacle the Ultrasonic pulses do not return
⚫ In presence of obstacles the pulses are reflected and received by
receiver
⚫ d = vt/2
⚫ V is speed of ultrasonic waves in ocean water, t time interval between
transmitted and received pulse
⚫ Sonar is used to used to detect the presence of submerged icebergs
⚫ It is used guide submarines in the sea
⚫ It can be used to locate shoals of fish utilizing the fact that the
swimming bladder of fish is filled with air that scatter ultrasonic waves.
⚫ Sea animals such as whale and dolphin use ultrasound to locate their
prey, avoid collision with obstacles and even to converse with each
other.
⚫ In depths of the sea visibility is restricted because of the strong
absorption of light by water while the ultrasonic waves are less
absorbed in water.
 Non destructing testing
Ultrasonic testing
⚫ Ultrasonic waves can be used for testing of various objects

Contact method

Ultrasonic
pulse
generator
⚫ In this method the transducer is placed in direct contact with the test
object.
⚫ A thin film of suitable coupling material is applied between the

transducer and the test object

⚫ This method is used for large test objects
 Immersion method

⚫ Both probe and test object are kept immersed in water

⚫ The probe used for testing are made water proof

⚫ The probe head is kept at a distance from test object.

⚫ This method is used for small objects

 Normal beam pulse echo testing
Single Transducer method

⚫ Only one transducer is used which acts as both transmitter and receiver
⚫ Ultrasonic beam is incident normally on the specimen

⚫ The beam travels through specimen and reflected back from the end of

the object
⚫ If a defect is present in the path of the beam then a part of energy is
reflected back from the defect and remaining part travels forward in the
material
⚫ The initial pulse, the pulse reflected from defect and the pulse reflected
from the end of the material are displayed on the Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope(CRO)
⚫ Time differences between the pulses are determined. This will give the
location of the defect in the material
 ⚫ Two Transducer method

⚫ In the two transducer method one transducer acts as transmitter and

other work as receiver
⚫ Both the transducers are placed on the same side of the screen

⚫ The transmitter send a ultrasonic pulse in the material

⚫ The pulses reflected from the defect and the end of the material are

detected by receiver
⚫ Signal from both the transducers are displayed in the screen
 Normal beam pulse through transmission testing
⚫ Pulse echo method is not useful when the defect does not provide a
suitable reflecting surface or its orientation is not favorable
⚫ The Normal beam pulse through transmission testing method two
ultrasonic transducers are used on either side of the specimen
⚫ If the pulse from the transmitter does not encounter any defect the the
signal received by the receiver transducer will be relatively large
⚫ If there is a defect in the path of ultrasonic beam, a part of energy is
reflected and hence the signal received at the receiving end will be
reduced
 Advantages of ultrasonic testing
⚫ Fast and reliable
⚫ Easy to operate and suitable for automation
⚫ Result of test can be immediately known
⚫ It can detect both surface and subsurface defect
⚫ Relatively portable equipment
⚫ No special safety procedure are needed
⚫ High sensitivity helps in detection of minute defects
⚫ High penetrating power. So object of large thickness can be tested
⚫ High accuracy in finding location, size and shape of defects
⚫ Single side access to specimen is sufficient for conducting test
 Limitations
⚫ It is not suitable for the objects that are rough and irregular in shape
⚫ Penetration is not good in materials such as steel
⚫ Line shaped defects lying parallel to the ultrasonic beam may escape
detection
⚫ Interpretation of readings requires good technical knowledge
1. Calculate the length of an iron rod which can be used to produce ultrasonic
waves of 30KHz. Given that Young’s modulus of iron = 11.6 x 1010 N/m2
Density of iron = 7.23 x 103 kg/m3 ( Take n=1.)

Solution.
f = 30 KHz
Young’s modulus of iron Y = 11.6 x 1010 N/m2
Density of iron ρ = 7.23 x 103 kg/m3
n=1

f = n/(2L) (Y/ρ)1/2
L = n/(2f) (Y/ρ)1/2
= 1/(2 x 30 X 103) (11.6 x 1010/7.23 x 103)
= 0.066 m
= 6.6 cm
2. Calculate the frequency of 20 mm length of a pure iron rod. Given that the
density of pure iron is 7.25 x 103 kg/m3 and its young’s modulus is 115 x 109
N/m2. Can you use it in magnetostriction oscillator to produce ultrasonic
waves? (Take n=1.)

Solution.
L = 20 mm = 20 x 10-3 m
Young’s modulus of iron Y = 115 x 109 N/m2
Density of iron ρ = 7.25 x 103 kg/m3
n=1

f = n/(2L) (Y/ρ)1/2
= 1/(2 x 20 X 10-3) (115 x 109/7.25 x 103)
= 99568 Hz
= 99.568 KHz
3. Calculate the frequency of ultrasonic waves using the following data.
Young’s modulus of quartz plate = 8 x 1010 N/m2, Thickness of quartz plate= 4.5 x 10-3
m, Density = 2.65 x 103 kg/m3, Take n=1.

𝑓
(Hint: )
𝑛 𝑌
=
2𝐿 𝜌
4. A steel bar is tested using an ultrasonic flaw detector. The pulse arrival times are
found to be 35 x 10-6 sec and 80 x 10-6 sec. If the bar is of 40 cm thick, find out the
location of the defect.

Solution. Here t1 = 35 x 10-6 sec, t2 = 80 x 10-6 sec

Here t1 is the pulse arrival time after reflection from defect and t2 is the pulse arrival time
after reflection from end of the rod.
Length of bar: L = 40 cm
Location of defect : d = ?
Velocity of ultrasonic waves in rod is
V = 2d/t
= 2 x 40cm/(80 x 10-6 sec)
= 106 cm/sec
Location of defect
d = Vt/2
= (106 cm/sec x 35 x 10-6 sec)/2
= 17.5 cm