Sensors 23 01877 v2

sensors
Review
Marine Structural Health Monitoring with Optical Fiber
Sensors: A Review
Shimeng Chen 1 , Jiahui Wang 1 , Chao Zhang 1 , Mengqi Li 1 , Na Li 1 , Haojun Wu 1 , Yun Liu 2 , Wei Peng 2
and Yongxin Song 1, *
1 Department of Marine Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian 116026, China

2 School of Physics, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
* Correspondence: yongxin@dlmu.edu.cn
Abstract: Real-time monitoring of large marine structures’ health, including drilling platforms,
submarine pipelines, dams, and ship hulls, is greatly needed. Among the various kinds of monitoring
methods, optical fiber sensors (OFS) have gained a lot of concerns and showed several distinct
advantages, such as small size, high flexibility and durability, anti-electromagnetic interference, and
high transmission rate. In this paper, three types of OFS used for marine structural health monitoring
(SHM), including point sensing, quasi-distributed sensing, and distributed sensing, are reviewed.
Emphases are given to the applicability of each type of the sensors by analyzing the operating
principles and characteristics of the OFSs. The merits and demerits of different sensing schemes are
discussed, as well as the challenges and future developments in OFSs for the marine SHM field.
Keywords: optical fiber sensor; structural health monitoring; marine structures; optical fiber applications
1. Introduction
With the growing development of ocean resource exploitation, more and more marine
infrastructure facilities and large structures, such as dams, bridges, submarine tunnels, oil
and gas pipelines, and drilling platforms are being built. These facilities typically should
Citation: Chen, S.; Wang, J.; Zhang, have a lifespan of decades or even centuries. Due to the harsh marine environment, real-time
C.; Li, M.; Li, N.; Wu, H.; Liu, Y.; structural health monitoring (SHM) and automatic data transmission are greatly needed
Peng, W.; Song, Y. Marine Structural towards eliminating potential hazards, improving the service life, and reducing maintenance
Health Monitoring with Optical Fiber costs. Hundreds and even thousands of sensors are usually needed to enable full-scale
Sensors: A Review. Sensors 2023, 23, detection because of their huge sizes and super long spans (hm to km level) [1–3]. In addition,
1877. https://doi.org/10.3390/ corrosion resistance, high pressure resistance, and extreme temperature variations are also
s23041877 the major issues to be considered for the monitoring systems in marine environments [4].
Academic Editor: Paulo Antunes Traditionally, nondestructive SHM can be achieved by using the radioscope method [5], eddy
current method [6], and Lamb wave method [7]. However, these methods require the use of
Received: 31 December 2022 expensive and large equipment. Recently, some other types of economical and light-based
Revised: 1 February 2023
sensors, such as resistive strain gauges [8], piezoelectric elements [9,10], and optical fiber
Accepted: 4 February 2023
sensors (OFSs) [11–17], have been used for SHM.
Published: 7 February 2023
As regards to the OFSs, they are advantageous on the aspects of small size, light
weight, low power loss, anti-electromagnetic interference, corrosion resistance, extreme
temperature resistance, and easy embedding [18–21] and thus show great potential for SHM
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
in marine environments. This paper reviews the latest development and status of OFSs in
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. the marine SHM field within the last ten years. It should be noted that while there are some
This article is an open access article review papers on optical fiber sensing, they are focused on marine environment detection,
distributed under the terms and ocean observation, and ocean engineering [22–24]. For this review paper, emphases are
conditions of the Creative Commons given to the analysis, the characteristics, and applicable application scenarios in the marine
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// SHM field of different types of OFSs. This review is organized into four sections. Following
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ the introduction, Section 2 describes the classifications and principles of marine OFSs.
4.0/). Section 3 is narrowed down to the three most common typical marine OFSs (point sensing,
Sensors 2023, 23, 1877. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23041877 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2023, 23, 1877 2 of 22
quasi-distributed sensing, and distributed sensing). In this section, the working principles
and latest applications of the different types of OFSs are summarized and reviewed in
three sub-sections. In the Section 4, we give a conclusion and discuss a few market barriers
associated with the OFSs’ application. Some future development proposals of OFSs in the
marine SHM field are also put forward.
2. Classifications and Principles of Marine OFSs

Since the development of fiber optic technology by Charles Kao [25], fiber optic
communication has developed at an amazing speed and has been widely applied. With
the development of optoelectronic components, OFS has gradually attracted extensive
attentions. The optical fiber is a kind of optical waveguide, which is made of silica or
plastic with a large refractive index inside and a small refractive index outside that can be
used as a light conduction tool. To provide mechanical protection for optical fibers, they
are usually wrapped in a plastic coating. External perturbations will change the behavior
of the light transmitted in the fiber core. For fiber optic communications, this external
perturbation effect should be minimized. In contrast, the external induced effects are
intentionally amplified for optical fiber sensing technology. The characteristic parameters
of light (wavelength, intensity, phase, or polarization state) change as light travels through
the fiber. As a variety of sensors such as temperature, pressure, displacement, strain,
acceleration, and gyro, OFSs have been applied in many fields such as biomedicine [26],
aerospace [27], the petrochemical industry [28], and so on.
Any marine sensor must be resistant to high pressure and extreme temperatures.
Commercial optical fiber made of silica material can withstand pressures of approximately
2 × 105 Psi and can withstand extreme temperatures ranging from −170 ◦ C to 900 ◦ C,
approximately [29–31]. In addition, the single-ended OFS operation makes it ideal for
conducting on-site marine inspections. Despite all these advantages, OFSs still have
challenges in oceanography. Bio-fouling and corrosion must be considered for underwater
sensors. In order to protect the optical fiber from environmental damage and interference,
marine OFSs are usually packaged with materials such as steel and carbon-fiber-reinforced
plastic [32].
In the SHM field, OFSs are usually classified by the spatial distribution of the measured
objects, as shown in Figure 1. OFSs can be classified as:
(i) Optical fiber point sensors, used for measuring the discrete points, that mainly include
fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors [33,34] and interferometric sensors [35–37] in marine
health monitoring. Since FBG sensors can present multiplexing capabilities for quasi-
distributed sensors, its principle is described separately in Section 3.2. In Section 3.1,
we mainly introduce the principle of interference sensors in detail.
(ii) The quasi-distributed sensor used for measuring is a set of regularly distributed
spatial discrete points. As mentioned above, FBG is a point-like sensor with a small
gauge length and can be used for single-point sensing. The FBG sensor has developed
rapidly ever since the basic physics effect of FBG sensing was discovered. FBG based
on the wavelength division multiplex (WDM) principle could realize the multiplexed
arrays due to ultra-narrow spectral bandwidth. The quasi-distributed FBG sensing
network connects multiple FBGs together using signal transmission fibers. It is one of
the most popular wavelength-modulated sensors [38].
(iii) The distributed sensor is used to be continuously monitored in space. Different from
point or quasi-distributed sensing, the distributed optical fiber sensors (DOFSs) can
realize the detection of thousands of sensing points and offer the possibility of mea-
suring variations along the entire optical fiber. DOFS can obtain test data in the spatial
domain across a large distance by optical signal processing of backscattered light
induced at any point located on the sensing fiber. DOFS mainly includes reflection,
wavelength scanning, and interference methods. The reflection method is one of the
most popular methods to measure the backscattering light in the process of optical
measuring variations along the entire optical fiber. DOFS can obtain test data in the
spatial domain across a large distance by optical signal processing of backscattered
light induced at any point located on the sensing fiber. DOFS mainly includes reflec‐
Sensors 2023, 23, 1877 tion, wavelength scanning, and interference methods. The reflection method is3 ofone
22
of the most popular methods to measure the backscattering light in the process of
optical fiber transmission, mainly including two different types: optical frequency
domain reflectometry
fiber transmission, (OFDR)
mainly [39,40] and
including two optical time
different domain
types: reflectometry
optical (OTDR)
frequency domain
[41,42].
reflectometry (OFDR) [39,40] and optical time domain reflectometry (OTDR) [41,42].
Figure 1. Overview
Figure 1. Overview of
of optical
optical fiber
fiber sensing
sensing technologies
technologies for
for the
the SHM.
SHM.
Among them, the optical fiber interferometer, FBG sensor, and DOFS are the most
Among them, the optical fiber interferometer, FBG sensor, and DOFS are the most
widely applied in the marine SHM field. The following sections focus on these OFSs in the
widely applied in the marine SHM field. The following sections focus on these OFSs in
SHM of marine infrastructure and geomorphology.
the SHM of marine infrastructure and geomorphology.
3. Typical Applications of OFSs for Marine SHM
3. Typical Applications of OFSs for Marine SHM
3.1. Point Sensing (Interferometer)
3.1. Point Sensingfiber
The optical (Interferometer)
interference sensor is one of the most sensitive fiber sensors, mainly in-
Thethe
cluding optical fiber interference
Fabry–Perot sensor
interferometer is one
(FPI) [43],ofMach
the most
Zehndersensitive fiber sensors,
interferometer (MZI)mainly
[44],
including the
Michelson Fabry–Perot [45],
interferometer interferometer
and Sagnac(FPI) [43], Mach Zehnder
interferometers [46,47]. interferometer
MZI and FPI are (MZI)
the
[44], Michelson
most used in theinterferometer
marine SHM field.[45], and Sagnac interferometers [46,47]. MZI and FPI are
the most used in the marine SHM field.
3.1.1. Working Principles
3.1.1.MZI
Working Principles
is an optical device used to detect the relative phase-shift changes between two
collimating
MZI is beams
an opticalproduced
device by
usedsplitting
to detectlight
thefrom a source
relative using the
phase‐shift beambetween
changes splitter. two
For
typical optical fiber MZI, there are normally two independent fiber
collimating beams produced by splitting light from a source using the beam splitter. For arms including the
measuring arm and the reference arm [48–50], as shown in Figure
typical optical fiber MZI, there are normally two independent fiber arms including the 2a. Owing to the new
technology
measuring arm of optical
and the fiber micromachining,
reference arm [48–50], many in-lineinMZI
as shown configurations
Figure 2a. Owing to have
thebeen
new
used [51–55].ofThe
technology in-line
optical optical
fiber fiber MZI could
micromachining, many be based
in‐lineon MZIa variety of micro-structured
configurations have been
fiber
used sensing
[51–55]. elements,
The in‐lineasoptical
shownfiber
in Figure
MZI could2b [37,44,55].
be basedThison ain-line
varietyapproach allows the
of micro‐structured
interferometer to be miniaturized and integrated. FPI is an interference
fiber sensing elements, as shown in Figure 2b [37,44,55]. This in‐line approach allows cavity, and itthe is
possible obtain the multiple superpositions of reflected and transmitted
interferometer to be miniaturized and integrated. FPI is an interference cavity, and it is beams from the two
reflectors. Common
possible obtain optical fiber
the multiple FPIs are formed
superpositions by making
of reflected andreflectors
transmitted inside or outside
beams from the of
the fiber depending on the structure of the interferometric cavity [56,57].
two reflectors. Common optical fiber FPIs are formed by making reflectors inside or out‐ They are usually
classified
side of theinto extrinsic
fiber dependingFPIs on
(EFPI)
the or intrinsicofFPIs
structure (IFPI) [58,59], ascavity
the interferometric shown[56,57].
in Figure
They 2c.are
In
addition, the reflecting
usually classified surface can
into extrinsic FPIsalso be the
(EFPI) orinterfaces between
intrinsic FPIs (IFPI)two dielectrics
[58,59], or even
as shown in
Bragg gratings [60–62].
Figure 2c. In addition, the reflecting surface can also be the interfaces between two dielec‐
trics or
3.1.2. even Bragg gratings [60–62].
Applications
Optical fiber interferometers have been successfully used in applications by measuring
changes of the optical cavity’s parameters. The optical cavity can be active (integrating
a fiber laser sensor) [63–65] or passive (detecting the external parameters) [51,66–70]. As
shown in Figure 3, commercial optical fiber MZI can be found from some companies, such
as Optiphase Inc. (Berkeley, California, United States) and Thorlabs Inc. (Newton, New
Jersey, United States) [71,72]. Many companies can offer commercial optical fiber FPI, such
as Luna Inc. (Roanoke, Virginia, United States) and Fiso Inc. (Quebec, Canada) [73,74].
Many applications for measuring various types of parameters (strain, pressure, vibration,
Sensors 2023, 23, 1877 4 of 22
Figure 2. (a) Configurations of typical optical fiber MZI; (b) configurations of various types of in‐
line optical fiber MZIs. (b) Configuration of extrinsic (c) and intrinsic (d) FPI based on optical fiber.
Sensors 2023, 23, 1877 4 of 22
temperature, etc.) have been proposed using optical fiber interferometers due to their high
3.1.2. Applications
sensitivity. However, this review paper is focused on marine SHM applications.
Optical fiber interferometers have been successfully used in applications by measur‐
ing changes of the optical cavity’s parameters. The optical cavity can be active (integrating
temperature,
Figure2.2.(a) etc.) have beenof
(a)Configurations
Configurations proposed
typical usingfiber
optical optical
MZI; fiber interferometers ofdue to their high
Figure of typical optical fiber MZI; (b)(b) configurations
configurations various
of various types
types of in‐
of in-line
line optical fiber MZIs. (b) Configuration of extrinsic (c) and intrinsic (d) FPI based on optical fiber.
optical fiber MZIs. (b) Configuration of extrinsic (c) and intrinsic (d) FPI based on optical fiber.
3.1.2. Applications
Optical fiber interferometers have been successfully used in applications by measur‐
ing changes of the optical cavity’s parameters. The optical cavity can be active (integrating
temperature, etc.) have been proposed using optical fiber interferometers due to their high
Figure 3. Several commercial optical fiber MZIs [12,13] (a) and FPIs [14,15] (b).
Through the detection of deep-sea pressure, underwater temperature, seabed sound
Through
waves, and so the
on,detection of deep‐sea
the optical pressure, underwater
fiber interferometer can realizetemperature, seabedgeomor-
the SHM of marine sound
waves, and so on, the optical fiber interferometer can realize the SHM
phology (such as tsunamis and earthquakes) [75–80], submarine cables [81–84], offshore of marine geomor‐
phology
platforms(such as tsunamis
[85–87], and otherand earthquakes)
marine structures.[75–80], submarine cables [81–84], offshore
platforms
Marra[85–87], andproduced
et al. [75] other marine structures.
a laser based on FP cavities, which is an ultralow expansion
Marra
cavity. Theetlight
al. [75]
from produced a laser
the FP laser wasbased on FP
injected cavities,
at one end of which is an ultralow
the submarine link expan‐
with an
sion cavity. The light from the FP laser was injected at one end of the submarine
optical fiber pair. Different optical fibers correspond to different propagation directions, link withas
an optical fiber pair. Different optical fibers correspond to different propagation
shown in Figure 4. At the far end of the submarine link, two optical fibers are connected to direc‐
tions,
form as shown
a loop in Figure
so that 4. At
the light the far
returns to end of the submarine
the transmitter. link, twothe
By measuring optical
phasefibers are
difference
connected to form
of the returned a loop
optical so that
signals andthe light returns
injected to the
light source transmitter.
using By measuring
a photodetector, the
the authors
phase difference
realized of theofreturned
the detection local andoptical
remotesignals and injected
earthquakes. light source
Furthermore, using the
monitoring a
seawater pressure also can detect tsunamis and earthquakes [88]. Qi et al. [76] proposed
a small-size marine pressure measuring system including an ultra-high pressure optical
fiber FP interferometer
Through and of
the detection miniaturized phase demodulating
deep‐sea pressure, system. Pressure
underwater temperature, seabedfatigue
sound
and hydrostatic pressure were tested in order to meet the requirements of marine pressure-
waves, and so on, the optical fiber interferometer can realize the SHM of marine geomor‐
testing applications. The experimental results showed that this sensor can steadily work in
phology (such as tsunamis and earthquakes) [75–80], submarine cables [81–84], offshore
the range of 2–120 MPa for a long time. This sensing system can meet the requirements of
platforms [85–87], and other marine structures.
pressure measurements throughout the ocean and can be applied to the ocean-profiling
Marra et al. [75] produced a laser based on FP cavities, which is an ultralow expan‐
measurement program named the Argo plan. Duraibabu et al. [77] reported a novel
sion cavity. The light from the FP laser was injected at one end of the submarine link with
miniature extrinsic FP interferometer for accurate measurement of marine pressure, which
an optical fiber pair. Different optical fibers correspond to different propagation direc‐
was mechanically robust, corrosion resistant, and suitable for underwater detection. This
tions, as shown in Figure 4. At the far end of the submarine link, two optical fibers are
connected to form a loop so that the light returns to the transmitter. By measuring the
phase difference of the returned optical signals and injected light source using a
system. Pressure fatigue and hydrostatic pressure were tested in order to meet the re‐
quirements of marine pressure‐testing applications. The experimental results showed that
this sensor can steadily work in the range of 2–120 MPa for a long time. This sensing sys‐
tem can meet the requirements of pressure measurements throughout the ocean and can
Sensors 2023, 23, 1877 be applied to the ocean‐profiling measurement program named the Argo plan. Duraibabu 5 of 22
et al. [77] reported a novel miniature extrinsic FP interferometer for accurate measurement
of marine pressure, which was mechanically robust, corrosion resistant, and suitable for
underwater detection.
FP sensing system wasThis FP sensing
mounted system was
on a remotely mounted
operated on a remotely
underwater operated
vehicle (ROV)un‐ to
derwater
detect thevehicle (ROV)
pressure to detect
variation by the pressure
online variation
monitoring theby online monitoring
reflected the reflected
optical spectrum. The
optical spectrum.
operating The operating
performances performances
of this sensor of this
exceed those sensor exceed
of commercial those of commercial
ROV-mounted sensors,
ROV‐mounted sensors, such as accuracy (25 mm) and resolution
such as accuracy (25 mm) and resolution (5 mm). In addition, fiber optic (5 mm). In addition,
hydrophonesfiber
optic hydrophones based on the interference principle can be used for
based on the interference principle can be used for SHM through acoustic sensing. It is verySHM through
acousticfor
suitable sensing. It is very
SHM with suitable
the slot type for SHM with
damage, such the slot type damage,
as underwater such and
earthquake as underwa‐
pipeline
ter earthquake and pipeline leakage [89–91]. For example, Jin et al. [79]
leakage [89–91]. For example, Jin et al. [79] discussed and validated a fiber optic vector discussed and
validated a fiber optic vector hydrophone based on FP interferometry.
hydrophone based on FP interferometry. This vector hydrophone combined the advantages This vector hydro‐
phone
of smallcombined
size, low the
cost,advantages of small size, low cost, and high reliability.
and high reliability.
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Detection
Detection of
of local
local and
and remote
remote earthquakes
earthquakes using
using aa laser
laser based
based on
onFP
FPcavities.
cavities. Reprinted
Reprinted
with permission from [75].
with permission from [75].
Withthe
With thecontinuous
continuousdevelopment
developmentofof global
global communications,
communications, gigameters
gigameters of subma‐
of submarine
rine cables encircle the global seabed. As an important infrastructure,
cables encircle the global seabed. As an important infrastructure, it is very importantit is very important
to monitor the damage and temperature of submarine cable. At present,
to monitor the damage and temperature of submarine cable. At present, the submarine the submarine
cables are
cables are typically
typically submerged
submerged to a depth of several kilometers in the deep sea [92,93].
The submarine
The submarine opticaloptical fiber
fiber composite
composite cable
cable unit
unit has
has been
been developed
developed rapidly
rapidly because
because itit
can realize
can realize cable
cable monitoring
monitoring while transmitting power without increasing the cost [94].
Gao
Gao etet al.
al.[81]
[81]designed
designedan an online
online monitoring
monitoring system
system based
based on a bidirectional MZ inter‐ inter-
ferometer
ferometer for for submarine
submarine cable.
cable. Different optical fibers inside
inside the
the submarine
submarine cablecable were
were
selected as the sensing arms of the MZ interferometer. During the vibration
selected as the sensing arms of the MZ interferometer. During the vibration positioning positioning
tests,
tests, the submarine
submarine cable
cablewaswasplaced
placedininthe
the cable
cable pool,
pool, as as shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 5. The
5. The au-
authors
thors knocked on different locations of submarine cable at different depths and real-time
monitored the sensing response signals. The experimental results showed that this MZ
interferometric sensor system can effectively monitor the vibration events of submarine
cables, and the average positioning error was 13.23 m. Wang et al. [84] reported a double
MZ distributed optical fiber sensing technology for monitoring submarine cables. The
MZ vibration sensing system is designed both in software and hardware. An optimized
measuring scheme was put forward in anticipation of the possible problem of false alarm
in the future application of the monitoring system.
itored the sensing response signals. The experimental results showed that this MZ inter‐
ferometric sensor system can effectively monitor the vibration events of submarine cables,
and the average positioning error was 13.23 m. Wang et al. [84] reported a double MZ
distributed optical fiber sensing technology for monitoring submarine cables. The MZ vi‐
bration sensing system is designed both in software and hardware. An optimized meas‐
Sensors 2023, 23, 1877 6 of 22
uring scheme was put forward in anticipation of the possible problem of false alarm in
the future application of the monitoring system.
Figure5.5. Online
Figure Online submarine
submarinecable
cablemonitoring
monitoringsystem using
system bidirectional
using MZMZ
bidirectional interferometer. Re‐
interferometer.
printed with permission from [81].
Reprinted with permission from [81].
Forthe
For thepast
pastfewfewdecades,
decades,thetheOFS
OFSapplication
applicationininthe
thegas
gasand
andoiloilindustry
industryhas
hasgrown
grown
substantially.ItIthas
substantially. hasbeen
beenused
usedforformonitoring
monitoringoffshore
offshoreplatforms
platforms(such
(suchasaspipelines
pipelinesand
and
downholes)by
downholes) bydetecting
detectingthe
thetemperature,
temperature,the thepressure,
pressure,and
andsosoon.
on.Among
Amongthem,
them,optical
optical
fiberinterferometers
fiber interferometershave havebeen
beenwidely
widelyapplied
appliedfor
forthe
thedetection
detectionofofpipeline
pipelineleakage
leakageandand
downhole pressure
downhole pressure [85–87]. However, they have become commercialized
However, they have become commercialized on drilling on drilling plat‐
forms without
platforms without revolutionary
revolutionarytechnological innovations
technological innovationsin the past
in the tenten
past years.
years.
Duetotothe
Due thelocal
local single‐point
single-point sensing
sensing characteristics,
characteristics, optical
optical fiberfiber FP interferometers
FP interferometers are
are mainly
mainly focusedfocused on submarine
on submarine earthquakes,
earthquakes, and optical
and optical fiber MZfiber MZ interferometers
interferometers are mainlyare
mainly on
focused focused on submarine
submarine cables.
cables. The OFSsThe OFSs
based onbased on interferometers
interferometers and correspond‐
and corresponding main
ing main
marine marine monitoring
monitoring contents
contents are are in
presented presented
Table 1. in Table 1.
Table1.1.Interferometric
Table InterferometricOFSs
OFSsfor
forSHM.
SHM.
Monitoring Item Sensors andand

Sensors Configuration Variables Authors Year
Monitoring Item Variables Authors Year
Configuration
FP laser based on ultralow expansion cavity Phase difference Marra et al. [75] 2018
Submarine earth‐ Miniaturized
FP laser FP pressure
based measuring system
on ultralow Pressure Qi et al. [76] 2019
Phase difference Marra et al. [75] 2018
quake expansion cavity
Fiber vector hydrophone based on FP inter‐
Acoustic Jin et al. [79] 2018
ferometry
Miniaturized FP pressure
Pressure Qi et al. [76] 2019
measuringMZ
Bidirectional system
interferometer Vibration Gao et al. [81] 2020
Submarine
Damage earthquake
of submarine
DoubleFiber
MZ vector hydrophone
distributed optical fiber sensing
Acoustic
cable based on FP interferometry Vibration Jin et al. Wang
[79] et al. [84] 2018 2014
system
Bidirectional MZ
Vibration Gao et al. [81] 2020
interferometer
Damage of submarine cable Double MZ distributed
Vibration Wang et al. [84] 2014
optical fiber sensing system
3.2. Quasi-Distributed Sensing (WDM-FBG)

Quasi-distributed sensing technology can realize multi-point simultaneous detec-
tion. In the optical fiber sensing field, the quasi-distributed sensing usually refers to
WDM-FBG technology.
WDM‐FBG technology.
3.2.1. Working Principle

Sensors 2023, 23, 1877
FBG is formed by inducing a periodic RI perturbation along the length of the 7fiber of 22
core [95,96]. As a selective optical filter, FBG could reflect a part of the incident with the
selected wavelength3.2.1.
while the rest
Working of the incident light passes through. The Bragg wave‐
Principle
length is related to the grating period,
FBG is formed whichaisperiodic
by inducing altered by tensionalong
RI perturbation or compression
the length of the(suchfiber
as mechanical or thermal loads).
core [95,96]. AsIn general,optical
a selective the quasi‐distributed
filter, FBG could reflect optical
a part fiber
of thesensing sys‐
incident with
the selected wavelength while the rest of the incident
tem is actually a multiplexing system of multiple discrete OFSs, including WDM, time light passes through. The Bragg
wavelength is related to the grating period, which is altered by tension or compression
division multiplexing,
(suchfrequency
as mechanicaldivision
or thermalmultiplexing,
loads). In general,and space division
the quasi-distributed multiplexing.
optical fiber sensing
The WDM‐FBG sensing systemsystem
is actuallycan be realized
a multiplexing systembyofwriting several
multiple discrete FBGs
OFSs, withWDM,
including different
time
division multiplexing, frequency division multiplexing,
periods and/or effective RI in the same fiber. Figure 6 shows that the WDM‐FBG sensor and space division multiplexing.
The WDM-FBG sensing system can be realized by writing several FBGs with different
can clearly distinguish different
periods Bragg wavelengths
and/or effective using
RI in the same fiber. the6 same
Figure optical
shows that fiber line.
the WDM-FBG The
sensor
in‐line optical connection property
can clearly of FBG
distinguish makes
different Bragg it feasible to
wavelengths build
using up fiber
the same opticaloptic
fiber sensing
line. The
networks [97]. in-line optical connection property of FBG makes it feasible to build up fiber optic sensing
networks [97].
Figure 6. Operating
Figure 6. Operating principle principle of quasi-distributed
of quasi‐distributed FBG sensor. FBG sensor.
3.2.2. Applications
3.2.2. Applications Unlike the local point sensors, quasi-distributed sensors are suitable for monitoring
large structures because there is no need to install transmission fibers at each test site
Unlike the localseparately
point sensors,
[98]. Due quasi‐distributed sensorsthe
to its reliability and robustness, are suitablesensor
WDM-FBG for monitoring
has revealed
large structures because there is no
great application need at
potential toquasi-distributed
install transmission fibers
sensing fields at each teststrain,
of temperature, site pres-
sep‐
sure, and ultrasound detection [99–102]. As shown in Figure
arately [98]. Due to its reliability and robustness, the WDM‐FBG sensor has revealed great 7, FBG is one of the most
mature OFSs at present, and many companies sell photoelectric products or transducers
application potentialbased
at quasi‐distributed
on FBG sensing technology,sensing fields
such as ofInc.
Roctest temperature,
(Saint-Lambert,strain,
Canada)pressure,
and HBM
and ultrasound detection [99–102].
Fibersensing As shown
Inc. (Darmsdart, in Figure
Germany) 7, FBG
[103,104]. is onetheofquasi-distributed
At present, the most mature FBG
sensors have already been applied in a wide range of industries.
OFSs at present, and many companies sell photoelectric products or transducers based on SHM is the most active
area of application for quasi-distributed FBG sensors [105–113]. Several FBG sensing ele-
FBG sensing technology, suchbeas
ments could RoctestorInc.
embedded (Saint‐Lambert,
attached to the monitoringCanada)
structures and HBM Fiber‐
and connected to an
sensing Inc. (Darmsdart,
optical Germany) [103,104].
fiber sensing network. At present,
At present, thehalf
more than quasi‐distributed
of the SHM-OFS projectsFBG have
sen‐
opted for quasi-distributed FBG sensors [114]. This paper focuses
sors have already been applied in a wide range of industries. SHM is the most active area on the marine SHM field.
FBG sensors have demonstrated superior performance in the long-term real-time health
of application for quasi‐distributed FBG sensors [105–113]. Several FBG sensing elements
monitoring of marine areas.
could be embedded or attached to the monitoring structures and connected to an optical
fiber sensing network. At present, more than half of the SHM‐OFS projects have opted for
quasi‐distributed FBG sensors [114]. This paper focuses on the marine SHM field. FBG
sensors have demonstrated superior performance in the long‐term real‐time health mon‐
itoring of marine areas.
Sensors
Sensors2023,
2023,23,
23,1877
1877 8 of
8 of2222
Severalcommercial
Figure7.7.Several
Figure commercialFBG
FBGsensing
sensingelements
elementsand
andunits
units[103,104].
[103,104].
Due to its characteristics of multi-point monitoring, a quasi-distributed FBG sensor can

Due to its characteristics of multi‐point monitoring, a quasi‐distributed FBG sensor
realize the health monitoring of marine structures such as drilling platforms [112,115–124],
can realize the health monitoring of marine structures such as drilling platforms [112,115–
submarine pipelines [116,125–127], bridges [3,128–133], dams [134–137], and hulls [15,138–145].
124], submarine pipelines [116,125–127], bridges [3,128–133], dams [134–137], and hulls
Compared with the traditional sensors, FBG sensors offer the possibility of strain
[15,138–145].
and temperature measurements under some harsh conditions, for example, of 20–200 ◦ C
Compared with the traditional sensors, FBG sensors offer the possibility of strain and
temperature [146,147] and 0.1–100 MPa pressure [148,149]. Therefore, FBG sensors with
temperature measurements under some harsh conditions, for example, of 20–200 °C tem‐
good stability and large operating range can be used for long-term downhole monitoring.
perature [146,147] and 0.1–100 MPa pressure[148,149]. Therefore, FBG sensors with good
Xu et al. [115] developed an FBG-based bundle-structure riser stress-monitoring sensor to
stability and large operating range can be used for long‐term downhole monitoring. Xu et
meet the requirements of riser safety monitoring in offshore oil fields. A 49-day marine test
al.
in[115]
waterdeveloped an FBG‐based
depths of 1365 m and 1252 bundle‐structure
m was carried out riser
onstress‐monitoring
the “HYSY-981” ocean sensor oiltodrilling
meet
the requirements
platform. of riserwas
This sensor safety monitoring
installed on theinrisers
offshore oil fields.
without welding A 49‐day marinemaking
and pasting, test in
water depths of 1365 m and 1252 m was carried out on the “HYSY‐981”
the installation convenient, reliable, and harmless to the risers. The testing results agreed ocean oil drilling
platform.
basically This
withsensor was installed
the mechanical on the risers
simulation results.without
Wang welding
et al. [119]and pasting,different
explored making FBG the
installation convenient, reliable, and harmless to the risers. The testing
packaging materials applied in the offshore drilling platform in the salt-fog environment. results agreed ba‐
sically
Authors with the corrosion-resistant
chose mechanical simulation results.materials
packaging Wang et(FR-4al. [119]
epoxyexplored
board,different FBG
sheet molding
packaging
compound, materials
and sheet applied
molding in compound)
the offshorefor drilling
the FBG platform
sensinginelement
the salt‐fog environment.
and realized the im-
Authors chose corrosion‐resistant packaging materials (FR‐4 epoxy
provement of corrosion resistance and sensitivity of the sensing system. This work offered board, sheet molding
compound, and sheet
useful information formolding compound)
OFS development for marine
in the the FBGSHM sensing
field.element and realized
The dynamic response theof
improvement of corrosion resistance and sensitivity of the sensing
the submarine oil pipeline under external force or seismic excitation is a coupled vibrationsystem. This work of‐
fered useful information for OFS development in the marine SHM
of liquid and solid interaction. Due to its advantages of being explosion proof and having field. The dynamic re‐
sponse of the submarine
high accuracy, the FBG oil pipeline
sensor under external
is suitable force orthe
for monitoring seismic excitation
response caused is submarine
a coupled
vibration of liquidCabral
pipeline leakage. and solidet al.interaction. Due to itsan
[127] demonstrated advantages
approach to of monitoring
being explosion proof
a pipeline’s
and having
bonded high
joints accuracy,
during the FBG
assembly andsensor
operationis suitable
using FBG for monitoring
sensors embedded the response
into thecaused
joints’
submarine pipeline
adhesive layer. Thisleakage.
approach Cabral
was et al. [127]
shown to bedemonstrated an approach
adequate to monitor to monitoring
the assembly of the
ajoints
pipeline’s bonded
and the jointseffectively
pipelines, during assembly
coveringand operation
all stages of theusing FBG sensors
pipeline’s lifecycle.embedded
This work
into
can the
findjoints’ adhesive
wide use layer. This
for monitoring approach
plastic was shown
and composite to be adequate
pipelines that make to usemonitor the
of adhesive-
assembly of theZhou
bonded joints. jointsetand the pipelines,
al. [125] effectively
experimentally studiedcovering all stages
the dynamic of the pipeline’s
characteristics of FBG
lifecycle. This commercial
sensors and work can find widegauges
strain use forfixed
monitoring plastic and composite
to the underwater pipeline. The pipelines that
theoretical
make use of adhesive‐bonded
and experimental results showed joints. Zhou
that the etFBGal. [125]
sensorexperimentally
was superior to studied the dynamic
a commercial strain
gauge and satisfied
characteristics of FBGthe dynamic
sensors and monitoring
commercialrequirements
strain gaugesof submarine
fixed pipeline. pipe‐
to the underwater
line. The theoretical and experimental results showed that the FBG sensor was superior to
Sensors 2023, 23, 1877 9 of 22
Sensors 2023, 23, 1877 a commercial strain gauge and satisfied the dynamic monitoring requirements of subma‐ 9 of 22
rine pipeline.
FBG sensors have shown good performance for marine SHM of civil engineering
composite structures,
FBG sensors have ensuring
shown theirgoodstructural
performance reliability,
for marine durability,
SHM of and
civilintegrity.
engineering The
real‐time SHM of long‐span bridges is one of the most representative
composite structures, ensuring their structural reliability, durability, and integrity. The applications for FBG
sensors
real-time [150,151]. Yan et al. bridges
SHM of long-span [3] designed is onethe SHM
of the mostsystem for the Hong
representative Kong‐Zhuhai‐
applications for FBG
Macao Bridge. In total, 277 sensors were installed on the
sensors [150,151]. Yan et al. [3] designed the SHM system for the Hong Kong-Zhuhai-section of the Qingzhou Shipping
Channel
Macao Bridge.Bridge,Inwithtotal,the277largest
sensorsincluding
were installeda lot on
of the
FBGsection
temperature sensors and
of the Qingzhou FBG
Shipping
strain
Channel sensors
Bridge, in with
different locations.
the largest For this
including a lotmonitoring system, the
of FBG temperature FBGand
sensors sensors pos‐
FBG strain
sessed good time‐frequency resolution compared with other
sensors in different locations. For this monitoring system, the FBG sensors possessed good types of sensors. Hu et al.
[131] developed an FBG vibration sensor for online monitoring
time-frequency resolution compared with other types of sensors. Hu et al. [131] developed of the cable vibration char‐
acteristics of Tongwamen
an FBG vibration sensor Bridge.
for online Themonitoring
monitored vibration
of the cable frequency
vibration was converted into
characteristics of
cable
Tongwamen Bridge. to
force according Thethemonitored
string vibrationvibration theory. The FBG
frequency wasarrays were mounted
converted into cablesym‐ force
metrically
accordingon to 8the
of string
19 cables to achieve
vibration theory.an indirect
The FBG measurement
arrays were of bridge cable
mounted force. In
symmetrically
addition,
on 8 of 19 ancables
FBG liquid‐level
to achieve an system
indirect as the SHM‐OFS has
measurement been used
of bridge cableinforce.
large In infrastruc‐
addition,
tures
an FBG[152]. For example,
liquid-level system Rodrigues et al. [128]
as the SHM-OFS applied
has been used FBG inliquid‐level sensors to con‐
large infrastructures [152].
crete bridges. This methodology is based on a hydrostatic leveling
For example, Rodrigues et al. [128] applied FBG liquid-level sensors to concrete bridges. system and the appli‐
cation of the communicating
This methodology is based on vessels principleleveling
a hydrostatic to an internal
systemhydraulic system, which
and the application of theis
installed along the
communicating structure
vessels and reaches
principle the relevant
to an internal points
hydraulic wherein
system, whichthe is
relative
installed vertical
along
the structure is
displacement and
goingreaches
to bethe relevantThis
measured. points wherein
sensing the relative
system vertical
with a total of 30displacement
optical‐basedis
goingtransducers
strain to be measured. was This sensing system
successfully appliedwith a total
for the of 30 Bridge.
Lezíria optical-based strain transducers
was Similar
successfully applied
to bridges, for the
dams areLezíria
also theBridge.
common application area for FBG sensors due
Similar to bridges, dams
to their enormous size. In recent years, many are also the common hydroapplication
power plantsarea for FBGoperated
were sensors due by
to their enormous size. In recent years, many hydro
pumped storage, which requires additional equipment available for monitoring. An FBG‐ power plants were operated by
pumped
based storage, system
monitoring which requires
was reported additional equipmentetavailable
by Monsberger al. [134] andfor monitoring.
successfully in‐ An
FBG-based
stalled insidemonitoring
a hydro power systemdam. was reported
This by Monsberger
FBG sensing et al. [134]
system possessed and high
a very successfully
spatial
installed inside
resolution a hydrolevel)
(millimeter power bydam.
using This
an FBG sensing
optical system reflectometer.
backscatter possessed a very Ashigh
shown spatial
in
resolution (millimeter level) by using an optical backscatter
Figure 8a, there were 15 concrete joints with FBG sensing elements in one of the mainte‐ reflectometer. As shown in
Figure 8a, there were 15 concrete joints with FBG sensing elements
nance corridors, and the whole measuring chain was divided into three separate chains. in one of the maintenance
corridors,
The and the
FBG sensing unitwhole measuring
for each link was chain was divided
mounted above theintomanual
three separate chains. bolt
measurement The andFBG
sensing unit for each link was mounted above the manual
can be measured individually (Figure 8b). The experimental results demonstrate that the measurement bolt and can be
measured
optical individually
backscatter (Figuremethod
reflectance 8b). Theis experimental results demonstrate
suitable for analyzing FBG networks. that the optical
Regina et
backscatter reflectance method is suitable for analyzing FBG
al. [137] designed an FBG‐based inclinometer for landslide monitoring in dams. By detect‐ networks. Regina et al. [137]
designed
ing lateral an FBG-based inclinometer
displacements, the cubic spline for landslide monitoring
interpolation method in dams.
was usedBy detecting lateral
to reconstruct
displacements, the cubic spline interpolation method was
the tube profile. The testing results showed a good agreement between the curve recon‐ used to reconstruct the tube
profile. The testing results showed
struction and the plotted data of field measurements. a good agreement between the curve reconstruction and
the plotted data of field measurements.
SHMwithin
Figure8.8.SHM
Figure withinthe
thehydro
hydropower
powerdam
damusing
usingquasi‐distributed
quasi-distributedFBG
FBGsensor.
sensor.(a)
(a)Layout
Layoutscheme;
scheme;
(b)one
(b) oneof
ofthe
theinstalled
installedFBG
FBGsensors
sensorswithin
withinthe
themaintenance
maintenancecorridors
corridorsof
ofthe
thedam.
dam.Reprinted
Reprintedwith
with
permission
permissionfrom
from[134].
[134].
Themilitary,
The military,suchsuchas asthe
theUnited
UnitedStates
StatesNavy,
Navy, has
hasshown
showngreat
greatinterest
interestin
inthe
theOFS
OFS
application for ships [153,154]. Among the OFSs, the FBG sensor has received
application for ships [153,154]. Among the OFSs, the FBG sensor has received a lot of at‐a lot of atten-
tion because
tention because it it
cancanbebeused
usedfor
forSHM
SHMin incomposite-hulled
composite‐hulled crafts. Komoriyamaet
crafts. Komoriyama etal.
al.[138]
[138]
used FBG pressure sensors for hull structural strength evaluation. The towing
used FBG pressure sensors for hull structural strength evaluation. The towing tank test tank test
was carried out with an elastic ship model to investigate the FBG reliability
was carried out with an elastic ship model to investigate the FBG reliability for strengthfor strength
evaluation. By installing FBG sensors outside and inside the hull, the authors obtained
actual water pressure. Furthermore, the vertical bending moment was obtained by interpo-
lation algorithm and finite element analysis. The interpolation algorithm for pressure on
the hull’s surface illustrated that point A was interpolated by using that of points 1 to 4 in
Sensors 2023, 23, 1877 10 of 22
evaluation. By installing FBG sensors outside and inside the hull, the authors obtained
Sensors 2023, 23, 1877 actual water pressure. Furthermore, the vertical bending moment was obtained by10inter‐ of 22
polation algorithm and finite element analysis. The interpolation algorithm for pressure
on the hull’s surface illustrated that point A was interpolated by using that of points 1 to
4 in Figure 9. The test results verified that the water pressure measurement based on the
Figure 9. The test results verified that the water pressure measurement based on the FBG
FBG sensor
sensor was effective
was effective in evaluating
in evaluating the strength
the strength of hull
of hull structural
structural strength.
strength. Tempera‐
Temperature
ture monitoring is very important to evaluate the thermodynamic performance
monitoring is very important to evaluate the thermodynamic performance of the auxiliary of the aux‐
iliary machinery, piping, and chillers of traditional ships or hydrogen
machinery, piping, and chillers of traditional ships or hydrogen and natural gas storage and natural gas
storage tanks of new energy ships. The FBG sensor has promoted
tanks of new energy ships. The FBG sensor has promoted the development of the hullthe development of the
hull safety monitoring system for the past few years. Han et al. [139]
safety monitoring system for the past few years. Han et al. [139] employed FBG sensingemployed FBG sens‐
ing technology
technology to monitor
to monitor the temperature
the temperature of aof a cryogenic
cryogenic storage
storage tank,
tank, pipeline,
pipeline, and and wa‐
water
ter chiller. Through a series of experiments in a wide temperature range,
chiller. Through a series of experiments in a wide temperature range, the FBG sensors the FBG sensors
withtemperature-sensitive
with temperature‐sensitivemetal metalcoating
coatingmaterials
materialswere
wereproved
provedto tohave
havebetter
betterreliability
reliability
for long‐term temperature measurements and higher safety than those
for long-term temperature measurements and higher safety than those of the traditional of the traditional
thermistors. In
thermistors. In addition,
addition, other
other interference
interference parameters,
parameters, such
such asas humidity
humidity and
and vibration,
vibration,
hadlittle
had littleimpact
impacton onthe
thetemperature
temperatureresponse
responseof ofFBG.
FBG.This
Thiswork
workprovided
providedsupports
supportsand and
referencesfor
references forthe
thesafety
safetyperformance
performancetest testplatform
platformofofthe
theship.
ship.
Figure9.9.Hull
Figure Hullstructural
structuralstrength
strengthevaluation
evaluation using
using FBG
FBG pressure
pressure sensors.
sensors. Reprinted
Reprinted withwith permis‐
permission
sion [138].
from from [138].
Considering quasi-distributed
Considering quasi‐distributed sensing
sensing characteristics,
characteristics, thethe above
above examples
examples demon-
demon‐
stratedthat
strated thatFBG
FBGsensors
sensors
areare particularly
particularly suitable
suitable for for
the the large‐size
large-size marine
marine SHMSHM of off‐
of offshore
shore platforms,
platforms, bridges,
bridges, dams,dams,
hulls, hulls, etc. OFSs
etc. OFSs based
based on theon WDM-FBG
the WDM‐FBG andand correspond‐
corresponding
ing main
main marine
marine monitoring
monitoring contents
contents are presented
are presented in Table
in Table 2. 2.
Table2.2.WDM-FBG-based
Table WDM‐FBG‐basedOFSs
OFSsfor
forSHM.
SHM.
Monitoring Item
Monitoring Item Sensors
Sensors andand Configuration
Configuration Variables
Variables Authors
Authors YearYear
FBG‐based bundle‐structure riser
FBG-based bundle-structure
riserstress
stress monitoring sensor
Stress
Stress XuXu et[115]
et al. al. [115] 20152015
Drilling platforms
monitoring sensor
Drilling platforms
FBG
FBG sensors embeddedtheinto the
sensors embedded into
Strain
Strain Cabral et al.et[127]
Cabral al.[127] 20202020
joints’ adhesive layer
joints’ adhesive layer
FBG-based temperature and Temperature/
FBG‐based temperature
strain sensing arrays and strain Temperature/
Strain
Yan et al. [3] 2019
Bridges Yan et al. [3] 2019
sensing arrays
FBG arrays based the theory of
Strain
Bridges Vibration Hu et al. [131] 2017
FBG arrays based the theory of
string vibration
Vibration Hu et al. [131] 2017
FBG monitoringstring vibration
system using an
Strain Monsberger et al. [134] 2017
opticalmonitoring
FBG backscatter reflectometer
system using an
Dams Strain Monsberger et al. [134] 2017
FBG-based
optical inclinometerreflectometer
backscatter arrays
Displacement Regina et al. [137] 2021
Dams fixed along a flexible tube
FBG‐based inclinometer arrays
FBG sensors based on finite Displacement
Pressure/ Regina et al. [137]
Komoriyama et al. [138] 2020
2021
fixed along
element a flexible tube
analysis Strain
Hulls FBG sensors with
temperature-sensitive metal Temperature Han et al. [139] 2021
coating materials
FBG sensors based on finite element Pressure/
Komoriyama et al. [138] 2020
analysis Strain
Hulls
FBG sensors with temperature‐sen‐
Temperature Han et al. [139] 2021
Sensors 2023, 23, 1877 sitive metal coating materials 11 of 22
3.3. Distributed Sensing (DOFS)

3.3. Distributed Sensing
For distributed (DOFS)
sensing systems, scattered signals can be used for monitoring along
the entire length of the fiber. DOFS serves
For distributed sensing systems, as both
scattered a transmission
signals can be usedfiber and transducer
for monitoring in
along
the sensing system, which is one of the best potential applications of optical fiber
the entire length of the fiber. DOFS serves as both a transmission fiber and transducer sensing
technology.
in the sensing system, which is one of the best potential applications of optical fiber
sensing technology.
3.3.1. Working Principle
3.3.1.When
Working Principle
a ray, which could be of any wavelength, is emitted into an optical fiber, most
of theWhen
light atravels
ray, which
throughcouldthebe of any
fiber, wavelength,
while is emitted
a small fraction into an optical
is backscattered. fiber,
The most
property
of the light travels
information of the through the fiber,
optical fiber whilebya the
affected small fraction is backscattered.
environment can be provided Theby prop-
the
erty information
backscattered of the
light. optical
There are fiber
threeaffected
different bybasic
the environment can be for
scattering theories provided
DOFS:by the
linear
backscattered
Rayleigh scatteringlight. [155],
Therenonlinear
are three Raman
different basic scattering
scattering [156], or theories
Brillouinfor DOFS: linear
scattering [157].
Rayleigh
The scattered light can be categorized into the three wave bands, and the schematic [157].
scattering [155], nonlinear Raman scattering [156], or Brillouin scattering spec‐
The scattered
tra are shownlight can be10.
in Figure categorized into the three
Rayleigh scattered lightwave bands,
possesses theand thewavelength
same schematic spectra
as the
are shown
light in Figure
source, whereas 10.wavelengths
Rayleigh scattered light possesses
of scattered light shiftthe forsame wavelength
Brillouin as the light
and Raman. Ray‐
source, whereas wavelengths of scattered light shift for Brillouin
leigh scattering in DOFS technology is primarily employed to test propagation and Raman. Rayleigh
effects
scattering in DOFS technology
(such as attenuation is primarilyvariation,
and gain, polarization employed orto test interference).
phase propagation effects (such
So, Rayleigh
as attenuation and gain, polarization variation, or phase interference).
scattered light in optical fiber is sensitive to fiber deformation and variation of tempera‐So, Rayleigh scat-
tered light in optical fiber is sensitive to fiber deformation and variation
ture or magnetic field. DOFS‐based Rayleigh scattering is widely applied in strain [158] of temperature or
magnetic field. DOFS-based Rayleigh scattering is widely applied
and temperature [159] measurement. Raman scattering induces a frequency shift interre‐in strain [158] and tem-
perature
lated with [159]
the measurement.
stretching modes Raman scattering
between atoms, induces
which adepends
frequency onshift interrelated with
the temperature vari‐
the stretching modes between atoms, which depends on the temperature variation [160].
ation [160]. The temperature dependencies of Stokes and anti‐Stokes Raman scattering are
The temperature dependencies of Stokes and anti-Stokes Raman scattering are described in
described in Figure 10 [161]. This makes DOFS sensitive to temperature change. DOFS
Figure 10 [161]. This makes DOFS sensitive to temperature change. DOFS based on Raman
based on Raman scattering is usually applied in distributed temperature sensing (DTS)
scattering is usually applied in distributed temperature sensing (DTS) using the OTDR or
using the OTDR or OFDR method [162–165]. Brillouin scattering is intrinsically dependent
OFDR method [162–165]. Brillouin scattering is intrinsically dependent on the fiber density,
on the fiber density, which in turn depends on temperature and strain, since Brillouin
which in turn depends on temperature and strain, since Brillouin scattering can be applied
scattering can be applied for temperature and strain DOFSs [166,167].
for temperature and strain DOFSs [166,167].
Figure 10.
Figure 10. Light
Light emission
emission from
from Rayleigh,
Rayleigh, Raman,
Raman, and
and Brillouin
Brillouinscattering.
scattering.
3.3.2.
3.3.2. Applications
Applications
In
In addition
addition to
to the
the advantages
advantages of
of optical
optical fiber
fiber sensing,
sensing, an
an additional
additional benefit
benefit associated
associated
with
withDOFSDOFSisisthat
thatititrequires
requiresonly
onlya asingle
singleconnected
connected optical cable
optical to to
cable communicate
communicate data, in
data,
contrast to the large number of optical cables required for discrete OFSs. DOFS
in contrast to the large number of optical cables required for discrete OFSs. DOFS serves serves as a
unique single-ended monitoring technique that uses the backscattered light
as a unique single‐ended monitoring technique that uses the backscattered light of the of the fiber to
feed
fiberback the back
to feed performance of the fiber.
the performance of It
thecan provide
fiber. a global
It can providebehavior
a globalofbehavior
the large-scale
of the
structure, rather than extrapolation from a finite number of measurement points. Several
companies have realized the commercialization of DOFS, such as Sensornet Inc. (Watford,
United Kingdom), Neubrex Inc. (Kobe, Japan), OZ Optics Inc. (Ottawa, ON, Canada),
and Smartec Inc. (Manno, Switzerland), as shown in Figure 11 [168–171]. DOFS has been
widely applied in the measurement of temperature, strain, and vibration, especially in the
field of marine structural health monitoring.
large‐scale structure, rather than extrapolation from a finite number of measurement
points. Several companies have realized the commercialization of DOFS, such as Sensor‐
net Inc. (Watford, United Kingdom), Neubrex Inc. (Kobe, japan), OZ Optics Inc. (Ottawa,
Canada), and Smartec Inc. (Manno, Switzerland), as shown in Figure 11 [168–171]. DOFS
Sensors 2023, 23, 1877 has been widely applied in the measurement of temperature, strain, and vibration,12espe‐
of 22
cially in the field of marine structural health monitoring.
Figure 11. Several commercial DOFS optoelectronic devices [168–171].
Because DOFSs
Because DOFSs can can realize
realize remote
remote andand continuous
continuous sensing,
sensing, they
they can
can most
most commonly
commonly
realize the
realize the SHM
SHM of of underwater
underwater cables
cables [172–179],
[172–179], oiloil and
and gasgas pipelines
pipelines [176,180–184],
[176,180–184], and
and
dams and tunnels [185–189].
dams and tunnels [185–189].
Recent developments
Recent developments of of DOFS allow the
DOFS allow monitoring of
the monitoring of up to 300
up to 300 km
km byby using
using optical
optical
amplifiers. This means DOFSs are well suited for detecting long-distance
amplifiers. This means DOFSs are well suited for detecting long‐distance submarine ca‐ submarine
cables.
bles. Chen
Chen et et
al.al. [172,173]established
[172,173] establisheda aBrillouin
Brillouinoptical
opticaltime
timedomain
domainanalysis
analysis (BOTDA)
(BOTDA)
distributed optical fiber monitoring system for monitoring the temperature
distributed optical fiber monitoring system for monitoring the temperature of high‐pres‐ of high-pressure
oil-filled
sure submarine
oil‐filled cables
submarine by bundling
cables the optical
by bundling cables
the optical and power
cables and powercables together.
cables The
together.
sensing
The system
sensing setupsetup
system and installation method
and installation are shown
method in Figure
are shown 12. The12.
in Figure special
The sealing
special
and joint structures were designed to meet the accuracy calculation method and monitoring
sealing and joint structures were designed to meet the accuracy calculation method and
system based on the onshore simulation platform. In addition, the optimized sensing
monitoring system based on the onshore simulation platform. In addition, the optimized
system was used on the 500 kV submarine cable of the Hainan networking system to
sensing system was used on the 500 kV submarine cable of the Hainan networking system
monitor sudden temperature changes caused by instantaneous overload and external
to monitor sudden temperature changes caused by instantaneous overload and external
losses. Huang et al. [174] established the all-fiber BOTDA monitoring system to monitor
losses. Huang et al. [174] established the all‐fiber BOTDA monitoring system to monitor
the surface temperature of submarine cables. Authors measured the conductor current
the surface temperature of submarine cables. Authors measured the conductor current by
by using an optical fiber current transducer and calculated the conductor temperature of
using an optical fiber current transducer and calculated the conductor temperature of the
the submarine cable. Compared to traditional current sensors, the optical fiber current
submarine cable. Compared to traditional current sensors, the optical fiber current trans‐
transducer only monitored the cable conductor current, which can eliminate the effects
ducer only monitored the cable conductor current, which can eliminate the effects caused
caused by long-distance overhead lines and compensating reactor. This is a good way to
by long‐distance
achieve performance overhead lines andthat
optimization compensating
was used in reactor. This isinterconnection
the Hainan a good way to achieve
project.
performance optimization that was used in the Hainan
For monitoring shock events of submarine cables, Fouda et al. [175] usedinterconnection project. For mon‐
phase-sensitive
itoring
OTDR to shock events
detect of submarine
vibration cables,
signals from theFouda etfiber
optical al. [175] used phase‐sensitive
on cables. The vibrationalOTDR to
pattern
detect vibration signals from the optical fiber on cables. The vibrational
recognition of optical fibers was implemented by using time-frequency domain features and pattern recogni‐
tion of optical
a support vector fibers was to
machine implemented
determine the by magnitude
using time‐frequency
of the event.domain
A lot offeatures and a
experimental
support vector machine to determine the magnitude of the event. A
data showed that this method can effectively identify the disturbance events of submarine lot of experimental
cables. DOFS applications in temperature and vibration monitoring of submarine cables
are important for the reliability of submarine cable operation.
Sensors 2023, 23, 1877 13 of 22
data showed that this method can effectively identify the disturbance events of submarine
Sensors 2023, 23, 1877 13 of 22
cables. DOFS applications in temperature and vibration monitoring of submarine cables
are important for the reliability of submarine cable operation.
Figure 12. Submarine cable temperature monitoring in China’s southern coast using BOTDA sens‐
Figure 12. Submarine cable temperature monitoring in China’s southern coast using BOTDA sensing
ing system. Reprinted with permission from [172].
system. Reprinted with permission from [172].
Similarly, the
Similarly, the application
applicationof ofDOFSDOFStotolong‐distance
long-distance pipelines
pipelines in the oil and
in the oil andgas gas
indus‐
in-
try is of great interest and has therefore seen a substantial increase.
dustry is of great interest and has therefore seen a substantial increase. Feo et al. [180] Feo et al. [180] pre‐
sented pioneering
presented pioneering investigation
investigation in thein DOFS
the DOFS application
application for monitoring
for monitoring risers. This team
risers. This
conducted well‐level experiments by simulating an offshore
team conducted well-level experiments by simulating an offshore riser environment. The riser environment. The
downhole distributed sensor involving optical fiber DTS and
downhole distributed sensor involving optical fiber DTS and distributed acoustic sensing distributed acoustic sensing
(DAS) was
(DAS) was instrumented
instrumented on on the
the experimental
experimental setup setup by by using
using metallic
metallic clamps.
clamps. For For flexible
flexible
riser monitoring, DOFS could be installed on one of the metal
riser monitoring, DOFS could be installed on one of the metal rods to form an umbilical. rods to form an umbilical.
DOFS can
DOFS canprovide
providereal-time
real‐timeand andaccurate
accurate monitoring
monitoring datadata
for for
the the
sakesake of effective
of effective well well
con-
control.
trol. In order
In order to implement
to implement subsea subsea pipeline
pipeline (1.3 km (1.3long)
km long) installation
installation inspection,
inspection, CementysCe‐
mentys company
company [181] designed
[181] designed a SensoluxTM a SensoluxTM
sensor based sensor based and
on Raman on Raman
Brillouinand OTDR.Brillouin
This
OTDR.cable
sensor This contains
sensor cable fourcontains
optical fibers four optical
to measure fibers thetoRaman
measure the Raman
scatterings scatterings
(temperature)
(temperature) and the Brillouin scatterings (strain and temperature).
and the Brillouin scatterings (strain and temperature). For protecting the optical cables, For protecting the
optical
they cables,
were glued they
intowere glued
grooves ininto
the grooves
concrete in the concretethe
surrounding surrounding
metallic pipe. theBy metallic pipe.
measuring
By measuring
the the strain
strain conditions of theconditions
pipeline during of the different
pipeline stepsduring different
(such as lay steps (such
or tow), theas lay or
pipeline
tow), the
could pipeline could
be certificated. be certificated.
In addition, Inaudi and In addition,
Glisic [182] Inaudi and Glisic
proposed [182] proposed
a successful applicationa
of DOFS monitoring
successful application of of
a gas
DOFS pipeline near Rimini,
monitoring of a gas Italy. DOFS could
pipeline measureItaly.
near Rimini, thousands
DOFS
of points
could along thousands
measure a single fiber and possesses
of points along a unique
single fiberfeatures
andcompared
possesses with unique traditional
features
technology.
compared with It is traditional
great for monitoring
technology. oilItand gas pipelines
is great for monitoring and optimizing
oil and gasoil production.
pipelines and
SHM systems
optimizing based on DOFS are also very valuable in dams and subsea tunnels.
oil production.
Imai SHM
et al. [185]
systems installed
basedthe onBrillouin
DOFS are optical
alsocorrelation
very valuable domain analysis
in dams and(BOCDA) around
subsea tunnels.
the
Imaiinterior
et al. circumference
[185] installedofthe theBrillouin
aqueductopticaltunnel and real-time
correlation monitored
domain strain(BOCDA)
analysis distribu-
tion.
around Figure 13 shows
the interior the aqueductoftunnel
circumference of a hydropower
the aqueduct tunnel and plant and themonitored
real‐time DOFS installedstrain
in the retrofitted tunnel. The fiber cable was attached
distribution. Figure 13 shows the aqueduct tunnel of a hydropower plant and in the trench of concrete lining
the by use
DOFS
of epoxy adhesive. The fiber cable was wired out to the end of
installed in the retrofitted tunnel. The fiber cable was attached in the trench of concretethe tunnel and connected to
an optical analyzer. By calculating the cross-section deformation,
lining by use of epoxy adhesive. The fiber cable was wired out to the end of the tunnel continuous monitoring of
tunnel convergence could be realized. This method avoided power outages and drainage
operations. Similarly, Wang et al. [186] monitored Nanjing Yangtze Shield Tunnel for
55 days using optimized DOFS. The sensing elements installed on the 90-m-long tunnel
ring successfully monitored temperature and strain. Pumped-storage power stations are
and connected to an optical analyzer. By calculating the cross‐section deformation, con‐
tinuous monitoring of tunnel convergence could be realized. This method avoided power
Sensors 2023, 23, 1877 outages and drainage operations. Similarly, Wang et al. [186] monitored Nanjing Yangtze 14 of 22
Shield Tunnel for 55 days using optimized DOFS. The sensing elements installed on the
90‐m‐long tunnel ring successfully monitored temperature and strain. Pumped‐storage
power stations are subject to external forces and environmental erosion. It is necessary to
subject to external forces and environmental erosion. It is necessary to perform long-term
perform
SHM for long‐term SHM for loss
avoiding economic avoiding economic
and safety loss and
hazards. safety
Liang et al.hazards. Liang et
[187] installed theal.DOFS
[187]
installed the DOFS on the dam construction site of the Liaoning Qingyuan pumped
on the dam construction site of the Liaoning Qingyuan pumped storage station to monitor stor‐
age station to monitor the temperature during the concrete curing process.
the temperature during the concrete curing process. The monitoring results successfullyThe monitor‐
ing results
revealed thesuccessfully
temperaturerevealed theoftemperature
variation the concretevariation of the concrete curing process.
curing process.
Figure
Figure 13. Real-timestrain
13. Real‐time strain monitoring
monitoring of the
of the aqueduct
aqueduct tunnel
tunnel usingusing
DOFS.DOFS. (a)end
(a) The Theofend of the
the subject
subject
aqueductaqueduct
tunnel. tunnel. (b) Embedded
(b) Embedded optical
optical fiber fiber
cable incable in the retrofitted
the retrofitted tunnel. Reprinted
tunnel. Reprinted with
with permis‐
sion from [185].
permission from [185].
Based
Based on
on the
the intrinsic
intrinsic characteristics
characteristics of
of DOFS,
DOFS, it
it is
is well-suited
well‐suited to
to detect
detect the
the determi-
determi‐
nants with large spatial size and large span, especially the submarine cables, pipelines,
nants with large spatial size and large span, especially the submarine cables, pipelines, and
tunnels. OFSs based on the DOFSs and corresponding main marine monitoring
and tunnels. OFSs based on the DOFSs and corresponding main marine monitoring con‐ contents
are presented
tents in Table
are presented in 3.
Table 3.
Table3.3.DOFSs
Table DOFSsfor
forSHM.
SHM.
Monitoring Item
Monitoring Item Sensorsand
Sensors and Configuration
Configuration Variables
Variables Authors
Authors Year
Year
BOTDA distributed
BOTDA distributed optical opticalfiber
fiber mon‐
Temperature
Temperature Chen
Chenetet
al.al.
[172,173]
[172,173] 2022
2022
monitoring system
Submarine cables
itoring system
All-fiber BOTDA monitoring system Temperature Huang et al. [174] 2019
Submarine cables All‐fiber BOTDA monitoring system Temperature Huang et al. [174] 2019
Phase-sensitive OTDR to detect vibration Vibration Fouda et al. [175] 2021
Phase‐sensitive OTDR to detect vibra‐
Vibration
Temperature/ Fouda et al. [175] 2021
DOFSs involvingtionDTS and DAS Feo et al. [180] 2020
Acoustic
Oil and gas pipelines Temperature/
DOFSs involving
SensoluxTM DTS
sensor based on and DAS
Raman and Strain/ Feo etcompany
Cementys al. [180] 2020
2017
Brillouin OTDR Acoustic
Temperature [181]
Oil and gas pipelines
SensoluxTM
BOCDA-basedsensor
optical based on sensor
fiber strain Raman Strain/
Strain Cementys company
Imai et al. [185] 2021
Tunnels 2017
and Brillouin OTDR
DOFSs based on Brillouin frequency shift Temperature
Displacement [181]
Wang et al. [186] 2019
BOCDA‐based optical fiber strain sen‐
Strain Imai et al. [185] 2021
sor and Outlooks
4. Conclusions
Tunnels
DOFSs based on types
Three Brillouin frequency
of typical OFSs (optical fiber interferometers,
Displacement WangWDM-FBG
et al. [186] sensors, and
2019
shift
DOFSs) for marine SHM are discussed in this paper. Compared to other marine SHM meth-
ods, OFSs show superior performances in monitoring structural strain, stress, vibration,
4. Conclusions
temperature, and Outlooks
displacement, etc. It should be noted that the applications of OFSs in the
marine fieldtypes
Three are still
of under-developed and have
typical OFSs (optical fiber some challenges and
interferometers, great potential,
WDM‐FBG sensors,from
and
both theoretical
DOFSs) and engineering
for marine aspects. in this paper. Compared to other marine SHM
SHM are discussed
methods,
(a) NovelOFSs show
optical fibersuperior performances
sensing structures in monitoring
and new structural
smart materials strain,needed
are greatly stress,
for continually improving the detection sensitivity. They are the main avenues of
designing new optical fiber sensing structures or fabricating optical fibers using new
materials or technologies to be increased. Furthermore, combining machine-learning
algorithms to improve the performance of optical fiber sensing systems is a major
current approach.
Sensors 2023, 23, 1877 15 of 22
(b) Artificial intelligence should be paid more and more attention to for solving the cross-
talking problems, such as solving the multi-parameter cross-sensitivity by combining
artificial intelligence and machine learning. Traditionally, these problems were solved
by using additional sensing elements to measure the interference parameter. Using
artificial intelligence, the effective signal could be separated from the mixed optical
signals more cheaply and efficiently.
(c) Development on the installation techniques is greatly desired. The installation of OFSs
for deep-sea marine structures is very difficult due to the inapproachable deep-sea
environment for human beings. For optical fiber point sensors, the combination
of OFSs and ROV for measurement will be the trend in the marine SHM field; for
quasi-distributed and distributed fiber sensors, seismo-acoustic sensors using existing
fiber optic seafloor telecom cables have great potential. Combining FOSs with existing
submarine cables is a growing trend.
(d) There are also many perturbations in the harsh ocean environment, especially the
external damage caused from different sources. How to protect the fragile fibers
from damage while bettering transfer deformation, vibration, and other information
requires further improvements in fiber packaging technology.
It is believed that with the continued development of the optical fiber sensing tech-
nologies, OFSs are expected to play more and more important roles in marine SHM in the
near future.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.S.; methodology, S.C.; investigation, J.W., C.Z., N.L. and
H.W.; writing—original draft preparation, S.C.; writing—review and editing, M.L., Y.L. and Y.S.;
funding acquisition, S.C. and W.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant
number 62205044) and the Dalian Science and Technology Talent Innovation Support Project (grant
number 2022RQ009).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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1 Department of Marine Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian 116026, China

Sensors 2023, 23, 1877. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23041877 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

2. Classifications and Principles of Marine OFSs

Monitoring Item Sensors andand

3.2. Quasi-Distributed Sensing (WDM-FBG)

3.2.1. Working Principle

Due to its characteristics of multi-point monitoring, a quasi-distributed FBG sensor can

3.3. Distributed Sensing (DOFS)

cially in the field of marine structural health monitoring.

Figure 11. Several commercial DOFS optoelectronic devices [168–171].

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