DELEGATION OF WORK

Delegation is the process of establishing and maintaining effective work arrangements

between a manager and supervisor and the people who report him/her. It involves
entrusting and devolving work functions to one's subordinates and of making sure that the
subordinates understand the expected results and successfully accomplish the projects or
tasks thus assigned. Simply passing on work to subordinates without the responsibility of
monitoring and ensuring successful performance is not delegation but abdication.
Delegating sounds easy—and others who can do it well make it look easy—but passing the
baton effectively requires a lot of trust, communication, and coordination. Still, if you learn
how to delegate—and you do it well—everyone on your team wins. As a leader, delegating
is important because you can’t—and shouldn’t—do everything yourself. Delegating
empowers your team, builds trust, and assists with professional development. And for
leaders, it helps you learn how to identify who is best suited to tackle tasks or projects.
Of course, delegating tasks can lighten your workload, but according to Dr. Scott Williams,
professor of management at Wright State University, delegating does much more than just
get stuff off your plate.
 “Delegation can also be a clear sign that you respect your subordinates’ abilities and that
you trust their discretion,” 
 “Employees who feel that they are trusted and respected tend to have a higher level of
commitment to their work, their organization, and, especially, their managers.”
 A common management failure is the unwillingness to delegate. It could be because of the
lack of confidence trust in the subordinates' capabilities, reluctance to pass on preferred
tasks, inflexibility in getting things done, the desire for perfection, unwillingness to make
mistakes or allow others to make mistakes, or any other reason. This can result to an
overload of work for the manager or supervisor and denies subordinate employees the
opportunity to further utilize their skills on the job.
 The manager or supervisor is able to practice better time, task and priorities management
enabling him to focus on the more important functions of his job.
 Employees become involved in participative management.
 Employees feel that they are trusted and therefore develop higher levels of motivation.
Their ownership of the work activity also gives them a deeper sense of commitment.
 Delegation gives the manager or supervisor the opportunity to assess the competence level
and potentials of subordinates, providing basis for decisions for on their assignment to more
responsible positions.
 Delegation offers excellent opportunities for the development of people.

 
 
It is not simply the work that is being passed on to employees. When delegating
to subordinates. the following should be given to them:
 Responsibility and accountability for completing the assignment.
 Authority to make the necessary decisions on resource utilization and to to take appropriate
action to complete.
 Sufficient level of freedom or autonomy to complete the assignment properly.

The following  illustration shows the different levels of delegated authority:

 
 Level Details
 

 
 
Take action, no further contact with me needed.
Level 6
 

 
 
Take action, let me know what you did.
Level 5
 

 
  Look into into it, let me know what you intend to do. Do it unless I
Level 4 say no (veto authority
 

 
  Look into it, let me know what you intend to do. Don’t take action
Level 3 until I approve it. (direct authority)
 

 
  Look into it. Let me know possible actions, include the pros and cons
Level 2 of each, and recommend one for my approval.
 

 
 
Look into it. Report all facts to me. I’ll decide what to do.
Level 1
 

Poor delegation practices might as well vitiate the best of intentions. Below are
some guides for effective delegation:

1. Carefully choose first the position and then the person to delegate to. Consider competence
and tie the significance of the delegated work to the level of the person in the organization.
2. Define the responsibility and make the assignment clear. Discuss the assignment with the
subordinate employee by providing details including:
 the nature of the assignment - what it is all about
 timelines - when to start and when it should be accomplished
 coordinative linkages - who are else involved
 logistical requirement -what materials or resources are needed
 methods and procedures - how should it be implemented
3. Agree on objectives and performance standards; confirms how the employee understands
and sees the directions related to the assignment.
4. Solicit suggestions from the employee to generate involvement. Involvement leads to
ownership, ownership leads to commitment and commitment leads to achievement.
5. Manifest trust in the employee, transfer power and give authority
6. Monitor performance to maintain overall control
7. Recognize and affirm good performance, help the subordinate get on track when things go
wrong.

Empowerment is giving individuals in an organization power to act on their initiative but in

the interest of the team as a whole. It involves enhancing the content of jobs to expand the
skills and tasks that constitute it so that the position holder may be able exercise greater
control about how to do his/her work. By empowering others, a leader does not decrease
his/her power, instead he or she increases it-especially if team performs better. In
empowerment, employees are given more responsibility to make decisions and manage
themselves.
There is empowerment when:
 People in the organization feel responsible not just for doing a job, but also for making
whole team work better. Organization members are active problem solvers who help plan
 how to get things done and actually execute the plans to generate the desired outputs and
results.
 Team work together to improve their performance continually, achieving higher levels of
productivity. The work team is not just a reactor to demands, it is also an initiator of action.
 Organizations are structured in a way that people feel they are able to achieve the results
they want, can do what needs to be done (not just what is required) and be rewarded for
doing so.

HOW TO DELEGATE AND BE MORE PRODUCTIVE

Productive managers are top delegators. They spread their work around and everyone
benefits. Delegation is the most powerful and efficient tool in management. Develop your
people and fee up time to get to higher priorities. Get your people excited and challenged
by new assignments delegated to them. Eliminate wasted time and misunderstood
instructions. Make sure your projects are done when you want them and the way you want
them. Be ready to delegate with a list of specific projects and the specific people you will
delegate to. 

 
Develop a step-by-step plan on how to delegate what to whom:
Step 1: List every project and activity you should and will delegate
Step 2: Identify your project "champions" and assign each of them specific projects.
 Step 3: Determine how much authority to give each person and how involved you will be in
the project.
Step 4: Set up feedback system to keep track of how each project you delegate is
progressing

 
Through delegation, a manager has more time on his hands. He is free to take on higher
level of projects that get him and his organization closer to his goals. He can develop a
cracker jack team of "champions" who feel trusted, challenged and committed. Through
delegation, more work is getting done because people are operating in their peak levels and
managers are more promotable. By developing themselves and their people, they have:

1. earned a "can-do" reputation

2. groomed their successors for they are not going anywhere if other are not there to step into
their shoes
Delegation creates a new world of possibilities. The ability to delegate effectively is a prime
executive requirement. Both for his own guidance and to help other executives develop, the
personnel director can profit from this examination of difficulties and the rewards of good
delegation. Delegation is one of the most important and difficult skills that a manager has to
acquire. Delegation is important because, once a man's job grows beyond his personal
capacity, the success of what he does is measured largely in terms of work performed for
him by other people. This critical point in the career of many executives is reached at the
stage when he must learn to delegate or cease to grow in scope and capacity.
Delegation enables a manager to multiply himself. It makes it possible for him to extend his
knowledge, energy and time through the efforts of others. As Lounsbury Fish, assistant to
the chairman of the board of Standard Vacuum Oil Company, states, " An individual is only
one manpower. He can accomplish only so much in one day. The only way he can achieve
more is through delegation-through dividing his load and sharing his responsibilities with
others.

 
DIFFICULTIES IN DELEGATION
Subordinates must be trained to work on their own. Delegation is hamstrung if employees
keep checking back and asking for advice and interim decisions. But at the same time, the
executive must maintain contact. If the executive is constantly interfering with them, he
cannot expect good performance; yet if he does not devise some means of checking on
what is being done, he may soon find matters completely out of hand. The perversity of
human nature complicates the act of delegation. Even when overburdened, people generally
prefer to do things by themselves. And often, the manager who most needs to delegate is
the one least willing. It is probably a normal tendency for this executive to want to keep his
finger in every pie. No one arrives at the answer to many problems almost instinctively. He
is unwilling to wait while others go through laborious steps of fact-finding, analysis and
testing of alternatives. When a decision has to be made, he tend to make it himself, just as
he did when he was the only person available. If a subordinate offers ideas or suggestions
contrary to his own, he is likely to be suspicious, distrustful or worse afraid. An executive
may have difficulty in delegating properly because he does not fully understand the
processes involved. We need to know what the conditions are necessary for proper
performance of an assigned work; what should be done by the principal who wants to
delegate. The answers to these questions are often buried in misunderstanding.
 
THE MEANING AND DYNAMICS OF DELEGATION
The person who is delegated responsibility and authority has an obligation to stand ready to
report on demand, and he must answer for the success or failure of his activities. The
dynamics of delegation can be seen in the "chain of command".  The board, for instance,
delegates portions of this responsibility to its committee and to the president. He then
delegates certain parts of his responsibility to the various operation managers and
administrative specialists. This process continuous from level to level, with redelegating
occurring when a member's responsibility exceeds his own capacity. Finally, certain
responsibilities are redelegated to the people in very lowest organizational level.

 
A THIRD DIMENSION OF DELEGATION
These relationships cannot be shown in an organizational chart but an understanding of
them is an integral part of every supervisor's job. Teamwork flourishes under certain
conditions. People working together towards a common goal tend to develop a high degree
of teamwork if they what their goal is and accept it, and if the boss offers proper leadership.
Long and continued association of people in a working group helps foster teamwork. Those
who have not been able to accept a place in the group tends to leave it and those remaining
are apt to develop a high degree of loyalty to one another. This helps to explain why some
old established companies have outstanding teamwork throughout all levels even though
they have little formalized organization.

 
RESPONSIBILITY FOR POLICY
Company policy cannot be effective unless it is understood and applied all the way down the
line.  The top man is each unit is the logical person to explain and interpret company policy
as it applied to his unit, because in the final analysis, he is held accountable for compliance
with the policy.

 
RESPONSIBILITY FOR COORDINATION
No "technique" of coordination is likely to prove effective here unless there is a clearing of
channels. For willingness to work together toward a common goal is and a recognition that
the success of the individual ultimately depends upon the success of the group.

 
DELEGATION TO WHOM
How far down in the organizations should a responsibility be delegated? Delegation usually
involves the ultimate performance of a specification. The responsibility and authority should
be delegated to the lowest level of organization at which all facts necessary for an intelligent
decision are available.

 
DELEGATION REQUIRES SHARING CREDIT
There are number of ways the boss can motivate the man under him to achieve top
performance. And most of them depends largely upon his personal characteristics and
attitudes. This stems from a clear recognition that his personal efforts are limited and that
the ultimate boundaries of his achievement can be extended primarily through the
multiplying factor of effective subordinates.

Delegation is a basic tool in the managerial work kit. The manager who understands and
practices the art of delegation ensures prompt and effective performance of work under his
supervision. He also creates the conditions necessary for cooperation and teamwork. Proper
delegation is the first step to letting people make their own decisions and learn by their own
mistakes. This in itself is a basic ingredient in developing individual managers and a more
versatile and hard-hitting management group.

TEAM DEVELOPMENT
Team is a energetic group of people who are committed to achieving common objectives,
who work well together and enjoy doing so, and who produce high quality results. This
relates to the relevance of team development activities and form part of the organizational
collaboration which is integral to the development of organizational models.

ELEMENTS OF AN EFFECTIVE TEAM

 Goals are statements of what needs to be accomplished which must be understood and
accepted by all team members. Goals are developed as part of the planning process of
management.
 Role clarity means knowing exactly what each member of the team, including the team
leader, expects or wants each other member to do. Roles may be formal, evolved or
assumed. The opposite of role clarity is role ambiguity. Role clarification is an offshoot of the
organizing process in management.
 Procedures refer to the way, methods and systems as well as norms that the team uses for
getting work done together. These cover not only procedures and systems for getting things
done but can include processes on how problems are solved, decisions are made, conflicts
are resolved, etc.
 Relationships refer to the extent to which people must trust, support, respect, and feel
comfortable with one another which could influence the way they work together.
Relationships matter because the informal structure operates alongside formal structures.
Informal structures spell out nature of relationships, transcend positions and formal titles.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE TEAMS

 
The major characteristics of an effective team are highly reflective of good
organization:
 Effective teams produce outstanding results and succeed in achieving despite the difficulties
along the way.
 Members feel responsible for the output of their team and act to clear difficulties standing
their way.
The following are characteristics of effective teams in relation to each major
element:

 
GOALS

1. Vision and mission statements and their impact on day-to-day operations are clear.
2. There are deliberate planning efforts towards the formulation of organizational objectives
and departmental and individual goals. The planning effort involves as many people in the
team as possible.
3. The organizational objectives emphasize a common purpose anchored on the vision and
mission statements and identify how each member's goals can contribute towards the
achievement of that purpose.
4. Goals are well communicated by the by management to the organization members. In turn,
the organization members accept, agree and commit to such goals.
5. Goals are periodically reviewed for purpose of refinement and revision in response to
changes in the organizational environment. Whenever such revisions are undertaken,
management takes efforts at communicating the features of and rationale for the change.
6. Goals are formulated to the SMART (specific, measurable, attainable, results-oriented and
time-bound. Progress on goals achievement is regular assessed.
7. The output of group is synergistic.

ROLES

1. Roles, relationships and accountabilities are clear to and accepted by everyone in the team.
Everyone's tasks are clearly identified in terms of o f delineated job boundaries.
2. There is strong group consciousness marked by a sense of belonging and responsibility.
Work is organized to support the group's functions leading  to the attainment of objectives.
3. The individuals in the team recognize their responsibilities for group output through
maximum participation and fulfillment of their functions. They contribute their personal
resources in terms of knowledge skills, and experiences in the performance of their tasks.
4. Team members are equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills to perform their jobs.
They take efforts at continuous improvement to enhance their level of job performance.
5. There is a high level of morale and motivation among the group members.
6. There is appropriate leadership where the leader is recognized and respected for being firm
and compassionate; the leader does not dominate and other members are provided with
leadership opportunities as they arise.
PROCEDURES

1. Policies and procedures used to manage the work of the group support both tasks and
maintenance needs. Tasks needs refer to activities required to accomplish work objectives.
Maintenance needs, on the other hand, refer to the human needs for recognition,
participation, appreciation, and general quality of group work life.
2. Policies and procedures are documented, there is a common interpretation of policies and
procedures and members observe them strictly.
3. Internal processes on problem solving, decision-making and conflict management have been
adopted and agreed upon, and contribute to efficiency and effectiveness of the team.
4. Decisions within the team are arrived through consultation and participation. Team
members actively participate in the development of ideas and decisions.
5. Disagreements are not suppressed and are seen as opportunities to explore alternatives to
issue resolution. People feel comfortable in expressing opinions because of the absence of
the hidden agenda and the primacy of group over personal interests.
6. The team measures and evaluates its processes and performance through regular critique
sessions for the purpose of achieving improvements.
RELATIONSHIPS

1. There is high quality interpersonal relations marked by mutual support and sensitivity to
each other's needs and respect for individual differences. Individuals in the team show
genuine concern for each other's job, welfare, growth, personal success and happiness.
2. Group members are fully interactive with each other in an informal, comfortable and relaxed
atmosphere.
3. There is high level of trust within the group thus enabling members to solve problems
together and to find group work satisfying. Members do not feel they always have to be
guarded or cautious about what they say.
4. There is open and genuine communication where people feel equally comfortable discussing
good and bad news. People appreciate and capitalize on each other's differences and
strengths.
5. People feel comfortable in expressing non-adversarial feedback on dysfunctional behaviors
to each other. Such feedback shows little of no evidence of personal attacks and is given as
means to remove obstacles or to get the job done.
6. Intra- and inter-group relationships are satisfying and productive. Coordination and support
among everyone are evident.
7. There are no warring factions or sub-groups. Work groups in the organization do not
compete inappropriately and members "think organization" instead of "think department".

STAGES OF TEAM MATURITY

FORMING
During the forming stage, team members discover what behaviors are acceptable to the
group. Members share personal information, to start to get to know and accept one another,
and begin turning their attention toward group's tasks. An aura of courtesy prevails, and
interactions are often cautious. For newly established groups, this stage is the transition for
members to change from individual to member status. For teams with new leadership,
mission, or members, this is a period of testing behavior and dependence can formal or
informal group leadership for guidance in a newly unstructured environment.
 WHAT YOU SEE

1. Testing behaviors
2. Dependency on appointed or informal leaders
3. Hesitant participation
4. Rationalizing actions and justifying present situations
5. Suspicion, fear and anxiety
6. Minimal work accomplishment
7. Complaining about situation that the group is in

 
 WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE

1. Set goals
2. Bring up expectations, rumors and concerns
3. Clarify elements of the organizational structure
 
STORMING
During the storming stage, team members become hostile or overzealous as a way to assert
their individuality and resist formation. Members resist the demands of their tasks and
respond emotionally to the perceived requirements for self-change and self-denial. They
compete for status, jockey for positions of relative control and argue about appropriate
directions for the group. External pressures interfere with the group, and tensions rise
between individuals as they assert themselves.
 WHAT YOU SEE

1. Infighting to defend own position

2. Competition and defensiveness
3. Polarization of group members and formation of factions
4. Whining and complaining
5. Indifference and lack of concern on group and inter-personal problems
6. Concerns over unachievable goals and excessive work
7. Minimal work accomplishment 
8. Task demands perceived to interfere with personal needs.
9. Sharp fluctuations in relationships.
10. Low trust and low risk taking
 
 WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE

1. Clarify roles and functions in the context of organizational structure

2. Manage conflict
3. Set up code of discipline
4. Set up rewards and recognition system
5. Appraise performance

 
NORMING
During the norming stage, members accept the team, its norms and ways of doing things,
their own roles and responsibilities, and characteristics and idiosyncrasies of fellow
members. Emotional conflicts are reduced by patching up previously conflicting
relationships. Group begins moving together in a cooperative fashion and s tentative
balance among competing forces is struck. Group norms emerge to guide individual
behaviors and cooperative feelings are increasingly evident.
 WHAT YOU SEE

1. Getting organized to achieve goals more effectively.

2. Confiding in each other
3. Confronting each other
4. Common spirit and goals
5. Establish and maintenance of team norms and procedures
6. Moderate work accomplishment

 
 WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE

1. Clarify objectives rigorously

2. Clarify values and norms continuously
3. Break barriers and control or minimize hindering factors
4. Build management skills
5. Exercise consistent skills
6. Reinforce supportive behaviors
7. Practice consulting each other

 
Because the forms, storms and norm stages result in minimum work output, it is tempting to try
to rush through or circuit these stages and to hope the group can thereby achieve peak
productivity. Although seductive, this idea is dysfunctional. Just as individuals go through
predictable stages of growth depending on age, experience, maturity and other factors,
teams go through predictable stages the duration of which depends on factors such as:
 maturity of the team and its individual members
 importance and complexity of tasks 
 leadership practices
 organizational culture and climate
 external influences
Groups can fixate at various stages. Some groups (like some people) are never fully
functioning. Given that the stages are inevitable, one way to help reduce the time needed
for a new or changing team to be fully productive while minimizing the tension, fear or
anxiety common in the form and storm stages is to share rumors, concerns, and
expectations about the group.
Members of the team can contract with one another that there will be no "surprises", and
therefore an atmosphere of trust can be achieved earlier (norm stage), allowing for
interpersonal issues to be put aside in favor of task issues and for the team to move on to
perform.

 
 PERFORMING
Now that the team has established its interpersonal norms, it becomes an entity capable of
diagnosing and solving problems and making decisions. The group matures and teams to
handle complex challenges. Functional roles are performed as needed, and tasks are
efficiently accomplished. Management teams do not always reach this stage.

WHAT YOU SEE

1. Members experience insight into personal and interpersonal processes.

2. Practicing creativity/innovativeness
3. Unity of vision, purpose and goals
4. Constructive self-change
5. Smooth interpersonal relations
6. Resourcefulness and drive to accomplish tasks in spite of constraints
7. Taking the initiative
8. High trust and high risk taking
9. Continuous exchange of feedback
10. Practicing new behaviors
11. Most of the work accomplished
 
 WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE

1. Undertake review and update of organizational structure

2. Engage in creative problem-solving
3. Maintain and reinforce team spirit
4. Develop knowledge and skills of personnel
5. Develop capacity for self criticism
6. Prevent "group think" and insularity

Delegation
Delegating is a critical skill for supervisors at any level and can be a major challenge for
them to learn, due to concerns of giving up control or the lack of confidence in the abilities
of others. Delegating is an important trait for those who work in teams, and trust plays a
critical role for its success.
Delegation plays important role in:

1. Efficiency
 By delegating work to others, the individual is transferring work to people whose skills
better fit the task(s). For example, it would not make efficient sense to have the CEO do
administrative work; it is better done by others. Therefore, it improves the efficiency of the
individual delegating the work and lessens their stress.
2. Development
 In a case where delegation of work is to someone who is not well-versed in doing the task,
delegating can playa major role in coaching and teaching others. It is one important way to
help them build new skills.
Team Development

 
Effective leaders know, you’re only as good as the people you have around you. With this in
mind, great leaders know that developing their team is an essential part of their role. While
many leaders are aware of the notion of team development, it’s important to understand
the core concepts that go into building a team, and what proper implementation can mean
for forward-thinking leadership. Those leaders who are capable of building and developing
effective teams have amassed a critical advantage over others. When delivered correctly,
team development can create an innovative atmosphere that encourages cooperation,
teamwork and trust among its members.

But as most leaders know, team development doesn’t just happen; there’s a lot involved in
turning a group of people into a functioning and productive team. At its core, team building
is a considered process of transitioning separate individuals into a cohesive group. A group
that is at once working interdependently and cooperatively to accomplish a specific set of
purposes and goals. In theory, the concept of team development is simple: amass a group
of talented and engaged individuals and task them with completing a specific goal. In
reality, the effort and planning that goes into team building is strategic.

Team Building and Organizational Communication

An assembly of people in an organization may merely be a group rather than function as a

team. Teambuilding is the deliberate process of transforming a group into a team. It is an
effort of a work group to assess is strengths as well as those areas that need improvement
 and growth. It is deliberate working through of all blockages growth for a working group to
become an effective team.
Team-building is not as simple as a three-day workshop in a resort where participants
undergo self-disclosure, provide feedback to each other and to the other work groups,
assess what is right and what is wrong about the group that they are part off and share
commitments about their contributions to make the team work. Team-building suggests
that something substantial has to be undertaken and that the group has to go through
several stages to reach team maturity which will take time to complete. The process
suggests a continuing nature as well.

Team-building efforts are meant to improve work group collaboration and performance. The
basic objectives are to build trust among members and to build problem solving skills.

 
The key benefits from team development interventions are:
 Management of Complexity
Complex  situations can be more readily to manageable components through team analysis.
Tapping the resources that each team member can contribute allows for complex for
situations to be creatively manage.
 Responsiveness
Well-developed are capable quicker and more energetically to different situations in an
organization. 
 Heightened Individual Motivation
Participation in a team for planning, problem solving, decision-making and getting things
done feeds the individual members' need to have personal significance. Team processes
prods individual members towards involvement and achievement.
 Enhanced Decision Making
Mature teams are capable of making better quality decisions than all but the most brilliant
individual, hence, the use of a team approach improves the overall quality of decisions and
raises the level of commitment.
 Collective Strengths
Team members extend resources towards synergy in a way that together, they can achieve
much more. Team development activities maybe undertaken for institutionalize and ad hoc
or temporary work groups towards clearly identifiable advantageous, results that greatly on
organizational productivity and effectiveness.

 Besides the organization as a whole, there are several other beneficiaries of a team-
building activity. These are: 


o Individuals
 For individuals in team development activities, learning can occur and can bring about real
changes in areas that matter. Individuals are able to develop personal skills that relate to
the work that they do; they also become more competent in working with others to
effectively solve problems,
o Management Teams
 Management teams, usually compose of a manager and those who report to him or her,
most commonly undergo team development interventions. The quality of relationships
between team members can affect large numbers of the people who look to the team to
provide a clear and energetic direction.
o Top Management Teams
 Teams of top managers often are the major links the organization and its external
environment. They exercise functions requiring a far-sighted and imaginative appraisal of
complex issues that are beyond the scope of most individuals working alone. Team
development activities  enable them to take concerted action on vital issues and concerns
affecting the entire organization.
o Project Teams
 Many organizations use project teams to solve problems quickly or to develop new
processes or products. It is necessary for project managers to collect together a mix of skills
that can technically handle the project and they also must create enough drive enthusiasm
to see the project through.
o Representative Teams and Committees
 Committee members represent an interest group or are appointed to contribute particular
skills or viewpoints. Commitments from members is a problem because committees are
often temporary. Team development helps resolve the issues blocking a committee's
progress and works effectively towards mutually accepted goals.
o Work Groups
 Team concept stresses maximized individual participation with the overall aim of channeling
more of the creative energy of people towards benefiting the organization. The manager or
the supervisor's role is to facilitate the working of the team after rather than to simply direct
it.

ROLES WITHING A TEAM

Work group members bring into the team their formal functional roles as defined by the job
descriptions and location in the organizational hierarchy. Intra- and inter-team behavior
dynamics are governed to a large extent by the protocols associated with formal roles.
 On the other hand, an effective team will be composed of individuals who assume upon
themselves a different set of roles. These roles are not formally imprinted on people.
Instead, individuals within a team display a certain set of evolved behaviors that would
make them fall under any of these labels:
 Trailbrazer
o This is a leader that uses visions to establish directions of the team. He spearheads the
development of objectives and goals towards which team action will be directed.
 Consensus-Seeker
o This team member constantly checks on how the team gets going and consults and solicits
opinions of others to generate consensus decisions that would be fairly acceptable to all.
 Gatekeeper
o His prime concern would be the sense of fairness and equity and tries to achieve these by
way of encouraging equal participation.
 Re-inforcer
o The most congenial member of the team, he is supportive and takes advantage of
friendliness and positive strokes to enhance harmony of relationships within the team.
 Initiator
o This member emphasizes creativity and innovation, taking calculated risks to explore
opportunities by which the team will be able to improve on the way it operates.
 Referee 
o His forte would be smoothing out conflicts by emphasizing reliance on the facts, data and
logic over emotional responses to situations. He welcomes all potential contributors on their
merits and keeps biases and prejudice out of the way by being objective.
 Promoter
o He is excellent at getting people enthusiastic about the tasks on hand. He takes the role of
communicator.
 Assessor 
o His main contribution is his ability to assess and review progress being made about tasks on
hand to ensure everyone is on track.
 Doer 
o While not providing much leadership initiatives, he can be relied upon to deliver required
outputs related to the goals and objectives. He is disciplined and hardworking and one who
turn ideas into reality.
Managers and supervisors in an organization should take efforts at identifying who among
their subordinates fall under these categories. If there is no one in some of the categories, it
is incumbent on him to develop people who will fit into the roles which are needed for
effective team functioning.

TASKS LINKAGES
The organization is viewed as a chain of individual functional units, linked together for the
purpose of generating new and repeat business. Each units is an independent producer,
turning points (materials received from suppliers) into outputs (products) for the direct use
of the next function or internal customer.
 Great service to external customers begins with providing outstanding service to co-
workers. When internal supplier-customer breakdown happens, service providers are often
forced to make excuses, apologize, and receive the brunt for the customer's dissatisfaction.
All work in an organization is a process in which employees are both customers of and
suppliers to one another forming a continuous chain.
 A customer is one who needs inputs such as resources, materials, information, or service
from others in the company of from an external source.
 A supplier is one who provides outputs like resources, materials, information or services to
other employees or departments in the organization or to the ultimate customer.
 Customers and suppliers exchange information about their requirement and provide one
another with feedback on how to meet those requirements.
The quality of service delivered to the external customer depends directly on the quality of
service that employees provide for each other. There is absolutely no possibility of excellent
customer service without excellent internal service. It has been said that there should be an
intense passion to serve the internal customer well and is extended towards the external
customer.

 
The following are manifestations of poor intergroup-linkages and
coordination in an organizational setting:

1. Group members avoid or withdraw from interactions with people from other work groups
even as they should be spending more time together towards meeting common goals.
2. The mutual product or end results desired by both work groups are delayed, diminished,
blocked, or altered to the dissatisfaction of one or both parties, or even the ultimate
customers.
3. Needed services between groups are not asked for.
4. Services between work groups are not performed to meet agreed standards of quality and
timeliness leading to the dissatisfaction of those in either group.
5. Feelings of resentment or antagonism develop as a result of poor group interactions.
6. People feel frustrated, rejected, or misunderstood by those in the other work unit with
whom they must work.
7. More time is spent in either avoiding or circumventing interaction with the other work group
or internally whining and complaining about the other group, instead of working through
mutual problems.
The presence of any of these symptoms connotes the need for improvements in inter-group
interactions. The goal of such is to develop a problem-solving process that will reduce the
existing dysfunctional behaviors and allow future problems to be solved more effectively
before a breakdown in group interaction occurs.
Unless people in different departments collaborate and see bigger picture and understand
that the team is more than the small group, inter-group conflicts can and do emerge. Team-
building sessions between and among units can be conducted before problems occur o
cement relationships and establish working guidelines. Certainly, it is important to get work
units together and iron out difficulties when inter-group problems occur. Single unit loyalty
and insularity can be detrimental to achieving organizational goals.
Some approaches towards improving inter-team linkages are enumerated below:
1. Clarifying expectations and ensuring that the people relied on (internal suppliers)
understand the requirement of one's external or ultimate customers.
2. Ensuring that suppliers know the consequences of not fulfilling their service responsibilities
as they pertain to one's external customers.
3. Providing supply sources with positive feedback like praises and affirmation when they do
things right.
4. Making sure that the suppliers get enough lead time for unique requests or changes in
requirements.
5. Acknowledging, appreciating and celebrating with those who serve well.

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
Communication is vital to organizing, coordinating and team working. In an organizational
setting, communication is the ever-present activity by which people interact each other and
combine their efforts at work. Communication is critical to a healthy organization. It is used
to provide instructions about work to be done, information on the extent of responsibilities,
authorities and accountabilities of specific positions, and the relationships between
individuals and work units. As a management activity, it is classified under the leading
function but its significance to organizing is quite obvious.
Communication as part of the organizing function is done for the following reasons:
 To Inform - Information is a key element of modern organizations. Without information,
organizations cannot function properly.
 To Educate - The more people know about their work, the more effective they will be.
People have to be told essential information about their work and what to do to be able to
carry out their jobs.
 To Motivate- With jobs getting more and more specialized, people need to know how their
work impacts on overall organizational objectives. If people understand why they are doing
things and how they fit into the organizational structure, they will be able to develop higher
levels of commitment to contribute to the end goals.
Organizational communication has its external and internal dimensions. Communication is
used by an organization in relating to the outside environment and in dealing with its
external stakeholders. Internal communication in an organization is multi-directional:
vertical from top down and bottom-up as well as horizontal among individuals and work
units in the same level of the organizational hierarchy. 
In the organizational set-up, there are three basic types of communication, classified
according to its movement. They are:

1. Downward Communication
 relaying information from top management to employees
 usually comes in the form of directives and orders from superiors to subordinate
 authoritative and quick
2. Upward Communication
 channeling of information from the employees to management
 for practical reasons, it is often formal and less explicit.
 often harder to communicate and becomes less truthful thus being ineffective; this is
influenced to high degree by discomfort and fear on the part of the subordinates to convey
information to their superiors as rank would normally intimidate.
3. Lateral Communication
 exchange of information among peers
 made by mutual consent of both parties
 since no one has higher authority, both parties must employ tact to except results from the
communication activity