BECM 4103

Basic Environmental Engineering

Showaib Ahmed Chowdhury

Lecturer, Department of BECM, RUET
 Chapter 1
Introduction to Environmental Sanitation
Background
• With the increasing urbanization, industrial development & large human activities, it is natural to
increase in the production of wastes.
• These waste, if not properly managed/handled/disposed to the environment without treatment/in a state
that are harmful to the nature, can have detrimental effects on the environmental quality.

• Even though the awareness of the environmental degradation is not yet very prevalent/conscious issue
in developing countries like Bangladesh, a major challenge is that of human waste management and
disposal.

• Human waste or excreta are the terms used to mean human faeces and urine, excluding other types of
domestic waste such as household solid waste of garbage.
• These are responsible for spreading of infectious diseases at uncontrolled rate.

• Human wastes are dangerous to health and detrimental to the environmental if they are untreated before
disposed of into the environment.
Sanitation and Health

➢ The sanitary disposal of human wastes is arguably of similar importance to safe water supply
because it essentially removes the risk of contamination of water by pathogens contained in human
faeces.
➢ In addition to public health improvement, investment in sanitation have other benefits in the form
of environmental conservation, employment generation, increase in production and a nutrition's
for food productivity and water for agriculture.
➢ Appropriate sanitation provides several important facts such as privacy, convenience and health.
➢ It is important to understand that that the improvement of health is not possible without sanitary
disposal of human excreta.
➢ However, neither sanitation nor water supply alone is good enough for health improvement.
➢ It is well established that health education or hygiene promotion must accompany sufficient
quantity of safe water and sanitary disposal of excreta to ensure the control of water & sanitary
related diseases.
Definition and Objectives of Sanitation
Sanitation may be defined as the science and practice of effecting healthful and hygienic conditions, and
involves the study and use of hygienic measures such as
• safe, reliable water supply;
• proper drainage of wastewater;

• proper disposal of all human wastes;

• prompt removal of all refuse.
The prime objectives of providing sanitation facilities:

• to have improve public health. • to minimize environmental pollution

Disease Transmission and Sanitation
Sanitation can greatly prevent the spread of infectious diseases:

• ingestion of food or drinking waste. • ingestion of meat infected with tape worms. • contact with
contaminated water. • contact with contaminated soil. • insect vectors.
Classification of wastes:
 Human waste or human excreta  Municipal sewerage wastewater  Domestic sewerage

 Sullage  Industrial waste  Storm water  Solid waste

Sanitation Systems
A sanitation system involves all arrangement necessary to store, collection, process and deliver human
wastes or other forms of wastes back to nature in a safe manner.
Sanitation systems with respect to human waste management has the following function to perform:

Excretion and storage

Collection and transportation

Process/Treatment

Disposal/Recycle.

Sanitation Systems
• On-site : When the waste are collected, treated and disposed of at the point of generation, it is called an
on-site system, e.g. Pit latrine and Septic tank system.
• On-site sanitation systems are not feasible because of high population density, high water consumption,
low infiltration rate of soil or high ground water table, wastes have to be collected and transported off-
site for treatment and/or disposal
• Off-site: When these waste is collected and transported to somewhere else for treatment and disposed,
the system is called offsite, e.g. bucket latrine systems and conventional sewerage systems.
• The basic elements of off-site sanitation system therefore include collection,transportation, treatment,
disposal and/orreuse.

• The waste is collected either through house sewer or manually using buckets or vaults, transported either
by cart, truck or sewer system to a suitable distant place where it is treated prior to disposal or reuse.
• Dry system: In dry system, no water is used for the dilution of the water. They are usually applied in
unsewered areas with no piped water supply, e.g., Pit latrine systems (on-site) and Bucket latrine systems
(off site).
• Wet system: In the wet system the waste is diluted with flushes of water. Wet systems are suitable where
piped water supply systems are available, e.g., Septic tank system (on site) and conventional sewerage
system (off- site).

Important factors for sanitation in Bangladesh

➢ Housing density: Simple pit latrines are suitable for use in rural areas and low density urban areas
up to about 300 people per hectare. Average household size, housing design, plot layout and area
have a large influence. At higher densities alternating double pit latrines may be feasible, but other
options, such as small bore sewers, community latrine cum biogas plant, etc. may be more
appropriate solution.
➢ Water supply service level: In areas water use is low (less than 30l/c/d) and where water has to
be hand- carried from public stand-post, tubewell or community wells are feasible. Pit latrines of
one type or another are technically feasible sanitation options.
➢ Housing density: Simple pit latrines are suitable for use in rural areas and low density urban areas
up to about 300 people per hectare. Average household size, housing design, plot layout and area
have a large influence. At higher densities alternating double pit latrines may be feasible, but other
 options, such as small bore sewers, community latrine cum biogas plant, etc. may be more
appropriate solution.
➢ Water supply service level: In areas water use is low (less than 30l/c/d) and where water has to
be hand- carried from public stand-post, tubewell or community wells are feasible. Pit latrines of
one type or another are technically feasible sanitation options.
➢ Difficulties associated with pit latrines: Digging pits in loose and unconsolidated soils (e.g., sand
or fine- grained alluvium) is difficult and lining must not prevent the seepage of faecal liquids out
of the pit into the surrounding soil.
➢ Operation and maintenance: Squatting slabs easily become fouled and pour-flush bowls may
block up. The water seal, the essential part of the pour-flush pit latrine, often breaks down.
Sometimes other garbage thrown into pan blocks the latrine.
➢ Soil permeability: Soils with permeability below 2.5 mm per hour (expansive clay) are unsuitable
for pit latrines, as the liquid fraction of the excreta is unable to infiltrate into soil, thereby leading
to overflow of the pits.
➢ Groundwater pollution: The deposition of excreta in pits may pollute water sources, particularly
wells, tube-wells, pond, etc., located nearby. The danger of pollution increases if the pit is dug
down to the water table or to fissured or weathered rock.

Users are required to locate pits at least 10 m away from tubewells or other water sources to avoid potential
pollutions.
 Chapter 2
ON-SITE HUMAN WASTE MANAGEMENT
Technological Options
Introduction
There exists a wide range of alternative sanitation technologies that are low cost, easily maintainable and
can be chosen to suit different hydrological, socioeconomic and cultural conditions, such as

 Simple Pit Latrine;  Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) Latrines;  Single-pit VIP Latrines; 
Alternating Twin-pit VIP Latrines;  Reed Odorless Earth Closet (ROEC);  Compost Latrines :
Continuous Compost Latrines; Batch Compost Latrines;  Pour-Flush sanitation technologies: Direct Pit
Pour-Flush Latrines, Off-set Pit Flush Latrines; Alternating Twin Off- set Pour-flush Latrines;  AQUA
PRIVIES and SEPTIC TANK.  Communal Sanitation System.
Simple Pit Latrines

 Most common and simplest form of excreta disposal in many developing countries.

 The cheapest system possible and the system most appropriate for individual householders responsible
for their own sanitation.

 A pit latrine consists of a manually dug or bored hole into the ground, an appropriate set or squatting
slab, and a superstructure erected over it. The pit is simply a hole in the ground into which excreta fall.

 Urine and other liquids soak into the ground and solid materials are retained and decomposed in the pit.

 Simple pit latrines (often called “home made” latrines) as the family members can construct them.
Simple Pit Latrines
With slight modifications in design and with very little intervention, conventional pit latrines can be
improved to be hygienic.

 When excreta fall directly into a pit underneath the user, it is called a direct pit latrine.

 When excreta pass through a short pipe or a channel to a pit a few metres away, it is called an offset pit
latrine. It may be called a partly offset pit latrines when part of the pit is under the shelter and part is
outside, where a removable cover allows the contents to be taken out.

 The most appropriate types of pit latrine, however, depends on the local situation, particularly on the
type of materials used for anal cleansing, including the level of the underground and the traditions and the
choice of the users.
General design considerations for pit latrines

 The pit should be as large as possible(should not be more than 1.5m wide)

 Soils with low permeability (below 2.5 mm/hour) are unsuitable for pit latrines as the liquid portion is
unable to infiltrate into the soil.

 Pits in unstable soils must be fully lined, otherwise there is risk that the pit will collapse and the
superstructure will fall into it. (concrete rings, bricks, cement stabilized soil blocks, masonry, perforated
oil drums, etc.

 Safe distance between the latrine pit and a source of drinking water e.g., tube-well, should be provided
(a distance of at least 10 m)

Design of Pit Latrines

Effective Pit Volume: The effective pit volume depends on the solids accumulation rate, the number of
users and the desired life of pit. The effective volume can be calculated as:
V=CXPXN,
Where

V= effective volume of the pit in m³, C= solid accumulation rate in m³ /person/year, P= number of
person who will be using the latrine, N= design life in years.
• The total pit size for a pit latrine not exceeding 4.0 m in depth can be determined by V = 1.33 x C x P x
N The factor of 1.33 is incorporated to ensure a clear space above the remains of the excreta at the end of
the design period. The factor will allow 75% of the pit to be full at the end of this period.
Solids accumulation rate, C: excreta deposited into the pit have two essential components( liquid fraction
of excreta (mainly urine) and the faecal solids in excreta) are digested anaerobically to produce gases &
soluble compounds, etc.

 In dry pits (not extended below the groundwater table), solids accumulation rates vary between 0.30
and 0.06m³/person/year, and in wet pits between 0.02 and 0.04 m³ /person/year.
 For design purposes, solid accumulation rates may be taken as 0.04 and 0.06 m³ /person/year in wet and
dry pits respectively.
The main advantages of a simple pit latrine are:

 Least costly  Easily constructed andmaintained

 Structurally safe and therefore free from risk of children falling into it, and thus less frightening for
children.

 Prevents hookworm transmission; and

 Offers a better solution than open defecation and unhygienic changing latrines.

The most serious disadvantages of a simple pit latrine are:

 Flies lay their eggs in faeces within poorly build latrines. Increase in the fly population increases spread
of diseases caused by the faecal pathogens they carry.

 Improper lining of pits may lead to collapse of the superstructure

Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) Latrines

 Ventilated improved pit latrines commonly known as VIP latrines are an improvement to overcome the
disadvantages of the simple pit latrines.

 Fly and mosquito nuisance and unpleasant odors, are effectively minimized by the action of a vent pipe,
fly screen and a squatting cover in the VIP latrines.

 VIP latrine pits receive excreta in the same fashion as those of the simple pit latrines, by direct
deposition through a squat hole or a pedestal seat.

 The liquid part infiltrates into the surrounding soil and the faecal solids are digested anaerobically,
gradually accumulating and eventually requiring emptying the pit for further use.
Elements of VIP Latrines
The basic elements of a VIP latrines are:

• The pit • A cover slab • A superstructure for privacy and protection from rain and sun
• The vent pipe and the fly screen which keep the latrine free from the mosquitoes, and unpleasant odors.
The principal mechanism of ventilation in VIP latrines is the action of wind blowing across the top of the
vent pipe. The wind creates a strong circulation of air through the superstructure, down through the squat
hole, across the pit, and up and out of the vent pipe.
Types of VIP Latrines

• Single-pit VIP Latrines: consist of one pit, a vent pipe and a superstructure and are suitable where
mechanical emptying is possible when the pit is full.
• Alternate twin-pit VIP Latrines: have two separate pits with their own vent pipe, and the superstructure
is located centrally over the off-set pits. The slab covering the pits has two squat holes, one over each pit.

Design Consideration for VIP Latrines

 Design life: for single-pit VIP latrines, the design life should be as long as possible; at least 10yearsis
desirables. For alternating twin-pit VIP latrines the design life should be 1-3 years.

 Dimensions: usually the pit cross- sectional area should not be more than 2m²in order to avoid cover
slabs with large spans. VIP latrines serving one household commonly have a diameter of 1-1.5 m.

 Vent Pipe: a wide variety of materials are used for VENT pipes such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
unplasticized PVC (uPVC), bricks, etc. For flat roof, top of the vent should be at least 500 mm higher than
the roof, and in case of sloping roofs the vent pipe should be 500 mm above the highest point of the roof.
PVC (150mm dia); Brick (230mm square); Others (230mm diameter).
 Fly screen specification: the purpose of fly screen is to prevent passage of flies and mosquitoes; the
mesh aperture must not be larger than 1.2mmX1.5mm
Design Consideration For VIP Latrines
Relocation and Emptying Of Pits

Soakaway
A VIP LATRINE with adjacent soakaway increases the pit life. The latrine pit is completely sealed with
cement mortared brickwork and a PVC pipe of 75mm dia which leads to the adjacent soakaway is attached
at a height of about 2.25m above the pit base. The soakaway has diameter of 1.5m and a depth of 2m. It
is lined with unmortared bricks to a depth of 1.4m. At this depth a reinforced concrete cover slab is placed
on the bricks and the remaining space above it is backfilled.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The major advantages of VIP latrine technology are as follows:

• Controls odor and insects; Minimum health risk; Low cost;

• Easy construction and maintenance;
• Minimum water requirements;
• Twin-pit VIP latrine system offers a long-term solution.
The main disadvantages of a VIP option may be as follows:

• Potential for groundwater pollution.

• Lack of space for relocating the pit in densely populated areas.
• Difficulty of constructions in rocky and high water table areas

Mathematical
Problem Section 9.10
Example 1, 2

Reed Odorless Earth Closet (ROEC)

• A variation on the ventilated improved pit latrine.
• With ROEC, the pit is fully off-set from the superstructure

and is connected to the squatting plate by a curved chute.

ADVANTAGES of ROEC

 ROEC pit can be made larger as the superstructure is fully off-set and thus can have a longer life than
VIP latrine.

 Pit can be easily emptied without disturbing the superstructure and it can be a permanent facility.

 There is no danger of users, particularly children, falling into it.

 It may be more acceptable to users because the excreta cannot be seen.

DISADVANTAGES of ROEC

 The ROEC chute easily becomes fouled with excreta, thereby providing a possible site for fly breeding
and odor nuisance.

 The chute has to be regularly cleaned with a long-handled brush or a small amount of water.
Compost latrines
The basic principal of a compost latrine is that aerobic decomposition of faeces generates sufficient heat
to destroy the pathogens and forms a good soil conditioner/fertilizer for subsequent use. Necessary
condition for the compost process include an appropriate Carbon to Nitrogen (C/N) ratio, a low moisture
content and access to air to ensure aerobic conditions.

Two types of compost latrines:

Continuous compost latrine.

Batch compost latrine.

Advantages and Disadvantages of compost latrines:

• Appropriate for use in areas where there is a tradition of using human excreta on the land.
• Can be useful in areas where there is a need for soil conditioner.
• Need no water for flushing because composting is most efficient if material is moist but not wet;
need not penetrate the subsoil and can be built on rock, pose a low pollution risk, particularly if
they are completely sealed units and they can be used to prevent contamination of a vulnerable
water supply.
• Need organic waste to correct the C/N ratio of the excreta and a substantial amount of
biodegradable organic matters must be locally available.
• Need care in their operation.
• This type of latrine is not very suitable areas where people prefer water for anal cleansing.

Assignment
POUR-FLUSH SANITATION TECHNOLOGIES AQUA PRIVIES
Prevention Of Ground Water Pollution

SEPTIC TANK SYSTEM

A septic tank is a buried, watertight receptacle designed and constructed to receive wastewater from a
home, to separate the solids from the liquid, to provide limited digestion of organic matter, to store solids,
and to allow the clarified liquid to discharge for further treatment and disposal.
Settleable solids and partially decomposed sludge settle to the bottom of the tank and gradually build up.
A scum of light-weight material including fat and grease rises to the top.

The partially treated effluent is allowed to flow through a outlet structure just below the following scum
layer.
The partially decomposed liquid can be disposed of through soil absorption system, evaporation beds or
anaerobic filters depending upon the site condition.
Although a septic tank is simple a sedimentation basin with no external or internal moving parts or added
chemical, the natural processes that take place within the tank are complex, and interact with each other.

Processes in a Septic Tank

The most important processes that take place within the tank include separation of suspended solids,
digestion of sludge and scum, stabilization of the liquid, and growth of micro-organism.
Separation of suspended solids in the formation of mechanical process which results in the formation of
these distinct layers in the septic tank:

• a layer of sludge at the bottom,

• a floating layer of scum on the top and
• a relatively clear layer of liquid in the middle
Performance of a septic tank

• The performance of a septic tank greatly depends on its design.

• A properly designed septic tank performs efficiently in the removal of settleable matter and the
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).
• The high reduction of BOD and SS can be prolonged with the Retention Time
The other factors are:

• Ambient temperature;
• The nature of the influent wastewater;
• Its organic content;
• The position of the inlet and outlet devices in the tank.
Design procedure for Septic Tank:
The tank is considered to be made up of four (04) zones:
i) SCUM Storage Zone;

ii) SEDIMENTATION Zone;

iii) SLUDGE Digestion Zone;
iv) DIGESTED Sludge Storage Zone

Scum Storage Zone

Scum accumulation at approximately 30-40% of the rate at which sludge accumulation. So the tank
volume of scum storage (Vsc) can be taken as 0.4 times the volume of sludge storage (Vsl)

i.e., Vsc = 0.4Vsl

Sedimentation
The time required to allow sedimentation of settleable solids decreases with the number of people served
according to the following equation:
th= 1.5 – 0.3log(P*q)
Where, th= minimum mean hydraulic retention for sedimentation,days; P = Contributing population

q = waste water flow,person/litre/day

Often a minimum mean hydraulic retention time of one day is used. The value of th used should not be
less than 0.2 days. THE TANK VOLUME FOR SEDIMENTATION, Vh(m³ )

Vh= 10ˉ³ P qth

DIGESTION

Time needed for the anaerobic digestion of the settled solids (td, day) varies with the Temperature (Tº C);
td = 1853 T^(-1.25);
However, it is necessary that a large factor of safety be applied to allow for the difference between a well-
controlled anaerobic reactor and a septic tank , so that td is given by
td =30 (1.035)^(35 -T)
The volume of fresh sludge is around 1.0 liter/person/day. This is digested in td days when it passes to the
sludge storage zone. So, the average volume of the digesting sludge present during the period td is 0.5 lcd.
The volume of the sludge digestion zone, Vd(m ˉ³) is given by

Vd= 0.5 X 10ˉ³ P td

Sludge Storage

The volume of the sludge storage zone depends on the rate of accumulation of the digested sludge ( C, m³
per person per year) and the interval between successive desludging operation (N, years),
Design value for sludge accumulation rate C = 0.06 m³/person year. For N5,

The sludge storage volume, Vsl(in m³)is

Vsl= C X P XN
Overall design capacity is the sum of the volumes required for scum storage, sedimentation, digestion
and sludge storage,i.e., the total septic tank volume:
V = Vsc+ Vh+ Vd+ Vsl;
as , Vsc= 0.4 Vsl;

V= Vb+ Vh+ 1.4Vs

CLEAR SPACE DEPTH

• The clear space width, which is the minimum acceptable depth of the sedimentation zone just prior
to desludging, comprises the submerged scum clear depth andthe sludge clear depth.
• The submerged scum clear depth is the distance between the underside of the scum layer and the
bottom of the outlet “tee”, and should be atleast 75mm.
• The sludge clear depth is the distance between the top of the sludge layer and the bottom of the
outlet “tee”
• The minimum value of the sludge clear depth is related to the tank surface area, A, as follows: dsc
= 0.82– 0.26A, subject to a minimumvalueof0.3m.
• The minimum total clear space calculated as (0.075 + dsc) must be compared with the depth
required for sedimentation, i.e., (Vh/ A), and the greater depth chosen.
SOAKWAYS
They are deep excavations used for sub-surface disposed of septic tank effluent.

• Soakways or soakage pits are mostly used in Bangladesh, the Septic Tank effluent flows through pit
walls made of open jointed bricks, into the surrounding soils..
• Typically soakways can be 2 to 3.5 m in diameter, and 3 to 6 m deep depending on the amount of
wastewater flow and the infiltration capacity of soil.
• Absorption pits are recommended as an alternative when absorption fields /trenches are not practicable
and when top soil is underlaid with porous soil & fine gravel.

Communal Sanitation System

 Chapter 3
Wastewater Collection and Transportation

Introduction

• Most onsite sanitation systems are build relying on the infiltration capacity of soils.
• However, as the population densities increase and the per capita water consumption rises due to
improvements in the water supply, particularly in the urban centers, on site system often fails
because of insufficient land area required for infiltration.
• Moreover, soil’s capacity to absorb wastewater with a high organic content also decreases.
• Consequently, the overflow of the pit latrines or the septic tanks end up in surface water drainage
networks causing unsightly, polluted natural streams and rivers.
• On-site sanitation systems are like to pollute the groundwater system when the ground water table
is high.
• The obvious alternative to on-site sanitation in such situation is waterborne sewerage, Widely
termed as Conventional Sewerage System.
• It consists of a series of underground pipes collecting and transporting waterborne excreta and
other household wastewater to a distant place.  Some degree of treatment is provided to the
wastewater before final disposal into natural watercourses or in some cases onto land.
• Unfortunately, conventional sewerage, as currently practiced, is very expensive and is only
applicable to cities, commercial, residential and industrial areas which can afford it.

Conventional Sewerage System

• The basis functional elements of a conventional sewerage system include the house connection for
collections of household or industrial wastewater, a network of sewer systems for collection and
conveying the wastewater, a treatment plant for processing the wastewater, and receiving
environment (water or land) for disposal of the treated wastewater.
• Of the total system, the major investment is made in the collection and conveyance of wastewater
through a network of reticulation sewers.

Important Terms
Wastewater: is the liquid waste conveyed by a sewer and may include domestic and industrial discharges
as well as storm sewage, infiltration, and inflow.

Domestic (Sanitary) sewage: is the liquid waste which originates in the sanitary conveniences, e.g., water
closets, urinals, baths, sinks, etc. of dwellings, commercial or industrial facilities and institutions. This is
sometimes also referred to as black water.

Industrial wastewater: includes the liquid discharges from spent water in different industrial processes
such as manufacturing and food processing.
Sullage: is the liquid discharge from kitchens, wash basins etc. and excludes discharge from WCs and
urinals. Sullage, also known as grey water, is less foul than domestic sewage and can be discharged
through open surface drains in unsewered areas.
Storm water: is the surface runoff during and immediately after the rainfall, which enters sewers through
inlets. Storm water is not as foul as sanitary or industrial sewage and hence can be carried through open
drains or channels and disposed of in natural rivers or streams without treatment.
Infiltration: in the water which enters the sewers from the ground through leaks or faulty joints. Sewer:
is a pipe or conduit, generally closed, but normally not flowing full, which carries sewage.

Sanitary sewer: carries sanitary sewerage and is designed to exclude storm sewage, infiltration, and
surface inflow. Industrial waste may be carried in sanitary sewers, depending upon its characteristics.
Strom sewer: carries storm sewage and any other waste which may be discharged into streets or onto the
surface of the ground.
Sewerage: refers to the entire system of collection, treatment and disposal of sewage through a system of
reticulation sewers.

Functional Elements of a Sewerage System

The essential functions of a sewerage system include:
i) Collection and conveyance; ii) Treatment; and iii) Disposal

Collection refers to the collection of sewage from different points of generation and conveying sewage to
any desired points through a network of sewers.

Sewage treatment includes any process which may be used to modify the characteristics of sewage.
Sewage disposal refers to the discharge of liquid waste to the environment. Normally, but not always,
disposal implies some degree of treatment prior to discharge.
Types of Collection Systems
a) Separate Sewerage System
b) Combined Sewerage System
c) Partially Combined or Partially Separate Sewerage System
Separate sewerage System: consists in the separate collection of municipal wastewaters (black water
from toilets, grey water and industrial wastewater) and surface run-off (rainwater and storm water).

The separate collection prevent the overflow of sewer systems and treatment stations during rainy periods
and the mixing of the relatively little polluted surface run-off with chemical and microbial pollutants from
the municipal wastewater.

Advantages of Separate Sewerage System

• Surface run-off, grey water and black water can be managed separately (no contamination óf
surface run-off by sewage)
• Limited or no risk of sewage overflow
 • Low health risk
• No problems related to discharging industrial wastewater
• Moderate operation costs: Surface run-off and rainwater can be reused (e.g. for landscaping or
agriculture) after a simplified treatment
Disadvantages of Separate Sewerage System

• Difficult to construct in high-density areas, difficult and costly to maintain

• High capital costs, more expensive than combined sewer system (two networks are necessary)
• Requires skilled engineers and operators
• adequate treatment and/or disposal required for a large point source discharge.
Combined Sewerage System: Combined Sewerage System, a.k.a conventional gravity sewers are large
networks of underground pipes that convey black water, grey water and, in many cases, storm water from
individual households to a (Semi-) Centralized Treatment facility, using gravity(and pumps when
necessary). As pumps may be necessary if the landscape is very flat, or in hilly regions, they are mostly
found in urban areas.
Advantages of Combined Sewerage System
• Convenience • Less maintenance • Grey water and possibly storm water can be managed concurrently

• Can handle large volumes of flow • No problems related to discharging industrial wastewater
Disadvantages of Combined Sewerage System
• Very high capital costs; high operation and maintenance costs

• A minimum velocity must be maintained to prevent the deposition of solids in the sewer
• Difficult and costly to extend as a community changes and grows
• Difficult to construct in high-density areas, difficult and costly to maintain
Partially Separate System

A partially separate system is a modification of the separate system in which the separate sewer
discharging domestic sewage and industrial wastes also contain a portion of the surface drained from back-
paved yards and roofs of the house.

Advantages
• It provides reasonable sizes of sewers and is economical.
• The rainwater provides some safeguard against silting in the sewer.

Disadvantages
• Low velocity during the dry period. • Storm overflows may be found necessary.

Assignment
Suitable Conditions for choosing a specific type of sewerage system

Types of Sewer:
The types and sizes of sewers vary with size of the collection system and the location of the wastewater
treatment facilities. The principal types of sewers found in most collection systems are as follows:

Building sewers: also called house connection, are used to convey wastewater from the building to lateral
or branch sewers, or any other sewer except another building sewer. Building sewers normally begin
outside the building.
Lateral or branch sewer: Lateral sewers from the first element of a community sewage collection system
and are usually in streets. They are used to collect sewage from one or more building sewers and convey
it to a main sewer.
Main sewer: Main sewers are used to convey sewage from one or more lateral sewers to trunk sewers or
to interceptor sewers.

Trunk sewers: These are large sewers that are used to convey sewage from main sewers to treatment
plants or their disposal facilities or to larger intercepting sewers.
Intercepting sewers: These are large sewer that are used to intercept number of main or trunk sewers and
convey the wastewater to treatment or other disposal facilities.
Outfall sewers: These are the lengths of main or trunk or interceptor sewers which lie between
connections and the final point of disposal or treatment plant.

Small Bore Sewerage System

In order to extend adequate sanitation services to medium to low-income communities, small bore
sewerage (SBS) system is introduced. This is a recent sanitation technology that offers all the advantages
of conventional waterborne sewerage systems but at a much lower cost than the conventional ones.
SBS system elements:
There are three elements to a small bore sewerage system. These are:

 Septic tanks;  Small bore sewer network; and  Treatment plant.

• The SBS system collects wastewater discharges from all the fixtures in households (or other premises)
in a similar fashion to the conventional sewerage system. The basic difference between the two systems
is the incorporation of septic tanks within the individual premises as part of the SBS system. The
wastewater collected in the septic tank is then transported under gravity through a network of reticulation
sewers to a treatment plant comprising a series of stabilization lagoons
• In the case of an existing septic tank system the sewer installation commences immediately downstream
of the existing septic tank, and new developments must install septic tanks to be able to connect to the
SBS system.
 Chapter 4
Wastewater Treatment

What is Wastewater?
Wastewater is a term that is used to describe waste material that includes industrial liquid waste and
sewage waste that is collected in towns and urban areas and treated at urban wastewater treatment plants.

Wastewater treatment

A process to convert wastewater - which is water no longer needed or suitable for its most recent use -
into an effluent that can be either returned to the water cycle with minimal environmental issues or reused.

Sources of Wastewater
• Residences ― human and animal excreta and waters used for washing, bathing, and cooking.
• Commercial institution
• Dairy and industrial establishment ― slaughterhouse waste, dairy waste, tannery wastewater, etc.
Wastewater Contaminants
• Suspended solids • Biodegradable organics (e.g., BOD) • Pathogenic bacteria • Nutrients (N & P)
 Where does it all go!

Why treat wastewater?

• Causes a demand for dissolved oxygen (lower DO levels of streams)
• Adds nutrients (nitrate and phosphate) to cause excessive growth
• Increases suspended solids or sediments in streams (turbidity increase)
Objectives of WWT
• Reduce organic content i.e., BOD
• Removal/reduction of nutrients i.e., N,P
• Removal/inactivation of pathogenic microbes
Levels of Treatment
Primary
– removal by physical separation of grit and large objects (material to landfill for disposal)
– Sedimentation and screening of large debris
Secondary
– Biological and chemical treatment
– aerobic microbiological process (sludge)
organic matter + O2 = CO2 + NH3 + H2O
Primary treatment
Typical materials that are removed during primary treatment include

– fats, oils, and greases

– sand, gravels and rocks
– larger settle-able solids including human waste, and
– floating materials
Methods used in primary treatment
• Bar screens

• Grinding
• Grit Chamber
• Sedimentation Tank

• Chlorination of effluent
Sedimentation Tank- Primary Settling Tank
– Remove grease, oil
– Fecal solid settle, floating material rise to the surface
– Produce a liquid portion for later biological treatment

– Fecal sludge are pumped to sludge treatment plant

Secondary treatment
Biological treatment

– activated sludge
– trickling filter
– oxidation ponds
Activated sludge process
• Primary wastewater mixed with bacteria-rich (activated) sludge and air or oxygen is pumped into the
mixture
• Both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria may exist
• Promotes bacterial growth and decomposition of organic matter

• BOD removal is approximately 85%

• Microbial removal by activated sludge

– 80-99% removal of bacteria

– 90-99% removal of viruses
5 physical components
• Aeration tank

• oxygen is introduced into the system

• Aeration source

• ensure that adequate oxygen is fed into the tank

• provided pure oxygen or compressed air
• Secondary clarifiers

• activated-sludge solids separate from the surrounding wastewater

• Activated sludge outflow line

• Pump activated sludge back to the aeration tank

• Effluent outflow line
• discharged effluent into bay or tertiary treatment plant
• Trickling filters are beds made of coke (carbonized coal), limestone chips or specially fabricated plastic
media
• The primary wastewater is sprayed over the filter and microbes decompose organic material aerobically.
• Low pathogen removal

- Bacteria, 20-90%
- Viruses, 50-90%
- Giardia cysts, 70-90%
Waste Stabilization or Oxidation Ponds

• Oxidation ponds are a few meters deep, and up to a hectare in size.

• They are low cost with retention times of 1 to 4 weeks.
• Odor and mosquitoes can be a problem
• Pathogen removal:
- Bacteria, 90-99%
- Virus, 90-99%
- Protozoa, 67-99%
• Mechanisms include the long detention time, high pH (10- 10.5) generated by photosynthesis,
sunlight, temperature
Stabilization ponds are the preferred wastewater treatment process in developing countries due to low
cost, low maintenance.
This is balanced by larger land requirement.

When the treatment is done

• Effluent back to stream after

– a final filtration and – chlorination/de-chlorination

• Sludge – very nutrient rich
– applied directly to land as fertilizer – incinerated (good fuel after drying) – composted
Composting
 Chapter 5
Solid Waste
What is Solid Waste?
Solid wastes are all the wastes arising from human and animal activities that are normally solid and that
are discarded as useless or unwanted.

Effect of Improper Management

Due to the improper storage, collection and disposal; rats, flies, and other disease vectors breed in,

– Open dumps
– Poorly constructed housing
– Poorly maintained housing
– Food storage facilities
– Other places

Ecological phenomena: water and air pollution

What is Solid Waste Management?
Solid waste management may be defined as that discipline associated with the control of generation,
storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal of solid wastes with consideration of
public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics, and other environmental considerations,
and that also is responsible to public attitude.

Sources of Solid Waste

Sources of solid wastes are, in general, related to land use and zoning.
(i) Residential (ii) Commercial (iii) Industrial (iv) Open areas (v) Treatment plants (vi)
Agricultural
Types of Solid Waste
Food wastes: Food wastes are the animal, fruit or vegetable residues resulting from the handling,
preparation, cooking and eating of foods (also called garbage). The most important characteristic of these
wastes is that they are highly putrescible and will decompose rapidly, essentially in warm weather. Often
decomposition will lead to the development of offensive odors.

Rubbish: Rubbish consists of combustible and noncombustible solid wastes of households, institutions,
commercial activities, etc., excluding food wastes or other highly putrescible materials. Typical,
combustible rubbish paper, cardboard, plastics, consists of materials such as textiles, rubber, leather,
furniture, and garden trimmings. Noncombustible wood, rubbish consists of items such as glass, crockery,
tin cans, aluminum cans, ferrous and other nonferrous metals and dirt.
Ashes and Residues:
 Materials remaining from the burning of wood, coal, and other combustible wastes in homes, stores,
institutions, and industrial and municipal facilities for purposes of heating, cooking, and disposing of
combustible wastes are categories as ashes and residues.
Residues from power plants normally are not included in this category. Ashes and residues are normally
composed of fine, powdery materials, cinders, clinkers, and small amounts of burned and partially burned
materials. Glass, crockery, and various metals are also found in the residues from municipal incinerators.
Demolition and construction wastes: Wastes from razed buildings and other structures are classified as
demolition wastes. Wastes from the construction, remodeling, and repairing of individual residences,
commercial building, and other structures are classified as construction wastes. These wastes are often
classifies as rubbish.
Special wastes: Wastes such as street sweeping, roadside litter, litter from municipal litter containers,
catch-basin debris, dead animals, and abandoned vehicles are classifies as special wastes.
Treatment plant wastes: The solid and semisolid wastes from water, wastewater, and industrial waste
treatment facilities are included in this classification. The specific characteristics of these materials vary,
depending on the nature of the treatment process.
Agricultural wastes: Wastes are residues resulting from divers agricultural activities – such as the
planting and harvesting in the field of tree and crops, the production of milk, for slaughter, and the are
collectively called the production of animals operation of feedlots – agricultural wastes.
Hazardous wastes: Chemical, biological, flammable, explosive or radioactive wastes that pose a
substantial danger, immediately or over time, to human, plant, or animal life are classified as hazardous.
Typically, these wastes occur as liquids, but they are often found in the form of gases, solid, or sludges.
In all cases, these wastes must be handled and disposed of with great care and caution.
Generation of Solid Waste
Waste generation encompasses activities in which materials are identified as no longer being of value and
are either thrown away or gathered together for disposal.
Waste generation, at present, an activity that is not very controllable. In the future, however, more control
will be exercised over the generation of waste.

Factors affecting the generation rate of solid wastes:

▪ Geographic location
▪ Season of the year
▪ Collection frequency
▪ Characteristics of populace and public attitudes
▪ Extent of recycling
▪ Legislation

On-site Handling and Separation, Storage and Processing

Handling and Separation
On-site handling and separation refers to the activities associated with the handling of solid wastes until
they are placed in the containers used for their storage before collection.

Depending on the type of collection service, handling may also be required to move loaded containers to
the collection point and to return the empty containers to the point where they are stored between
collections.

On-site Storage
It refers to the keeping of generated wastes in a container at the point of generation until collection.
Factors that must be considered in the on-site storage of solid wastes including,

(i) type of container to be used, (ii) the container location, (iii) public health and aesthetics, and
(iv) the collection methods to be used.

Types of containers: To a large extent, the types and capacities of the containers used depend on

• the characteristics of the solid wastes to be collected,

• the collection frequency, and
• the space available for the placement of containers.
Container location:
In newer residential areas - by the side or rear end of the house.
In older residential areas - in alleys.

In low-rise multifamily apartments - in specially designed enclosures.

In high-rise apartments - in a basement or ground-floor service area.
The location of containers at existing commercial and industrial facilities depends on both the location of
available space and service access conditions.
In newer facilities - specific service areas have been included.

Processing of solid wastes

On-site processing methods are used to recover usable materials from solid wastes, dealing with Grinding,
sorting, compaction, shredding, composting are all onsite processing methods used to

(i) reduce the volume, (ii) alter the physical form, or (iii) recover usable materials from solid
wastes.

Collection of Solid Waste

Collection of solid wastes is not only the gathering or picking up of solid wastes, but also the hauling of
wastes after collection to the location where the collection vehicle is emptied.
Residential collection services:

 Curb Service  Alley service  Setout-setback service  Setout service  Backyard carry service

Commercial industrial collection service

Collection services
Curb Service: The homeowner is responsible for placing the containers to be emptied at the curb on
collection day and for returning the empty containers to their storage location until the next collection.
Alley service: Where alleys the part of the basic layout of a city or a given residential area, alley storage
of containers used for solid waste is common.
Setout-setback service: In setout-setback service, containers are set out from the homeowner’s property
and set back after being emptied by additional crews that work in conjunction with the collection crew
responsible for loading the collection vehicle
Setout service: Setout service is essentially the same as setout-setback service, except that the homeowner
is responsible for returning the containers to their storage location.

Backyard carry service: In backyard carry service, the collection crew is responsible for entering the
homeowner’s property and removing the wastes from their storage location.
Commercial industrial collection service

The collection service provided to large apartment buildings and commercial activities typically is
centered around the use of large moveable and stationary containers and large stationary compactors.
In commercial-industrial service where the use of containers provided with rollers or castors is common,
loaded containers are rolled manually to the collection vehicle and emptied mechanically.

Otherwise, because of the weight involved, direct pickup methods are used.
Where large drop-box containers are used, the entire loading operation is by mechanical means.
Collection Systems:

Solid waste collection system may be classified from several points of view, such as the mode of operation,
the equipment used, and the types of wastes collected.

• Community collection system

• Block collection system
• House to house collection system
• Hauled container system
• Stationary container system
Community collection
The householders carry their wastes to solid waste bins or similar facilities situated at specific locations
and deposit wastes there.

Solid waste collection truck visits these locations at regular intervals and collect and haul the accumulated
wastes to treatment or disposal sites.
The principal advantage of this method of collection is that it reduces considerably the number of
collection points.

Success of this method, however, depends on the following factors:

• The communal bins should be placed within reasonable distances so that the public is
willing to carry their waste to the bin location.
• The wastes should be collected frequently to avoid accumulation of wastes, odor, and fly
nuisance.
• The solid waste bins and surrounding areas should be cleaned properly.
• Design of bins should prevent ingress of rainwater that leads to leachate pollution, and
minimize scavenging by birds and animals.
• In most of the developing countries including Bangladesh this collection method is
commonly used.
Block collection
In the block collection system, a collection vehicle travels over a selected
route at a
specific time of the day, usually two or three days a week.
The householders bring their wastes and hand them over to the truck laborer,

who collects the waste in the vehicle and returns containers to the householders.
The success of this method depends on the punctuality of vehicle and the
attitude of people.

This method is not suitable for people who will not be available when the vehicle
comes.

House to house collection In this service, the householders store wastes in a bin, basket or bag within their
house premises.

Waste collection workers collect the bin, basket or bag, empty into the collection vehicle and return
containers to the premises.
The collection vehicle may be a hand/push cart, rickshaw van or a small vehicle that may be used to
transport wastes to a temporary storage site, or large trucks that may be used for transporting the wastes
to a disposal site.
This type of service is aesthetically and environmentally more satisfactory but comparatively more
expensive than other type of service.

Hauled container system

Collection system in which the containers used for the storage of wastes are hauled to the processing,
transfer, or disposal site, emptied, and returned to either their original location or some other location are
defined as hauled container system.
Hauled container systems are ideally suited for the removal of wastes from sources where the rate of
generation is high because relatively large containers are used.

The use of large containers eliminates handling time as well as the unsightly accumulations and unsanitary
conditions associated with the use of numerous smaller containers.
Another advantage of hauled container systems is their flexibility: containers of many different size and
shapes are available for the collection of all types of wastes.

Because containers used in this system usually must be filled manually, the use of very large containers
often leads to low-volume utilization unless loading aids, such as platforms and ramps, are provided.
In this context, container utilization may be defined as the fraction of the total container volume actually
filled with wastes.
While hauled container systems have the advantage of requiring only one truck and driver to accomplish
the collection cycle, each container picked up requires a round trip to the disposal site (or other destination
point).
Therefore container size and utilization are of great economic importance.
Further, when highly compressible wastes are to be collected and hauled over considerable distances, the
economic advantage of compaction are obvious.

Wastes Collection Systems

Figure: Conventional Mode of Hauled container system

 Figure: Exchange Container Mode of Hauled container system

Collection of Solid Waste

Stationary Container System

Collection system in which the containers used for the storage of wastes remain at the point of waste
generation, except when moved for collection are defined as stationary collection system. Stationary
container systems may be used for the collection of all types of wastes. The system varies according to
the type and quantity of wastes to be handled, as well as the number of generation points.
There are two main types: (i) system in which selfloading compactors are used, and (ii) system in which
manually loaded vehicles are used.
 Wastes Collection Route
In general, the layout of collection routes is a trial-and-error process. There are no fixed rules that can be
applied to all situations. Factors that should be taken into consideration when laying out routes are as
follows:

 Existing company policies and regulations related to such items as the point of collection and frequency
of collection must be identified.

 Existing system conditions such as crew size and vehicle types must be coordinated.

 Whenever possible, routes should be laid out so that they begin and end near arterial streets, using
topographical and physical barriers as route boundaries.

 In hilly areas, routes should start at the top of the grade and proceed downhill as the vehicle become
loaded.

 Routes should be laid out so that the last container to be collected on the route is located nearest to the
disposal site.

 Wastes generated at traffic-congested locations should be collected as early in the day as possible.

 Sources at which extremely large quantities of wastes are generated should be serviced during the first
part of the day.
 Scattered pickup points where small quantities of solid wastes are generated should, if possible, be
serviced during one trip or on the same day, if they receive the same collection frequency.

Transfer and Transport

Transfer and transport operation: In the field of solid wastes, transfer and transport refers to the means,
facilities, and appurtenances used to effect the transfer of wastes from relatively small collection vehicles
to large vehicles and to transport them over extended distances to either processing centers or disposal
sites.
It is noted that transfer stations may be either in the same location as processing stations or in entirely
separate locations.

The need for transfer operation

Transfer operations can be used successfully with almost any type of collection system. Factors that tend
to make the use of transfer operations attractive include: (
(i) the presence of illegal dumps and large amounts of litter
(ii) the location of disposal sites relatively far from collection routes (typically more than 10 miles)
(iii)the use of small capacity collection trucks (generally under 20yd3)

(iv) the existence of low-density residential areas

(v) the widespread use of medium-size containers for the collection of wastes from commercial sources,
and

Suitable location of transfer station:

Whenever possible, transfer stations should be located
(i) as near as possible to the individual solid waste production areas to be served,
(ii) within easy access to major arterial highway routes as well as near secondary or supplemental means
of transportation,
(iii) where there will be a minimum of public and environmental objection to the transfer operations, and

(iv) where construction and operation will be most economical.

Additionally, if the transfer station site is to be used for processing operations involving materials recovery
and/or energy production, the requirements for those operations must also be assured.

Transfer means and methods:

Motor vehicles, railroads and ocean-going vessels are the principal means now used to transport solid
wastes. Pneumatic and hydraulic system have also been used.
Motor vehicle transport
Where the point of final disposition can be reached by motor vehicles, the most common means used to
transport solid wastes from transfer stations are trailers, semitrailers, and compactors.
All these types of vehicles can be used in conjunction with either type of transfer station.
Motor vehicle transport

In general, vehicle used for hauling on highway should satisfy the following requirements:
(i) Wastes must be transported at minimum cost, (ii) Wastes must be covered during the haul operation,
(iii) Vehicles must be designed for highway traffic, (iv) Vehicle capacity must be such that the allowable
be simple and weight limits are not exceeded, and (v) Methods used for unloading must dependable.
Railroad transport
Although railroad were commonly used for the transport of solid wastes in the past, they are now used by
only a few countries. However, renewed interest is again developing in the use of railroads for the hauling
solid wastes, especially to remote landfill areas where highway travel is difficult and railroad line now
exist.
Water transport
Barges, scows, and special boats have been used in the past to transport solid waste to processing locations
and to seaside and ocean disposal sites.

One of the major problems encountered when ocean vessels are used for the transport of solid wastes is
that it is often impossible to move the barges and boats during times of heavy seas. In such cases, the
wastes must be stored, entailing the construction of costly storage facilities.
Pneumatic, hydraulic and other systems of transport
Low-pressure air and vacuum conduit: From high-density apartments or commercial activities to
central location for processing or for loading transfer vehicle.
Large pneumatic system: The largest system is installed at the Walt Disney World amusement park,
USA.

Water to transport waste: Hydraulic transport is now commonly used for transport of a portion of food
wastes.
One of the major problems with this method is that ultimately the water or wastewater used for
transporting the wastes must be treated. As a result of solubilization, the concentration of organics in this
wastewater is considerably greater than in other domestic water use.
Hydraulic system may be practical in areas where proper processing and post processing facilities facilities
are incorporated into the treatment system.
Other systems that have been suggested for the transport of solid wastes include

 various types of conveyors,  air-cushion and rubber-tired trolleyes, and  underground conduits
with magnetically transported gondolas
! But these systems have never been put into operation

Processing and Resource Recovery

Materials separated from MSW can be used directly,

• as raw material for manufacturing and reprocessing,

• as feedstock for the production of compost and other chemical and biological
conversion products,
• as a fuel source for the production of energy, and  for land reclamation.

Recycling Practice in Bangladesh:

First stage of salvaging: Housewives separate refuse of higher market value.
Second stage of salvaging: Mostly children of slum dwellers separate refuse of low market value.

Third stage of salvaging: Scavengers at the final disposal sites separate refuse of very low market value
when municipal trucks unload fresh refuse.

Separation and Processing and Transformation of Solid Waste

1. Sorting:

• Manual component separation

• Mechanical component separation
• Magnetic and electromechanical separation
2. Biological volume reduction (Bioconversion):

• New product formation

3. Thermal volume reduction (Incineration):

• Heat energy
• Electric energy
4. Mechanical volume reduction:

• Compaction
• Shredding
Manual Component Separation
The manual separation of solid waste components can be accomplished at the source where solid wastes
are generated, at a transfer station, at a centralized processing station, or at the disposal site.

Manual sorting at the source of generation is the most positive way to achieve the recovery and reuse of
materials.
The number and types of components salvaged or stored (e.g., cardboard and high quality paper, metals,
and wood) depends on the location, the opportunities for recycling, and the resale market.

Mechanical component separation

Mechanical component separation is a necessary operation in the recovery of resources from solid wastes
and where energy and conversion products are to be recovered from processed wastes.

For example, trommels are now used routinely for the separation of unprocessed wastes.
Magnetic and electromechanical separation
Magnetic separation of ferrous materials, a well-established technique in the metals industry, is now used
commonly for the removal of ferrous metals from solid wastes.
More recently, a variety of electromechanical techniques have been developed for the removal of several
nonferrous materials.

Disposal of Solid Waste

Ultimate disposal methods of solid waste

▪ Sanitary landfilling
▪ Ocean Disposal
▪ Atmospheric disposal
▪ Land farming
▪ Deep-Well Injection
▪ Incineration
▪

Sanitary Landfill
Activities involve in Sanitary landfilling:
▪ Selection of landfill site
▪ Preparation of landfill site
▪ Design and construction of site
▪ Operation of landfilling  Leachate management
▪ Landfill gas management
Site selection
Factors that must be considered in evaluating potential solid waste disposal sites include:
Available land area: In selecting potential land disposal sites, it is important to ensure that sufficient land
area is available. It is desirable to have sufficient area to operate for at least 1 year at a given site. For
shorter periods, the disposal operation becomes considerably more expensive, especially with respect to
site preparation, provision of auxiliary facilities, and completion of the final cover.
Haul distance: Haul distance has a significant effect of the overall design and operation of waste
management system. Although minimum haul distances are desirable, other factors must also be
considered. These include collection route location, local traffic patterns, and characteristics of the routes
to and from the disposal site.

Availability of cover materials: It is important that the cover material should be available at or near the
landfill site. Therefore the soil conditions and topography of the site must be considered.
Climatic condition: Local weather condition must also be considered in the evaluation of potential sites.
In many locations, access to the site will be affected by winter conditions. Where freezing is sever, landfill
cover material must be available in stockpiles when excavation is impractical. Wind and wind patterns
must also be considered carefully.

Surface-water hydrology: The local surface-water hydrology of the area is important in establishing the
existing natural drainage and runoff characteristics that must be considered. Other conditions of flooding
must also be identified.

Geologic and hydrologic conditions: Geologic and hydrologic conditions are perhaps the most important
factors in establishing the environmental suitability of the area for a landfill site, especially with respect
to site preparation.

Local environmental condition: While it has been possible to build and operate landfill sites in close
proximity to both residential and industrial developments, extreme care must be taken in their operation
if they are to be environmentally acceptable with respect to noise, odor, dust, and vector control. Flying
papers and plastic films must also be controlled.
Ultimate use: One of the advantages of landfill is that, once it is completed, a sizable area of land becomes
available for other purposes. Because the ultimate use affects the design and operation of the landfill, this
issue must be resolved before the layout and design of the landfill are started.
In addition to these above factors, the following factors should be considered:

 public opposition,  proximity of major roadways,  speed limits,  load limits on roadways,  bridge
capacity,  underpass limitations,  traffic pattern and congestion,  detours,  buffer area around the
site,  historic buildings,  endangered species, and  wetlands.
Site preparation
The plans and specifications for a sanitary landfill should require that certain steps be carried out before
operations begin. These steps include

 grading the site area,

 constructing access roads and fences, and

 installing signs, utilities, and operating facilities.

 On-site access roads should be of all-weather construction and wide enough to permit two-way truck
travel.

 Grades should not exceed equipment limitations.

 For loaded vehicles, most uphill grades should be less than 7 percent, and downhill grades should be
less than 10 percent.

 All sanitary landfill sites should have electric, water, and sanitary services.

 Remote sites may have to use acceptable substitutes, for example, portable chemical toilets, trucked-in
drinking water, and electric generators.

 Water should be available for drinking, fire-fighting, dust control, and sanitation.

 Telephone and radio communications are desirable.

 A small sanitary landfill operation will usually require only a small building for storing hand tools and
equipment parts and a shelter with sanitary facilities.
Landfill equipment
The size, type, and amount of equipment required at a sanitary landfill depends on

 the size and method of operation,

 quantities and time of solid waste deliveries, and, to a degree,

 the experience and preference of the designer and equipment operators.

Another factor to be considered is the availability and dependability of service from the equipment.
Landfilling Methods and Operation
To use the available area at a landfill site effectively, a plan of operation for the placement of solid wastes
must be prepared. Various operational methods have been developed primarily on the basis of field
experience. The principal; methods used for landfilling dry areas may be classified as
(i) Area method,

(ii) Trench method, and

(iii) Depression method
Area Method

 The area method is used when the terrain is unsuitable for the excavation of trenches in which to place
the solid wastes.

 Operationally the wastes are unloaded and spread in long, narrow strips on the surface of the land in a
series of layers that vary in depth from 16 to 30 inches.

 Each layer is compacted as the filling progresses during the course of the day until the thickness of the
compacted wastes reaches a height varying from 6 to 10 ft.

 At that time, and at the end of each day’s operation, a 6 to 12 inches layer of cover material is placed
over the compacted fill.
 The cover material must be hauled in by truck or earth moving equipment from adjacent land or from
borrow-pit areas.

 The filling operation usually is started by building an earthen levee against which wastes are placed in
thin layers and compacted.

 The length of the unloading area varies with the site conditions and the size of the operation.

The width over which the wastes are compacted varies from 8 to 20 ft., again depending on the terrain.

 A completed lift, including the cover material, is called a cell.

 Successive lifts are placed on top of one another until the final grade is reached that was called for in
the ultimate development plan.

 The length of the unloading area used each day should be such that the final height of the fill is reached
at the end of each day’s operation.
Trench Method
The trench method of landfilling is ideally suited to areas where an adequate depth of cover material is
available at the site and where the water table is not near the surface.

 Solid wastes are placed in trenches varying from 100 to 400 ft in length, 3 to 6 ft in depth, and 15 to 25
ft in width.

 To start the process, a portion of the trench is drug and the dirt is stockpiled to form an embankment
behind the first trench.

 Wastes are then placed in the trench, spread into thin layers, and compacted.

The operation continues until the desired height is reached.

 The length of trench used each day should be such that the final height of fill is reached at the end of
each day’s operation.

 The length also should be sufficient to avoid costly delays for collection vehicles waiting to unload.
 Cover material is obtained by excavating an adjacent trench or continuing the trench that is being filled.

Depression Method

 At locations where natural or artificial depressions exist, it is often possible to use them effectively for
landfilling operations.

 Canyons, ravines, dry borrow pits, and quarries have all been used for this purpose.

 The techniques to place and compact solid wastes in depression landfills vary with the geometry of the
site, the characteristics of the cover material, the hydrology and geology of the site, and the access to the
site.

Landfill Design
There are some activities involved for sanitary landfill design. These are volume requirement, construction
of bottom liner, landfill cover, design of cell of landfill, compaction of solid wastes, leachate control and
management of landfill gas.
The design of these activities has been discussed here.
Volume requirement

To estimate the volume required for a landfill, it is necessary to know the amount of waste being produced
and the density of the in-place, compacted waste. The volume of waste differs markedly from one city to
another because of local condition.

Salvato recommends a formula of the following form for estimating the annual volume required.
VLF = PEC/Dc
Where, VLF = volume of landfill

P = population
C = average mass of solid waste collected per capita per year, kg/person
Dc = density of compacted fill, kg/m3

E = ratio of cover to compacted fill = (Vsw +Vc )/Vsw

Where, Vsw = volume of solid waste
Vc = volume of cover

The density of the compacted fill is somewhat dependent on the equipment used at the landfill site and at
the moisture content of the waste. Compacted solid waste densities vary from 300 to 700 kg/m3. Normal
values in the range of 475 to 600 kg/m3

Selection of Bottom Liner

In order to prevent groundwater contamination, strict leachate control measures are required.

A bottom liner is an engineering system to contain and control the pollution of the land and water
environments surrounding the land disposal operation.

Usually clay is used as a bottom liner, which hydraulic conductivity should be less than 1 10-7 cm/s.

A clay liner is usually constructed of 0.3 m to 1 m thickness.

Total required quantity of bottom liner is the effective landfill area multiplied by the thickness of the
bottom liner.

Several geomembrane materials are available. Some examples include:

 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC),  High-density polyethylene (HDPE),  Chlorinated polyethylene (CPE),

and

 Ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM).  Geo-synthetics,  Clay soil.

 Designers show a strong preference for PVC and especially for HDPE.

 Although geomembranes are highly impermeable (hydraulic conductivities are often less than 1 10-
12 cm/s), they can be easily damaged or improperly installed.

 Damage may occur during construction by construction equipment, by failure due to tensile stress
generated by the overburden, tearing as a result of differential settling of the supporting soil, puncture
from sharp objects in the overburden, puncture from coarse aggregate in the supporting soil, and tearing
by landfill equipment during operation.

 Installation errors primarily occur during seaming when two pieces of geomembrane must be attached
or when piping must pass through the liner.
Various types of liners and the recommended thickness

Landfill Cover
The technology of modern sanitary landfilling includes cover systems over the waste to control nuisances,
to protect the environment, and to protect the health and safety of workers and of the public.

Depending on the location within the fill and the phase of the construction and operation, the cover systems
employed are daily, intermediate, and final.
The daily and intermediate covers are placed more or less continuously during the active phase of the
filling operation.
The final cover usually is periodically placed during the active phase of the landfill or at the completion
of the fill. Of the three, the final cover is more complex system.
The recommended ratio of cover material and solid wastes is 1:4. The total volume of cover material
would be one fifth of the total volume of waste, which would generate during design period.

Daily and intermediate cover

Daily cover controls vectors, litter, odors, fire, and moisture. Any soil material that is workable and has
stability (clay, gravel etc.) may be used.

Intermediate covers control gas migration and provide a road base. Soils used for intermediate cover
must have strength and the required degree of impermeability. Typically 150 to 200 mm of compacted
soil is recommended.

Final cover
The final cover is the layer that is placed on the completed surface of the fill. The functions of the final
cover are several.

It controls infiltration of water (and, hence, indirectly controls leachate production), controls landfill gas
migration, serves as a growth medium for vegetation, provides a support for post-closure activities, and is
a barrier between the external environment and the waste.

Modern final cover design consists of a surface layer, biotic barrier, drainage layer, and gas control.
The surface layer is to provide suitable soil for plants to grow. This minimizes erosion. A soil depth of
about 300 mm is appropriate for grass.

The biotic barrier is to prevent the roots of the plants from penetrating the hydraulic barrier. At this time,
there does not seem to be a suitable material for this barrier.
The drainage layer serves the same function here as in the leachate collection system – that is, it provides
an easy flow path to a grid of perforated pipes.
The hydraulic barrier serves the same function as the liner in that it prevents movement of water into the
landfill.

Compacting of solid waste

The density of the compacted fill is somewhat dependent on the equipment used at the land fill site and
the moisture content of the waste. Compacted solid waste density varies from 300 to 700kg/m3. Settling
takes place during the first year usually about 90%.

For complete compaction required 4 (four) passes by single equipment (Davis, M.L and Cornwell, D.A,
1998).
Leachate Management
Leachate
Leachate may be defined as liquid that has percolated through solid waste and has extracted dissolved or
suspended materials from it. In most landfills, the liquid portion of the leachate is composed of the liquid
produced from the decomposition of the wastes and sources, such as surface drainage, liquid that has
entered the landfill from external rainfall, groundwater, and water from underground springs.
Quantity of leachate
The amount of leachate generated from a landfill site may be estimated using a hydrologic mass balance
for the landfill.

 The rate of production of leachate can be calculated by performing a water balance.

 A water balance involves an accounting of all of the sources of water entering and leaving the landfill.

 The quantity of leachate that could potentially be generated is that which exceeds the moisture holding
capacity of the material in the landfill.

 The total amount of moisture that can be stored in a unit volume of soil is a function of two variables -
the field capacity (FC) and the wilting point (WP) of the soil.

 The field capacity of the soil is defined as the quantity of liquid, which remains in the pore space
following a prolonged period of gravitational drainage.

 The wilting point of a soil is defined as the quantity of water that remains in a soil after plants are no
longer capable of extracting any more water.

 The difference between the field capacity and the wilting point is equivalent to the quantity of moisture
that can be stored in a particular type of soil.

 Leachate will be formed if the amount of water present exceeds the field capacity of the fill.

 The field capacity of a landfill varies as a function of the weight of the overburden, as well as of other
variables, e.g., soil and waste characteristics.

 The field capacity of a landfill can be estimated approximately using the following equation:
FC = 0.6 - 0.55 {W/ (10000 + W)}

Where: FC = Field capacity, and W = Weight of overburden calculated at the middle of the lift.
Leachate Generation
The components of water balance for a landfill can be expressed by the following equation if ground water
infiltration is insignificant:
MC = Wsw + Wc + Wp - WRO - Wlfg - WV - Wevap + Wleach

Where:
MC = Change in the quantity of moisture stored in the landfill (kg/ m3)
Wsw = Quantity of water in the incoming solid waste (the moisture content of solid waste ranges from
30% to 60% in developing countries) (kg/ m3)
Wc = Quantity of in the cover material (kg/ m3).
Wp = Quantity of water from precipitation (kg/ m3).

WRO = Quantity of water from precipitation diverted as runoff (kg/ m3).

Wlfg = Quantity of water utilized in the formation of landfill gas (0.2 kg/ m3 of gas)
WV = Quantity of water lost as saturated vapor with the landfill gas (0.04 kg/ m3 of gas).

Wevap = Quantity of water lost due to evapotranspiration (kg/ m3), and

Wleach = Quantity of water leaving the (control volume) landfill as leachate (kg/ m3).

Generated Leachate = MC – FC
Leachate Collection

 There are a number of proposed designs for leachate collection systems.

 Two of the more common systems are the sloped terrace and the piped bottom.

 The sloped terrace design involves the sloping of the bottom of the fill into a series of terraces.

 Generally, the recommended slopes for the terrace in the range of 1% to 5%.

 This degree of inclination promotes migration of the leachate in the direction of collection pipes or
channels.

 The collection channels typically include perforated collection pipes in a bed of packed gravel.

 The gravel should have a size in the range of 3.5 to 5 cm.

 The piped bottom collection system design includes the placement of clay barriers and perforated
leachate collection pipes at the bottom of the site. Typically, the barriers have a defined form and a much
similar to that of the solid waste cell. A geomembrane is placed on the top of the clay. After the barriers
have been installed, slotted pipes are placed on top of the geomembrane.
 Management of Landfill Gas
Gases found in landfills include air, ammonia, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, hydrogen
sulfide, methane, nitrogen, and oxygen.

Carbon dioxide and methane are the principal gases produced from the aerobic decomposition of the
organic solid waste components.
The functional element of landfill gas are (a) Composition of gas, (b) Total volume (yield) of gas, (c)
Actual recoverable volume of gas, (d) Collection of gas, (e) Upgrading of gas, (f) Utilization of gas, (g)
Disposition of gas, and (h) Economic feasibility of gas recovery.
Gas Generation

Methods for estimating gas production in a conventional digester must be appropriately adjusted to reflect
the differences between anaerobic digestion in a fill and anaerobic digestion in a digester.
In general, the amount actually obtained from a landfill will be much less than the theoretical volume
predicted on the basis of organic waste content.
Moreover, unless the fill has been specifically designed for gas containment and eventual collection, the
actual yield of gas will be disappointingly small.

Disposition of the Landfill Gas

 Gas generated in the fill can either be allowed to disperse and migrate beyond the confines of the fill
without any effort being made to control them, or they can be collected.

 Collected gases may be put to some use, may be flared, or may simply be vented into the environment.

 Venting into the environment provides undesirable conditions to global warning.

 Accumulated gases and uncontrolled dispersal and migration can lead to the development of undesirable
or hazardous conditions due to flammability, asphyxiating properties, and trace organic composition of
the gases.

 Accumulation of gases in the fill can be avoided through the use of a porous final cover.

 Migration from the fill and the attendant hazards can be averted by providing an area of high
permeability vented to the atmosphere.

 Gases flow to the surface of the vented areas where they are diluted in the atmosphere to harmless levels.

 The areas take the form of boreholes, of gas well, or of interceptor trenches installed around the
boreholes of the fill.

 A more useful measure is to recover (collect) the gas and use it is a source of energy.

Collection of the Gas

Gas can be recovered from a landfill by way of drilling a number of boreholes into the landfill at selected
gas collection points.
 The boreholes should be 0.66 to 1m in diameter.

 Their depth should be from 50% to 90% of the refuse depth.

 The boreholes are fitted in the same manner as collection wells used in fills designed for gas recovery.

 Collection wells are gravel-packed wells equipped with casings that extend the full depth of the fill.

 The casings are perforated in the section exposed to the contents of the fill.

 The casings must have telescopic connections between pipe segments such that connections between
segments are maintained despite the significant and non-uniform subsidence characteristic of landfills.

 The wells are built by progressively backfilling gravel around the gas collection pipe.

 The backfilled gravel serves as a highly permeable collection zone through which the gas flows into the
collection pipe for removal from the well.

 The gravel area is covered with a gas-tight seal topped by backfilled soil to form a barrier against
intrusion of external air into the well.

Other Methods of Ultimate Disposal

Ocean Disposal of Solid Wastes
The idea of ocean disposal is that the ocean is a gigantic sink, in which an infinite amount of pollution of
all types can be dumped, has been discarded.
On the other hand, it is argued that many of the wastes now placed in landfills or on land could be used as
fertilizer to increase the productivity of the ocean.

It is also argued that the placement of wastes in ocean bottom trenches where tectonic folding is occurring
is an effective method of waste disposal.
Currently a number of industrial solid wastes and certain other wastes are disposed of at sea.
Industrial solid wastes

 The usual method used for the disposal of industrial wastes at sea consists of transporting the wastes in
bulk or containers aboard towed or self-propelled barges to the point of discharge, usually on the high sea.

 Bulk tank barges range in capacity from 1000 to 5000 tons.

 Discharge rate for conventional industrial wastes vary between 4 to 20 tons/min. The discharge hose
is trailed at a depth of 1 to 2.5 fathoms, while under way at a speed of 3 to 6 kn.

 Wastes in containers are either weighted and sunk or ruptured and allowed to sink.

 In some cases, chemical wastes are carried to sea as deck cargo on merchant ships. Once the ships are
on the high seas, the containers are dumped overboard.
Municipal solid wastes

 With the exception of some isolated cases and excluding sewage sludge, municipal solid wastes are not
now discharged into the ocean environment.

 One of the principal reasons is that many solid wastes components, including paper, wood, plastics, and
rubber, will float to the surface.

 The presence of large quantities of floating solid wastes is unacceptable from an aesthetic, marine craft,
and environmental standpoint.

 Even if wastes are baled before ocean disposal, it is almost certain that, over a period of time, the bales
will disintegrate and floatables will rise to the surface.

 For these reasons, the disposal of municipal solid wastes in the ocean is not a viable alternative at this
time.
Landfarming
Landfarming is a waste-disposal method in which the biological, chemical, and physical processes that
occur in the surface of the soil are used to treat biodegradable industrial wastes.
Wastes to be treated are either applied on top of the land, which has been prepared to receive the wastes,
or injected below the surface of the soil.

When organic wastes are added to the soil, they are subjected simultaneously to the following process:
(i) bacterial and chemical decomposition,
(ii) leaching of water-soluble components in the original wastes and from the decomposition products,
and
(iii) volatilization of selected components in the original wastes and from the products of decomposition.

Factors that must be considered biodegradability of organic wastes application include:

(i) composition of the waste;
(ii) compatibility of wastes and soil micro-flora;
(iii) environmental requirements including oxygen, temperature, pH, and inorganic nutrients, and (iv)
moisture content of solid-waste mixture.
Landfarming is suitable for wastes that contain organic constituents that are biodegradable and are not
subject to significant leaching while the bioconversion process is occurring.

Deep-Well Injection

 Deep-well injection for the disposal of liquid wastes involves injecting the wastes deep in the ground
into permeable rock formations (typically limestone or dolomite) or underground caverns.

 The installation of deep wells for the injection of wastes closely follows the practices used for the drilling
and completion of oil and gas wells.

 To isolate and protect potential water supply aquifers, the surface casing must be set well below such
aquifers and cemented to the surface of the well.

 The drilling fluid should not be allowed to penetrate the formation that is to be used for wastes disposal.

 To prevent clogging of the formation, the drilling fluid is replaced with a compatible solution.

 Also, in some cases, it may be necessary to acid treat the formation before injection of wastes is initiated.

 Deep-well injection has been used principally for liquid wastes that are difficult to treat and dispose of
by more conventional methods and for hazardous wastes.

 Chemical, petrochemical, and pharmaceutical wastes are those most commonly disposed of with this
method.

 The waste may be liquid, gases, or solids.

 The gases and solids are either dissolved in the liquid or are carried along with the liquid.

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