I-MCA4 Computer Networking Guide

I-MCA4 Computer Networking-2648603 PGI MBA MCA Motidau, Mehsana North Gujarat
UNIT-1
Data Communication with its characteristics
Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur, the
communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up of a combination
of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs).
Fundamental characteristics of Effective Data Communication”
1. Delivery : Destination Should be correct

2. Accuracy: Data should be correct and valid.
3. Timeliness :Ontime Delivery
4. Jitter: Less Obstacle/ less Noise
Components used in Data Communications:
1. Message : We should have a content that is to be transmitted.

2. Sender : Source Machine with IP address should required.
3. Receiver : Receiver Machine with IP should required.
4. Transmission Medium: Wired/Wireless medium should required.
5. Protocol: set of rules ( TCP/UDP) should be there.
Why we need Network?

1. Hardware Sharing
2. Data and information Sharing
3. Software sharing
4. Facilitated Communication
Concept of Layering
- To reduce the design complexity of computer communications hardware and

software, needed functionality organized a series of layers each built on its
predecessor.
- Each Layer is present an interface to the above layer
- Several tools have been developed to help protocol designers understand subpart.
- One of the important tools is called Layering Model.
We have seven different Layers in OSI Reference Model.
- Paro : Physical Layer
- Dato : Data Link Layer
Design by: Prof. Vikas Katariya +918980936828 Page 1

- Nahi : Network Layer

- Tumari : Transport Layer
- Saheli : Session Layer
- Phir : Presentation Layer
- Aayegi :Application Layer

1. Physical Layer
Characteristics of Physical Layer:
1. Representation of bits
2. Data Rate
3.Synchronization of bits
4.Line configuration
5.Physical Toplogy
6.Transmission mode
Data Link Layer

Characteristics of Data Link Layer:
- Framing
- Physical addressing
- Flow control
Noisy Channel
Stop and Wait
Go Back N ARQ
Selective Repeat ARQ
Noiseless Channel
Simplest protocol
Stop and Wait
- Error control
o Parity
o VRC [vertical Redundancy Check]
o LRC [Longitudinal Redundancy Check]
o CRC [Cyclic Redundancy Check\
o Checksum
o Hamming code
- Access control
Network Layer
o Logical addressing
o Routing
Transport Layer
o Service-point addressing
o Segmentation and reassembly

o Connection control
o Flow control
o Error control

Session Layer
o Dialog control
o Synchronization
Presentation Layer
o Translation
o Encryption
o Compression
Application Layer
• Network virtual terminal : telent

• File transfer, access, and management : FTP Protocol
• Mail services : SMTP & POP3
• Directory services : root directory Mangement
• Internet Browsing: http
• Internet Browsing+ Security : http+ssl : https
• Accessing Multimedia Data from server: WWW
TCP/IP Reference Model
OSI reference model further divided into 4 Layer. These layer are nothing but merging
Some layers which have quite similar functions.
Layer1: Application, Presentation & Session Layer
Layer2: Transport Layer
Layer3: Network Layer
Layer4: Data Link Layer & Physical Layer
Types of Network based on Scale/scope:
- PAN : Personal Area Network

- LAN : Local Area Network
- MAN : Metropolitan Area Network
- WAN : Wide Area Network

UNIT-2
Physical Layer
Basic terminology of Physical Layer

1. Frequency
: Frequency is nothing just a number of oscillation or vibration or cycles Per
Second.
Minimum one cycle is said to be 1 Hz
Unit :Hertz, Symbol: Hz
Calculation of Cycles:
1024 Hz = 1Khz = 103

1024Khz= 1 MHz= 106
1024MHz=1 Ghz= 109 etc.
2. Wavelength:
One wave must have one crust and one trough.
Wavelength is the length of between two crust or two trough.
3. Amplitude:
Height of the signal is called amplitude.
4. Bandwidth:
Lower and upper limit of frequency band is called Bandwidth.
5. Attenuation:
Gradually lose of intensity/energy of any waves is called attenuation.
6. Phase:
Difference between two waves is called phase.
Network Devices:
HUB
• An unintelligent network device that sends one signal to all of the stations
connected to it.
• All computers/devices are competing for attention because it takes the data that
comes into a port and sends it out all the other ports in the hub.
• Resides on Layer 1 of the OSI model.
Switch

• Split large networks into small segments, decreasing the number of users sharing
the same network resources and bandwidth.
• Understands when two devices want to talk to each other, and gives them a
switched connection
• Helps prevent data collisions and reduces network congestion, increasing network
performance
Bridge
• Connects two LANs and forwards or filters data packets between them.
• Forward data depending on the Hardware (MAC) address, not the Network address
(IP).
• Transparent to protocols and to higher level devices like routers.

Repeater
• Used to boost the signal between two cable segments or wireless access
points.
• Cannot connect different network architecture.
• Does not simply amplify the signal, it regenerates the packets and resends
them.
Router
• A device that connects any number of LANs.

• Uses standardized protocols to move packets efficiently to their destination.
• More sophisticated than bridges, connecting networks of different types (for
example, star and token ring)
• Forwards data depending on the Network address (IP), not the Hardware (MAC)
address.
• Routers are the only one of these four devices that will allow you to share a single IP
address among multiple network clients.
Additional Network Hardware Devices
Network Interface Cards (NICs)

• Puts the data into packets and transmits packet onto the network.
• May be wired or wireless.
Gateway
• Connects networks with different protocols like TCP/IP network
• Routers and Gateways often refer to the same device.

Proxy server
• Isolates internal network computers from the internet.
• The user first access the proxy server and the proxy server accesses the internet and
retrieves the requested web page or document. The user
• then gets a copy of that page from the proxy server.
Modems
• A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates an analog carrier
signal to encode digital information and demodulates the signal to decode the
transmitted information.
• The goal is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to
reproduce the original digital data.
• voice These signals can be transmitted over telephone lines and demodulated by
another modem at the receiver side to recover the digital data.

Guided Transmission Media
Guided − In guided media, transmitted data travels through cabling system that has a
fixed path. For example, copper wires, fibre optic wires, etc.
Unguided − In unguided media, transmitted data travels through free space in form of
electromagnetic signal. For example, radio waves, lasers, etc.
Twisted Pair Cable:

• Twisted Pair is the least expensive and most widely used medium.
• A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a Regular
spiral pattern.
• The twisting tends to decrease the crosstalk interference between
• Adjacent pairs in a cable.
Types of Twisted pair:
1. Shielded Twisted pair:

Cables with a shield are called shielded twisted pair and also known as STP.
Mostly used in Ethernet networks.
2. Unshielded Twisted Pair:

Cables without a shield are called Unshielded Twisted pair, and also Known
as UTP.
Advantages of Twisted Pair Cable:

1. It is a thin, flexible cable that is easy to sting between walls.
2. UTP costs less per meter than any other type of LAN Cable.
Disadvantages of Twisted Pair Cable:

1. For Video Conferencing it is not good enough.
2. Electromagnetic interference susceptibility is more than.
Coaxial Cable:
- Coaxial Cable consists of two conductors. Inner conductor is held inside a insulator
with the other moven around it providing a shield.
- An insulating protective coating called a Jacket cover the outer conductor.
- The outer shield protect the inner conductor from outside electrical signals.
- Impedance for coaxial cables are 75 ohm for cable TV.
Advantages of Coaxial Cable:

1. Broadband System
2. Greater Channel Capacity
3. Greater Bandwidth
4. Lower Error Rates

Dis-advantages of Coaxial Cable:
1. Problems with deployment architecture

2. Great Noise
3. High installation costs
4. Susceptible to damage from lightning strikes.
Optical Fiber Cable:

- Optical Fiber Cable consists of thin glass fibers that can carry information at
frequencies in the visible light spectrum and beyond.
- The typical Optical fiber consists of very narrow strand of glass called core.
- Around the core is a concentric layer of glass called cladding
- A Typical core diameter is 62.5 microns
- A typical cladding has a diameter of 125 microns
Advantages of Fiber Optic Cable

- Large capacity due to Bandwidth
- No corrosion
- Longer distance than copper wire
- Smaller and lighter than copper wire
- Faster transmission rate
Dis-Advantages of Fiber Optic Cable

- Limited physical arc of cable.
- Bend it too much and it will break.
- Difficult to merge.
Types of fiber optics cable:

1. Single mode
2. Multimode
Unguided Transmission Media (Wireless)
We can categorize wireless transmission into the following groups,
a. Radio waves
b. Micro waves
c. Infrared waves
a) Radio Waves

Radio waves are electromagnetic waves and are omnidirectional. When an antenna
transports radio waves they are propagated in all directions in free space which means the
sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned that is any receiving antenna can
receive that transmitted wave.
The frequency of radio waves about 30 hertz (Hz) to 300 gigahertz (GHz) and like all
other electromagnetic waves radio waves travel at the speed of light in vacuum.
Applications of Radio waves
• These waves are omnidirectional so they are useful for multicasting in which one
sender but many receivers.
• Examples of radio waves are television, AM and FM radio, cordless phones, and
paging.
Advantages and disadvantages
• Radio waves are easy to generate and penetrate buildings also can travel long
distances.
• Radio waves cover a large area and can penetrate the buildings. By this, an AM radio
can receive signals inside a building.
b) Micro Waves
Micro Waves includes a line of sight transmission that is the sending and receiving
antennas that need to be properly aligned with each other. The distance is directly
proportional to the height of the antenna which is covered by the signal. In mobile phone
communication and television distribution, these are majorly used.
Applications of Micro Waves
Due to the unidirectional properties of Micro Waves, they are very useful when unicast
(one-to-one) communication is needed between the sender and the receiver. Cellular
phones, satellite networks, and wireless LANs are using Micro Waves.


Two types of Microwave Transmission are as follows,
i. Terrestrial Microwave
ii. Satellite Microwave
c) Infrared Waves
• The frequency of Infrared waves is about 300 GHz to 430 THz, which can be used
for short-range communication.
• Infrared waves of high frequencies cannot penetrate walls.
• This type of wide bandwidth can be used to transmit digital data with a very high
data rate.
• The Infrared Data Association (IrDA) has established standards for using these
signals for communication between devices such as keyboards, mouse, PCs, and
printers and it is also responsible for sponsoring the use of infrared waves.
• This type of communication provides better security with minimum interference.
Multiplexing:
• Under the simplest conditions, a medium can carry only one signal at any moment in
time.
• For multiple signals to share one medium, the medium must somehow be divided,
giving each signal a portion of the total bandwidth.

Types of Multiplexing Techniques:
• Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
• Time division multiplexing (TDM)
• Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)
• Code division multiplexing (CDM)
Frequency Division Multiplexing:
• Assignment of non-overlapping frequency ranges to each “user” or signal on a

medium. Thus, all signals are transmitted at the same time, each using different
frequencies.
• A multiplexor accepts inputs and assigns frequencies to each device.
• The multiplexor is attached to a high-speed communications line.
• A corresponding multiplexor, or demultiplexor, is on the end of the high-speed line

and separates the multiplexed signals.
• Analog signaling is used to transmits the signals.
• Broadcast radio and television, cable television, and the cellular systems use
frequency division multiplexing.
• This technique is the oldest multiplexing technique.
• Since it involves analog signaling, it is more susceptible to noise.


Time Division Multiplexing:
• Sharing of the signal is accomplished by dividing available transmission time on a

medium among users.
• Digital signaling is used exclusively.
Time division multiplexing comes in two basic forms:
1. Synchronous time division multiplexing, and

2. Statistical, or asynchronous time division multiplexing.
Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
The original time division multiplexing.

The multiplexor accepts input from attached devices in a round-robin fashion and transmit
the data in a never ending pattern.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
• Give each message a different wavelength (frequency).

• Easy to do with fiber optics and optical sources.
• Dense wavelength division multiplexing multiplexes multiple data streams onto a
single fiber optic line.
• Different wavelength lasers (called lambdas) transmit the multiple signals.

• Each signal carried on the fiber can be transmitted at a different rate from the other
signals.
Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
• Also known as code division multiple access (CDMA)

• An advanced technique that allows multiple devices to transmit on the same
frequencies at the same time using different codes
• Used for mobile communications
• An advanced technique that allows multiple devices to transmit on the same
frequencies at the same time.
• Each mobile device is assigned a unique 64-bit code (chip spreading code)
• To send a binary 1, mobile device transmits the unique code
• To send a binary 0, mobile device transmits the inverse of code
Switching ( not in lateral syllabus)
The Mechanism for moving information between different computer network and network
segment is called switching.
Switching is done in computer network by switches.
Network switches is a small hardware device that joins multiple computers together
within one LAN.

Types of Switching:
• Circuit Switching
• Message Switching
• Packet Switching
• Circuit Switching:
Circuit establishment:
To establish an end-to-end connection before any transfer of data.
Some segments of the circuit may be a dedicated link, while some other segments may be
shared.
Data Transfer:
Transfer Data is from the source to the destination.
The data may be analog or digital, depending on the nature of the network.
The connection is generally full-duplex.
Circuit disconnect
Terminate connection at the end of data transfer.
Signals must be propagated to deallocate the dedicated resources.
Advantages:
o Fixed bandwidth, guaranteed capacity ( no congestion )

o Low variance in end–to-end delay ( constant delay )
Disadvantages:
• Circuit establishment and circuit disconnect introduces extra overhead and delay.
• Channel capacity is dedicated for the duration of the connection, even if no data is
being transferred.

Space Division Switching: (comes under Circuit Switching)
• Originally developed for the analog environment and has been carried over the
digital domain.
• In a space division switch the signal paths are physically separate from one another
(divided in space ).
• Essentially a crossbar matrix.
• The basic building block of the switch is a metallic crosspoint or semiconductor gate
that can be enable or disabled by a control unit.
• High speed high capacity nonblocking switches.
• Sizes varying from 64X64 to 1024X1024 with data rate of 200 Mbps.
Limitations of crossbar switch

The number of crosspoints grows with the sqare of the number of attached stations.
• Costly for a large switch
• The failure of a crosspoint prevents connection between the two devices whose
lines intersect at that crosspoint.
• The Crosspoints are inefficiently utilized.
Solution is to build multistage space division switches.

Message Switching:
Each network node receives and stores the message
➢ Determines the next leg of the route, and
➢ Queues the message to go out on that link
Advantages:
➢ Line efficiency is greater ( sharing of links ).
➢ Data rate conversion is possible.
➢ Even under heavy traffic, packets are accepted, possibly with a greater delivery delay.
➢ Message priorities can be used.


Disadvantages: Message of large size monopolizes the link and storage.
Packet Switching
➢ New form of architecture for long-distance data communication ( 1970 ).
➢ Packet switching technology has evolved over time.
➢ Basic technology has not changed
➢ Packet switching remains one of the few effective technologies for long distance data
communication.
Basic Idea:
➢ Data are transmitted in short packets ( few Kbytes )
➢ A longer message is broken up into a series of packets.
➢ Every packet contains some control information in its header ( required for routing and
other purposes.
Packet switching techniques:

➢ As mentioned earlier a packet switching network breaks up a message into packets.
➢ Two approaches are commonly used for handling these packets:

o Virtual circuit
o Datagram
Virtual Circuit approach:
➢ A preplanned route is established before any packets are sent
➢ Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection.

➢ Route is fixed for the duration of the logical connection ( like circuit switching ).
• Each packet contains a virtual circuit identifier as well as data.
• Each node on the route knows where to forward packets.

➢ A clear request packet issued by one of the two stations terminates the connection.
Main characteristics:
• Route between stations is set up prior to data transfer.
• A packet is buffered at each node, and queue for output over a line.
• A data packet needs to carry only the virtual circuit identifier for effecting routing
decisions.
• Intermediate nodes take no routing decisions.
• Often provides sequencing and error control.
Datagram Approach
• Each packet is treated independently, with no reference to packets that have gone
before.
• Every intermediate node has to take routing decisions.

• Every packet contains source and destination addresses.
• Intermediate nodes maintain routing tables.
Advantages:
• Call setup phase is avoided (for transmission of a few packets, datagram will be faster).
• Because it is more primitive, it is more flexible.
• Congestion/failed like can be avoided (more reliable)

Problems:
• Packets may be delivered out of order.
• If a node crashes momentarily, all of its queued packets are lost.
Datagram vs Virtual Circuit In virtual circuit

• Node need not decide route
• More difficult to adopt to congestion
• Maintains sequence order
• All packets are sent through the same preplanned route
In Datagram service
• Each packet is treated independently
• Call set up phase is avoided
• Inherently more flexible and reliable

Unit-3
Data Link Layer
Duties of Data Link Layer
Error:
Any alteration or disturbance of binary sequence is called error.
Types of Error:
Single-Bit Error is when only one bit in the data unit has changed.


Burst Error:
Error detection

Methods for detecting Error In a frame:
1. Parity Method:
e.g.
Given Data is:
Sender
10010110
Parity Bit: 0
DataFrame: 10010110 0
Data Frame transmitted from sender to reciever
Receiver: 10010110 0
Parity Bit: 0
If parity bit receives 0 means there is no error in data frame In that case accept data
frame and reject parity bit.
Otherwise reject frame and request for retransmission.

LRC: Longitudinal Redundancy Check
3. CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check/Code)

CRC Sender ( Generator )
CRC Reciever :

If all zero receives at receiver side it indicates there is no error in origional data
frame otherwise error in data frame.
In case of No error , crc bits are discarded and accept only origional frame.
In case of Error, complete frame will be destroy and retransmission will be required
for the same number of frame.

Checksum Method for Error Detecting:

Error Detection and Correction Method:
Hamming Code:
To find out Total Number of Parity bits:
2r>=M+r+1
Where r is parity bits
M is length of given Data
Method of filling Data bits and Parity Bits:
Parity Bits must be filled by right to left manner.
Data bits must be filled by left to right manner.

Method for finding the value of parity bits:
R1=r1 = bits 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11
R2= r2 = bits 2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11
R3= r4 = bits 4, 5, 6, 7
R4= r8 = bits 8, 9, 10, 11
Find the parity bits in the given data:


UNIT-4
Medium Access sub Layer
Introduction of Medium Access Sub Layer
1. This Layer is basically dedicated to the broadcast Networks.

Broadcast Network are also referred to as multi-access channel or Random access channel.
2. Protocol used to determine who goes next on a multi-access channel belongs to sub layer
of the data link layer called MAC.
3. MAC is used to provide basic functionality of data link layer of the ethernet LAN system.
4. MAC sublayer is mainly concerned with media access stratigies and is different for
different LANs.It support different type of transmission media at different data rates.
5. the MAC sublayer accepts data from the logical Link Control Layers (LLC) calculates a
CRC and then management procudure sends the serial bit stream to the physical layer.
Wired MAC Layer
1. Wired MAC Layer is not much different from its wireless counterparts.Many Algorithm
for allocating a multiple access channel are known as Medium Access Control Protocol
(MAC) is used to provide the data link layer of the Ethernet LAN System.
2. MAC Sublayer provides addressing andchannel access control mechanism that make it
possible for several terminals or network nodes to communicate within a multiple access
network that incorporates a shared medium ,e.g. ethernet.
MAC Protocol
1. ALOHA protocol
- Pure ALOHA
- Slotted ALOHA
2. Carrier Sense Multiple Access Protocol ( CSMA)
- 1 Persistant CSMA
- Non Persistant CSMA
- n-Persistant CSMA
3. Channalization Protocol
- FDMA ( Frequency Divison Multiple Access )
- TDMA ( Time Divison Multiple Access )
- CDMA ( Code Divison Multiple Access )

ALOHA
- ALOHA refers to a simple communications scheme in which each source in a network

sends data whenever there is a frame to send.
- if the frame successfully reaches the destination the next frame is sent. if the frame fails to
be received at the destination it is sent again.
- ALOHA protocol is mainly contention Protocol ( Access to the medium from many entry
points is called contention).
- IN a wireless broadcast system or a half duplex two way link , aloha works perfectly.but in
complex network it feels trouble.
- Trouble in terms of Collisons.
Pure ALOHA PRotocol:
With Pure ALOHA Protocol stations are allowed access to channel whenever they have data
to transmit.
Advantages
- Superier to fixed assignment when there is a large number of bursty stations.

- Adopts to varing number of stations.
Disadvantages of Pure ALOHA
- Theoretically proven throughput maximum of 18%

- Requires queuing buffer for retransmission of packet.
Slotted AlOHA Protocol

By making a small restriction in the transmission freedom of the individual stations,the
throughput of the ALOHA protocol can be doubled. Assuming constant length
packets,transmission time is broken into slots eqrivalent to the transmission time of a
single packet.stations are only allowed to transmit at slot boundaries.
Advantages:
1. Doubles the efficiency of ALOHA
2. Adaptable to a changing station population
Disadvantages:

1. Theoretically proven throughput maximum of 36%

2. Synchronization is required.

CSMA
Carrier Sense Multiple Access
Carrier Sense describes the fact that a transmitter listens for a carrier wave before trying to
send. That is it tries to detect the presence of an encoded signal from another station before
attempting to transmit.if a carrier is sensed, the station waits for the transmission in
progress to finish before initiating its own transmission.
Multiple Access describes the fact that multiple stations sends and receives on the
medium. Transmission by one node are generally received by all other stations using the
medium.
Types of CSMA Protocols
Different CSMA protocols that determine:

What a station should do when the medium is idle?
What a station should do when the medium is busy?
1. Non-Persistent CSMA
2. 1-Persistent CSMA
3. p-Persistent CSMA
Non-Persistent CSMA
A station with frames to be sent, should sense the medium

If medium is idle, transmit; otherwise, go to 2
If medium is busy, (backoff) wait a random amount of time and repeat 1


1-persistent CSMA
To avoid idle channel time, 1-persistent protocol used

Station wishing to transmit listens to the medium:
1. If medium idle, transmit immediately;
2. If medium busy, continuously listen until medium becomes idle; then transmit
immediately with probability 1
P-persistent CSMA
Time is divided to slots where each Time unit (slot) typically equals maximum propagation
delay
Station wishing to transmit listens to the medium:
1. If medium idle,
transmit with probability (p), OR
wait one time unit (slot) with probability (1 – p), then repeat 1.
2. If medium busy, continuously listen until idle and repeat step 1

Wireless LAN Protocol:
IEEE 802.11 is definitely the premier standard here, allowing transmission at Ethernet
speeds (10Mbps) with higher speeds planned for the future.
There are two ways a wireless LAN operates:
1. Point-Coordinated Functioning (PCF)
2. Distributed-Coordinated functioning ( DCF)
- Bluetooth is not truly a wireless LAN Standard,but a personal area network (

PAN) standard. It provide a 1mbps channel to connect upto 8 devices
together.
- RF ( Radio Frequency) technology is also often used for wireless data

networks. It provides good speeds,but is limited by the need to maintain
line-of-sight between communication devices.
Types of MAC Frames:
RTS ( Request to send) Frame:
It alerts all the stations in the coverage area of its source indicating the
duration for which the transmission medium will remain engaged. It is also
the request to the destination station for a response confirming its readiness
to accept the frame.
CTS (Clear to send) Frame:
It is sent as response to RTS frame by the destination station of RTS. It also

alerts all the stations In its coverage area indicating the duration for which
the transmission medium will remain engaged.
ACK (Acknowledgement) Frame:
This frame is sent by the destination stations acknowledgement of having

received a data frame, management frame s.

Ethernet
Types of Ethernet:
- Fast Ethernet
- Gigabit Ethernet
- 10GB Ethernet
Fast Ethernet:
In computer networking fast Ethernet is a collective term for a number of

Ethernet standards that carry traffic at the nominal rate of 100Mbit/s,
against the original speed of 10 Mbit/s.
Of the 100 Mbit/s Ethernet standards 100baseTX (T=”twisted Pair copper)

is by far the most common and is supported by the vast majority of Ethernet
Hardware.
Bluetooth Layer Architecture & Protocol Stack
1. Physical Radio Layer
2. Base Band Layer
3. Audio Layer
4. Application Layer
1. Physical Radio Layer:
- The physical radio layer corresponds to the physical layer of the OSI model.
- It deals with radio transmission and modulation.
- The radio layer moves data from master to slave or vice versa.
- It is low power system that uses 2.4Ghz ISM band in a range of 10 meter.
- This band is divided into 79 channels of 1Mhz each. Bluetooth uses the
frequency hopping spread specturm (FHSS) method in physical layer to
avoid interference from other devices of network.

- In order to change bits into a signal it uses a version of FSK called GFSK (
Gaussian bandwidth Filtering)

Base Band Layer:
- The base band and link control layer enable the physical connection between
any bluetooth enable protocol.
- This layer also control the synchronization and the frequency hopping
sequence.
Audio Layer:
- Audio transmissions can be predefined between one or more bluetooth

enable units, using a number of different usage models.
- Audio data does not go through the L2CAP but directly between two
bluetooth units.
LMP: Link Management Protocol
- It is responsible for link setup between bluetooth enabled units.
- Link Manager protocol also handles management of power modes, power

consuption and state of a bluetooth unit in a piconet.
Logical Link Control and Adaption Protocol ( L2CAP):
- This protocol is situated over the baseband layer and beside the link
manager protocol in bluetooth protocol stack.
- It provides connection oriented and connection less data with security to

upper layer.
Mainly handeled this aspests:
- Multiplexing
- Segmentation and assembly
- QoS ( Quality of Service)

Explain various Data Link Protocols for flow controls?
Working Manner :
1 simplest Protocol:

2. Stop-and-Wait Mechanism
Still noiseless channel

Receiver has limited buffer
Requires flow control
Sender sends one frame at a time and wait for an acknowledgment


UNIT-5
Network Layer
IP Address:
IP stands for Internet Protocol.
IPV4 means Internet protocol version 4.
Purpose of IP: To communicate with any computer exists in network
Size of IPV4: 32 bit long
Way of representation:
We have two ways to represent IP address
1. Decimal Notation
2. Binary Notation
Decimal Notation:
e.g. 192.168.1.6
In this notation each decimal slot is called octet and it is represented in 8 bits.
Binary Notation:
If we calculate each decimal slot in binary then we get to know its binary
representation.
e.g . 192 can be written as 11000000
similarly 168,1,6 can also convertible in binary.
Combinely we can notate it like that:
11000000 -------- -------- -------- --------

Classes of IP Address:
Identification of Classes of IP by using Binary sequences & Decimal Value:
Suffix and Prefix in IP address:

Numerical-1
A block of addresses is granted to a small organization. We know that one of the

addresses is 205.16.37.39/28. What is the first address in the block?
Solution
The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32−28=4 rightmost bits to 0,
we get 11001101 00010000 00100101 00100000
205.16.37.32
This is actually first ip address of the block.
The last address in the block can be found by setting the rightmost 32 − n bits to 1s.
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32−28 = 4 rightmost bits to 1
we get 11001101 00010000 00100101 00101111
we will have last address of block: 205.16.37.47
we have 32-28=4
24 = 16
We have total number of ip addresses in the given block is 16
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Q. Explain the concept of class less IP address (CIDR-Classless inter domain Routing)
Ans:
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is a method for allocating IP addresses and routing
Internet Protocol packets. The Internet Engineering Task Force introduced CIDR in 1993 to
replace the previous addressing architecture of classful network design in the Internet. Its
goal was to slow the growth of routing tables on routers across the Internet, and to help
slow the rapid exhaustion of IPv4 addresses.

IP addresses are described as consisting of two groups of bits in the address: the
most significant bits are the network address, which identifies a whole network or subnet,
and the least significant set forms the host identifier, which specifies a particular interface
of a host on that network. This division is used as the basis of traffic routing between IP
networks and for address allocation policies. Classful network design for IPv4 sized the
network address as one or more 8-bit groups, resulting in the blocks of Class A, B, or C
addresses. Classless Inter-Domain Routing allocates address space to Internet service
providers and end users on any address bit boundary, instead of on 8-bit segments. In IPv6,
however, the interface identifier has a fixed size of 64 bits by convention, and smaller
subnets are never allocated to end users. CIDR notation is a syntax of specifying IP
addresses and their associated routing prefix. It appends a slash character to the address
and the decimal number of leading bits of the routing prefix, e.g., 192.168.2.0/24 for IPv4,
and 2001:db8::/32 for IPv6. In classful addressing, a large part of the available addresses
were wasted.
Routing
“Routing is a mechanism for finding the most cost effective path between sources to
destination.”
Desirable properties:
1. Correctness and simplicity: self-explanatory

Packet should be delivered at proper destination.
2. Robustness:
Ability of the network to deliver packets via some route even in the face of failures
3. Stability:
• The algorithm should converge (move toward destination) to equilibrium fast in the
face of changing conditions in the network.

4. Fairness and optimality:

• Obvious requirements, but conflicting ( we cannot maintain fairness with optimality
both simultaneously cause optimality comes when we give priority to any node or
path, so far distance node and path gets automatically unfair)
5. Efficiency:
Minimum overhead cause of keep routing algorithm always be simple. That will give
better efficient way for moving packet from source to destination.
Various Design parameters for routing algorithm:
Performance criteria:
Number of hops, cost, delay, throughput
Number of hops- how many intermediate nodes comes in successfully packet delivery.
Cost- for less cost use high bandwidth path so that at minimum time taken by the packet to
reach at destination.
Delay: Dependent the size of queue or queue length. Size of packet queue is greater then
automatically delay time much more otherwise less.
Throughput: No of packet delivered per unit time is called throughput.
2. Decision Time:
Per packet (datagram), per session (virtual circuit)
Per packet (Datagram): each of the packet is independently decide when its moves
further.
Per-session (virtual circuit): decision of sending each of the packet is taken by session.
3. Decision Place:
Each node (Distributed),Central node (centralized), originated node (source)
4. Network information source:
None: Local: Adjacent node: Nodes along route: All nodes:
5. Network information update timing:

Continuous, periodic, major load change, topology change
Static Routing/Fixed Routing :

• Contains information inserted manually.
• Does not change with time.
• A route is selected for each source-destination pair of nodes in the network.
• The routes are fixed, they may only change if there is a change in the topology of the
network.
How fixed routing may be implemented?
A central routing matrix is created based on least-cost path, which is stored at a

network control center.
The matrix shows for each source-destination pair of nodes the identity of the
next node on the route.

Dynamic Routing
Dynamic:
• Updated periodically depending on network condition.
• Uses protocols like RIP, OSPF, BGP, etc
Autonomous System
Ans:
• A set of routers and networks managed by a single organization
• The routers within the AS exchange information using a common routing protocol.
• The AS graph is connected (in the absence of failure).
• Which class of protocols to use in Autonomous Systems-
• Use interior router protocols to exchange information between routers within an AS

• Use exterior routing protocol to pass exchange routing information between routers
in different AS’s
•
Routing Information protocol (RIP)
Ans:
• Routers within an autonomous system exchange messages
• Distance vector routing using hop count
• Table entries updated using values received from neighbors
• Maintain timers to detect failed links
• Used in first generation ARPANET
Problems:
• Slow convergence for larger networks
• If a network becomes in accessible, it may take a long time for all other routing
tables to know this. After a number of message transfers.

• Routing loops may take a long time to be detected.

• Counting to infinity problem
• Too much bandwidth consumed by routing updates

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) Routing algorithm
Widely used as the interior router protocol in TCP/IP networks.
Basic concept
• Computes a route that incurs the least cost
o User configurable : delay,data rate,cost,etc
• Each router maintains a database
o Topology of the autonomous system to which the router belongs
o Vertices and edges
Two types of vertices

• Router
• Network Node
Two types of (weighted) edges:

• Two routers connected to each other by direct point to point link.
• A router is directly connected to a network.
A router calculates the least cost path to all destination network.

• Using Dijkstra’s algorithm
• Only the next hop to the destination is used in the forwarding process.
At steady state:
• All router know the same network topology
• Hello packets sent every 30 seconds to neighbors.
• Link state advertisement (LSA) flooded initially from each router.
Packet Types:
• Hello ( check if neighbor is up)
BGP (Border Gateway protocol)

Ans:
• Most widely used exterior router protocol for the internet.
• Allows routers belonging to different autonomous systems to exchange routing

information
• Sent as messages over TCP connections

• The router tables get updated.
• Message type in BGP

Four types of messages:
• Open: Used to open a neighbor connection with another router

• Update: Used to transmit information about a single route
• Keepalive: Used to periodically confirm the neighbor connection
• Notification: Used to notify about some error condition
Types of error conditions reported:
• Message header error-

Authentication and syntax
• Open message error-
Syntax errors and unrecognized options
• Update message error
• Hold time expired-

Used to close a connection if periodic messages are not received
• Cease ( command for closing the connection with router)
Flooding Algorithm used in routing

Ans:
• Requires no network information whatever be the network topology
• Every incoming packet to a node is sent out on every outgoing line except the one it
arrived on
•
Characteristics:
• All possible routes between source and destination are tried. A packet will always
get through if a path exists.
• As all routes are tried, at least one packet will pass through the shortest route
• All nodes directly or indirectly connected are visited.

Limitation:
• Flooding generates vast number of duplicate packets
• Suitable damping mechanism must be used.

Count-to-Infinity problem in distance vector routing
Ans: Since tables are not updated simultaneously there are some inconsistency at point in
time, so a packet moving around in cyclic path. So this problem is called "Counting to
Infinity".
Solution: Use hop count Technique. Assign some no in header information and decrement
this no at each hop. as soon as no. reached 0 packet gets discarded.
Congestion & its Control Techniques: ( Do by Yourself )
Definition:
Network congestion in data networking and queueing theory is the reduced quality of service
that occurs when a network node or link is carrying more data than it can handle. Typical effects
include queueing delay, packet loss or the blocking of new connections
Basic four approaches in Close loop Congestion Control
1. Admission Control
2. Chock Packet
3. Weighted fair queuing
4. Load Shedding
5. Resource Reservation
---------------------------------------- End of Unit-5 -----------------------------------------------------


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I-MCA4 Computer Networking-2648603 PGI MBA MCA Motidau, Mehsana North Gujarat

Data Communication with its characteristics

Fundamental characteristics of Effective Data Communication”

1. Delivery : Destination Should be correct

Components used in Data Communications:

1. Message : We should have a content that is to be transmitted.

Why we need Network?

- To reduce the design complexity of computer communications hardware and

Design by: Prof. Vikas Katariya +918980936828 Page 1

- Nahi : Network Layer

Design by: Prof. Vikas Katariya +918980936828 Page 2

Characteristics of Physical Layer:

Data Link Layer

Design by: Prof. Vikas Katariya +918980936828 Page 3

Design by: Prof. Vikas Katariya +918980936828 Page 4

• Network virtual terminal : telent

TCP/IP Reference Model

Types of Network based on Scale/scope:

- PAN : Personal Area Network

Design by: Prof. Vikas Katariya +918980936828 Page 5

Basic terminology of Physical Layer

1024 Hz = 1Khz = 103

• Resides on Layer 1 of the OSI model.

Design by: Prof. Vikas Katariya +918980936828 Page 6

• Resides on Layer 2 of the OSI model.

• Transparent to protocols and to higher level devices like routers.

• Cannot connect different network architecture.

• Resides on Layer 1 of the OSI model.

• A device that connects any number of LANs.

Additional Network Hardware Devices

Network Interface Cards (NICs)

Design by: Prof. Vikas Katariya +918980936828 Page 8

Design by: Prof. Vikas Katariya +918980936828 Page 9

Guided Transmission Media

Twisted Pair Cable:

Types of Twisted pair:

1. Shielded Twisted pair:

2. Unshielded Twisted Pair:

Advantages of Twisted Pair Cable:

Disadvantages of Twisted Pair Cable:

Advantages of Coaxial Cable:

Design by: Prof. Vikas Katariya +918980936828 Page 11

Dis-advantages of Coaxial Cable:

1. Problems with deployment architecture

Optical Fiber Cable:

Advantages of Fiber Optic Cable

Dis-Advantages of Fiber Optic Cable

Types of fiber optics cable:

Unguided Transmission Media (Wireless)

We can categorize wireless transmission into the following groups,

Design by: Prof. Vikas Katariya +918980936828 Page 12

Applications of Radio waves

Advantages and disadvantages

Applications of Micro Waves

Design by: Prof. Vikas Katariya +918980936828 Page 13

Design by: Prof. Vikas Katariya +918980936828 Page 14

Two types of Microwave Transmission are as follows,

Design by: Prof. Vikas Katariya +918980936828 Page 15

Types of Multiplexing Techniques:

• Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)

• Time division multiplexing (TDM)

• Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)