Network Interface Card (NIC) • NIC provides the physical interface between computer and cabling.

• It prepares data, sends

data, and controls the flow of data. It can also receive and translate data into bytes for the CPU to understand. • The
following factors should be taken into consideration when choosing a NIC: 1. - Preparing data 2. - Sending and controlling
data 3. - Configuration 4. - Drivers 5. - Compatibility 6. – Performance
Hubs • Hubs are devices used to link several computers together. They repeat any signal that comes in on one port and copy
it to the other ports (a process that is also called broadcasting). • There are two types of hubs: active and passive. • Passive
hubs simply connect all ports together electrically and are usually not powered. • Active hubs use electronics to amplify and
clean up the signal before it is broadcast to the other ports.
Bridges • They join similar topologies and are used to divide network segments. • For example, with 200 people on one
Ethernet segment, the performance will be mediocre, because of the design of Ethernet and the number of workstations
that are fighting to transmit. If you divide the segment into two segments of 100 workstations each, the traffic will be much
lower on either side and performance will increase. • If it is aware of the destination address, it is able to forward packets;
otherwise, a bridge will forward the packets to all segments. They are more intelligent than repeaters but are unable to
move data across multiple networks simultaneously. • Unlike repeaters, bridges can filter out noise.
Routers • Routers are highly intelligent devices that connect multiple network types and determine the best path for
sending data. • The advantage of using a router over a bridge is that routers can determine the best path that data can take
to get to its destination. • Like bridges, they can segment large networks and can filter out noise. • However, they are slower
than bridges because they are more intelligent devices; as such, they analyze every packet, causing packet-forwarding
delays. Because of this intelligence, they are also more expensive. • Routers are normally used to connect one LAN to
another. Typically, when a WAN is set up, there will be at least two routers used. • Internetwork connectivity device
HADOOP: An Open-Source framework that allows distributed processing of large data-sets across the cluster of commodity
hardware. Open-source framework written in Java. Inspired by Google's Map-Reduce programming model as well as its file
system (GFS). Hadoop consists of three key parts: HDFS, YARN, Map Reduce. 1.Nodes. + _ 1. Master Node + Resource
Manager (H. YARN) + Name Node (H. HDFS) 2. Slave Node +Node Manager (H. YARN) + Data Node (H. HDFS).
Characteristics: 1. Open Source • Source code is freely available • Can be redistributed • Can be modified. 2.Distributed
Processing • Data is processed distributed on cluster • Multiple nodes in the cluster process data independently. 3.Fault
Tolerance • Failure of nodes are recovered automatically • Framework takes care of failure of hardware as well tasks.
4.Reliability • Data is reliably stored on the cluster of machines despite machine failures • Failure of nodes doesn’t cause
data loss. 5.High Availability • Data is highly available and accessible despite hardware failure • There will be no downtime
for end user application due to data. 6.Scalability • Vertical Scalability – New hardware can be added to the nodes •
Horizontal Scalability – New nodes can be added on the fly. 7.Economic • No need to purchase costly license • No need to
purchase costly hardware. 8.Easy to Use • Distributed computing challenges are handled by framework • Client just need
to concentrate on business logic. 9.Data Locality • Move computation to data instead of data to computation • Data is
processed on the nodes where it is stored.
Summary: •Every day we generate 2.3 trillion GBs of data • Hadoop handles huge volumes of data efficiently • Hadoop uses
the power of distributed computing • HDFS & Yarn are two main components of Hadoop • It is highly fault tolerant, reliable
& available.
Machine Learning: Machine learning is an application of artificial intelligence that involves algorithms and data that
automatically analyses and make decision by itself without human intervention. ► It describes how computer perform tasks
on their own by previous experiences. ► Therefore we can say in machine language artificial intelligence is generated on
the basis of experience. The difference between normal computer software and machine learning is that a human
developer hasn’t given codes that instructs the system how to react to situation, instead it is being trained by a large amount
of data. Some of the machine learning algorithms are: • Neural Networks • Random Forests • Decision trees • Genetic
algorithm • Radial basis function • Sigmoid. There are three types of machine learning ► Supervised learning ►
Unsupervised learning ► Reinforcement learning
Real Time Examples for ML ► TRAFFIC PREDICTION ► VIRTUAL PERSONAL ASSISTANT ► ONLINE TRANSPORTATION ►
SOCIAL MEDIA SERVICES ► EMAIL SPAM FILTERING ► PRODUCT RECOMMENDATION ► ONLINE FRAUD DETECTION. Some
of the best and most commonly used machine learning programs are ► Python, ► java, ► C, ► C++, ► Shell, ► R.
Difference Machine Learning and Artificial ► Artificial Intelligence is a concept of creating intelligent machines that
stimulates human behavior whereas Machine learning is a subset of Artificial intelligence that allows machine to learn from
data without being programmed. Advantages of Machine Learning ► Fast, Accurate, Efficient. ► Automation of most
applications. ► Wide range of real-life applications. ► Enhanced cyber security and spam detection. ► No human
Intervention is needed. ► Handling multi-dimensional data. Disadvantages of Machine Learning ► It is very difficult to
identify and rectify the errors. ► Data Acquisition. ► Interpretation of results Requires more time and space.
7 Layers OSI MODEL: is a theoretical blueprint that helps us understand how data gets from one user’s computer to another.
It is also a model that helps develop standards so that all of our hardware and software talks nicely to each other. Each layer
has its own function and provides support to other layers.
1. Application: To allow access to network resources (Gives end-user applications access to network resources).
2.Presemtation: To translate, encrypt, and compress data (Format data, Data structures, ensure data is readable by
receiving system). 3.Session: To establish, manage, and terminate sessions 9 Allows applications to maintain an ongoing
session). 4.Transport: To provide reliable process-to-process message delivery and error recovery (●Provides reliable data
delivery ● It’s the TCP in TCP/IP ● Receives info from upper layers and segments it into packets ● Can provide error detection
and correction). 5.Network: To move packets from source to destination; to provide internetworking (●Provides network-
wide addressing and a mechanism to move packets between networks (routing) ● Responsibilities: – Network addressing –
Routing ● Example: – IP from TCP/IP). 6.Data Link: To organize bits into frames; to provide hop-to-hop delivery (Places data
and retrieves it from the physical layer and provides error detection capabilities). 7.Physical: To transmit bits over a medium;
to provide mechanical and electrical specifications (● NIC – Network Interface Card – Has a unique 12-character Hexadecimal
number permanently burned into it at the manufacturer. – The number is the MAC Address/Physical address of a computer
● Cabling – Twister Pair – Fiber Optic – Coax Cable)
How work: ● Each layer contains a Protocol Data Unit (PDU) – PDU’s are used for peer-to-peer contact between
corresponding layers. – Data is handled by the top three layers, then Segmented by the Transport layer. – The Network layer
places it into packets and the Data Link frames the packets for transmission. – Physical layer converts it to bits and sends it
out over the media. – The receiving computer reverses the process using the information contained in the PDU.
4 layers of the TCP/IP model: 1. The network access layer ● Concerned with all of the issues that an IP packet requires to
actually make the physical link. All the details in the OSI physical and data link layers. – Electrical, mechanical, procedural
and functional specifications. – Data rate, Distances, Physical connector. – Frames, physical addressing. – Synchronization,
flow control, error control. 2. The internet layer ● Send source packets from any network on the internetwork and have
them arrive at the destination independent of the path and networks they took to get there. – Packets, Logical addressing.
– Internet Protocol (IP). – Route, routing table, routing protocol. 3.The transport layer ● The transport layer deals with the
quality-of-service issues of reliability, flow control, and error correction. – Segments, data stream, datagram. – Connection
oriented and connectionless. – Transmission control protocol (TCP). – User datagram protocol (UDP). – End-to-end flow
control. – Error detection and recovery. 4.The application layer ● Handles high-level protocols, issues of representation,
encoding, and dialog control. ● The TCP/IP combines all application-related issues into one layer, and assures this data is
properly packaged for the next layer. – FTP, HTTP, SMNP, DNS ... – Format of data, data structure, encode. – Dialog control,
session management.
DENIAL OF SERVICE: ▪ Purpose: Make a network service unusable, usually by overloading the server or network. Many
different kinds of DoS attacks ▪ SYN flooding ▪ SMURF ▪ Distributed attacks ▪ Mini Case Study: Code-Red.
SYN flooding attack ▪Send SYN packets with bogus source address. ▪Solution: use “SYN cookies” ▪ In response to a SYN,
create a special “cookie” for the connection, and forget everything else ▪ Then, can recreate the forgotten information when
the ACK comes in from a legitimate connection. SMURF ▪ Source IP address of a broadcast ping is forged ▪ Large number of
machines respond back to victim, overloading it. Distributed Denial of Service ▪ Same techniques as regular DoS, but on a
much larger scale ▪ Example: Sub7Server Trojan and IRC bots ▪ Infect a large number of machines with a “zombie” program
▪ Zombie program logs into an IRC channel and awaits commands ▪ Example: ▪ Bot command: !p4 207.71.92.193. How can
we protect ourselves? ▪ Ingress filtering ▪ If the source IP of a packet comes in on an interface which does not have a route
to that packet, then drop it ▪ RFC 2267 has more information about this ▪ Stay on top of CERT advisories and the latest
security patches ▪ A fix for the IIS buffer overflow was released sixteen days before CodeRed had been deployed!
TCP ATTACKS: End hosts create IP packets and routers process them purely based on destination address alone. If an
attacker learns the associated TCP state for the connection, then the connection can be hijacked! Attacker can insert
malicious data into the TCP stream, and the recipient will believe it came from the original source. Prevent: Instead of
downloading and running new program, you download a virus and execute it. IPSec ▪ Provides source authentication, ▪
Encrypts data before transport.
PACKET SNIFFING: When someone wants to send a packet to some else. They put the bits on the wire with the destination
MAC address. And remember that other hosts are listening on the wire to detect for collisions. It couldn’t get any easier to
figure out what data is being transmitted over the network. This works for wireless too! In fact, it works for any broadcast-
based medium. They get plain text; Passwords are the most popular. Protect: 1.SSH, not Telnet ▪ Many people at CMU still
use Telnet and send their password in the clear (use PuTTY instead!) ▪ Now that I have told you this, please do not exploit
this information ▪ Packet sniffing is, by the way, prohibited by Computing Services. 2. HTTP over SSL ▪ Especially when making
purchases with credit cards! 3.SFTP, not FTP ▪ Unless you really don’t care about the password or data ▪ Can also use KerbFTP
(download from MyAndrew). 4.IPSec ▪ Provides network-layer confidentiality