2016 Hydraulics Lecture Collection

Hydraulics Lecture #1
CWR 4202
Lecture #1
Outline:
 Review of terminology in fluid mechanics:
 Velocity, acceleration, steady flow, transient flow, uniform vs. nonuniform flow,
force, weight, Newton’s Second Law, work, power, total head, hydraulic head,
Bernoulli equation, laminar & turbulent flow.
Velocity: distance traveled divided by time. (symbol V)

L m ft
Dimensions: Metric Units: British Units:
T sec sec
Acceleration: rate at which the velocity is changing with time
Example: car traveling at constant speed then accelerates, think the same for
fluid.
dV
a=
dt
L m British Units: ft
Dimensions: Metric Units:
2 2 2
T sec sec
Steady flow: a = 0, V = constant

Transient flow: a≠0
Static flow: V=0
Newton’s Second Law states that:

F= ma
units for mass are: slug (British units)
or
kg (SI units)
If you apply a force (F) on a mass (m) you cause the mass to accelerate (a).
1 slug x 1 ft
= 1 lb (British units)
sec2
1 kg x 1m
= 1 Newton (SI units)
sec2
One Newton force applied to a 1 kg mass will give it an acceleration of 1 m/sec2.
Weight: a particular type of force due to the acceleration of gravity (g).

gravitational acceleration:
g = 32.174 ft/ sec2 ≈ 32.2 ft/ sec2 (British units)
g = 9.807 m/ sec2 ≈ 9.81 m/ sec2 (SI units)
W (lb) = m (slugs) g (ft/sec2) (British units)

W (N) = m (kg) g (m/sec2) (SI units)
CWR 4202
What is the weight of a 1 kg mass?
W (N) = 1 kg x 9.81 m/sec2 = 9.81 N
Work (energy): work done by a force is the force multiplied by the displacement in the directions
of the force.
Example: workout in the gym (lifting weights)
weight (which is a force) multiplied by displacement
Work = Force x displacement

Work = lb x ft = lb-ft (British units)
Work = N x m = N-m = Joule = J (SI units)
Example: How many joules does Arnold Schwarzenegger dissipate in his bench press
workout if he does 3 sets of 12 lifts with a mass of 100kg for 0.5m?
Mass = 100 kg
F = 100 kg x 9.81 m/sec2 = 981 N
W = 3 (sets) x 12 (lifts/set) x 981 N x 0.5 m = 17,658 J
Power: Rate at which work is done.

d
Power = (Work)
dt
FL
Dimensions for Power:
T
Units for Power: lb ft (British units)

sec
Nm = Joule = Watt (SI units)
sec sec
Example: Calculate the power supplied by Arnold Schwarzenegger if he
completes all three sets in 2 minutes.
P= 17,658 J = 147.15 W
2 min x 60 sec
Total Energy Head:
What are the forces of energy that a fluid can posses?
(a) Potential energy head, z, due to its elevation position expressed as
head above a datum (L).
(b) Pressure head, P/γ, expressed as a head (L).
(c) Kinetic energy head, αV2/2g, expressed as a head (L).
Total Energy Head = P αV2

H= + z +
γ 2g
elevation kinetic energy

pressure head head head
*If the fluid is not loosing or gaining energy, then the total head is constant
CWR 4202 page (1)
Lecture #2
Announcements:
Outline:
 Review of terminology in fluid
mechanics:
 Energy or work
 Hydraulic head
 Bernoulli’s Law, Conductivity
(example)
 Transient & turbulent
 Friction head loss
 Pump head
 Design considerations
Dimensions, units:
(FLT) (British)
(MLT) (SI) British Metric
L L
[V] = =
T T
L L
[a] = 2 = 2
T T
M  L
[F] = F = 2
T
M  L
2
[Work] = F L = 2
T
M  L
2
[Power] = F  L = 3
T T
Energy (or work) and total hydraulic head:

In Fluid Mechanics:
What are the types of energy that a fluid can have?
Pressure, potential energy, and kinetic energy
First, in fluid mechanics, it is customary to express the energy as head of water.
The head is the energy per unit weight of fluid. Remember, work or energy (force *
displacement), divided by the weight (force) equals the head.
So the head is expressed in units of length (L).
CWR 4202 page (2)
Types of energy head:

(a) Elevation head, z , [L]
potential energy, set from a datum.
The energy to lift a weight to
elevation z = weight x z.
So elevation head expressed as units
of water head= z.
(b) p
Pressure head, , [L]

represents the height of a column of fluid to produce pressure p.
(c) V
2
Velocity head, , [L]

2g
kinetic energy, vertical distance traveled by a fluid particle before it reaches
velocity, V.
 V
2
Total Energy Head of a fluid: p
H    z    [L]
 g
Hydraulic or piezometric head of a fluid:
p
(does not include
Hydraulic head =  z

velocity head)
Bernoulli’s Law: If there is no energy loss along a streamline, the total energy of a fluid particle
is the same (conserved).
H2
fluid particle
H1
H1 = H2 (If there is no energy loss)

p1 V1
2
p2
2
V2 Bernoulli’s Law along a streamline
  z 1       z 2  
 g  g
steady state flow
Q1 = Q2 continuity, same discharge
V1 A1 = V2 A2
CWR 4202 page (3)
αV12/2g
αV22/2g
piezometric
tube
pilot tube
P2/γ
P1/γ
decreasing z2
cross-section
z1
H1 = H2 Bernoulli Eq between (1) and (2)

 1V 1  2V 2
2 2
p1
  z 1    
p2
  z 2  
If no energy loss.
 g  g α reflects the velocity distribution in the pipe
H1 = H2 = constant total head along a streamline Energy Grade Line (EGL)
p1 p2
   z 1    z 2  Piezometric or hydraulic head forms the
  Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL).
 A series of pilot tubes indicate the locus of the Energy Grade Line (EGL).
 A series of piezometers indicate the locus of the Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL).
Note:
 V is the mean velocity across the pipe cross section
 α is a kinetic energy correction factor due to the fact that velocity is not uniform across the
cross section.
Velocity is dependent on distance from the
center of the pipe cross section.
u(r)
u(r = 0) = umax
CWR 4202 page (4)
Q   uda α:1.04-1.06 for turbulent flow (uniform velocity distribution)

A α = 2.0 for laminar flow (parabolic velocity distribution)
Q 1 α ≈ 1 for most flow conditions
V 
A

A
 uda
A
A  u da
3
  3
V A
Laminar & Turbulent flow: Reynolds #, Re

Reynolds # is a measure of the ratio of inertial force on an element of fluid to the viscous force on
the same liquid element.
In a pipe:
ρ = density of fluid
 VD
Re  D = pipe diameter
 μ = dynamic viscosity of fluid
Remember the viscosity is a measure of fluid resistance to shearing deformation. (oil and
glycerin are more viscous than water)
Laminar flow
Re ≤ 2100
(viscous effects dominate)
Transient flow
2100 < Re ≤ 4000
(can be either laminar of turbulent)
Turbulent flow
Re > 4000
(inertia effects dominate over viscous effects)
Laminar Flow
Re ≤ 2100
Turbulent Flow
Re > 4000
In the transitional zone, flow can be either laminar or turbulent (unstable flow).
CWR 4202 page (5)
Examples on using the energy equation, Bernoulli’s Law, and continuity equation.
Given the depth of water upstream and downstream of a sluice gate, determine the discharge
through the gate. Assume no energy loss.
E.L.
V12/2g
sluice gate
V22/2g
Total head is the same, so the energy grade line is a horizontal line.
Apply Bernoulli’s law between point 1 and 2.
What is the pressure at 1 and 2?

0 0
 1V 1  2V 2
2 2
p1 p2 p1 p2
   0   z 1       z 2  
   g  g
2 2
V1 V2
2   0 .8 
2g 2g
2  V 1  1  0 .8  V 2  1
V 2  2 . 5V 1
From continuity (discharge per unit width)
2 2
V1 V1
2   0 . 8  6 . 25
2  9 .8 2  9 .8
V 1  2 . 12 m
s
Solving for :
V 2  2 . 5  2 . 12  5 . 30 m
s
Discharge per unit width

Q  2  2 . 12  1  4 . 24
3
m
(for 1 m width) s
HGL coincides with the water surface level.

EGL is horizontal because of no energy loss.
CWR 4202 page (6)
Example:
Water at 60°F is siphoned from a large tank through a constant diameter pipe. Determine the
maximum height of hill, h, over which the water can be siphoned without causing cavitaion in the
pipe.
Total head at:

1 2 3
z 15’ h -5’
p
0’ ? 0’

2
V
0’ ? ?
2g
Total head 15’
In Table A.5 vapor pressure of water is 0.256 psia (absolute gage pressure).
P ab  P gage  P at
0.256 psi 14.7 psi
P gage  0 . 256  14 . 7   14 . 4 psi

CWR 4202 page (7)
 14 . 4  144
2
lb in
P2 in
2
ft
2
   33 . 23 ft
 62 . 4 lb
ft
3
Apply Bernoulli between (1) and (3).

2
V
15   5 
g  32 . 2
ft
2g 2
s
V  35 . 9
ft
s
Apply Bernoulli between (1) and (2).

2
35 . 9
15   h  33 . 23
2  32 . 2
h  28 . 2 ft
Friction Head Loss:

Energy loss due to friction in pressurized pipe with steady, conserved flow. Head loss is due to
viscous resistance to flow (friction) along walls of the pipe.
 P2 
2
P1 L V
    h l  f
    D 2g
  
f , Re   MoodyDiagr am
 D 
Q
V 
A
2 2
L Q L Q
hl  f 2
 f 2 4

D 2 gA D 2g 16 D
CWR 4202 page (8)
h l  kQ
2
diameter
Head loss, hl has a relationship to: pipe length
Reynolds number
pipe ________
Pump Head: the amount of energy provided by the pump to the system.
 1V 1  2V 2
2 2
p1 p2
  z 1    h p     z 2    hl
 g  g
for section between pints (1) and (2).
total head at (1) total head at (2)

The power of the pump necessary to provide head hp for the discharge Q is:
hp  head supplied by the pump
Q  flow rate
P   Q  hp   specific weight of water
 kg m  N
(  g   3  2   3
m s  m
Design Considerations: Design of a pipeline conduit system that delivers a certain discharge Q
with a head H.
In designing your pipeline:
 Initial or capital cost
CWR 4202 page (9)
o installing the pipeline, the smaller the cross-section the more economical
 Operational and maintenance cost
o head loss in your system can be higher for smaller pipe cross-sections
o energy cost for operating a pump that delivers flow Q at head H for a pipe with small
cross section is higher because a larger force is applied for water to get pumped
through bends.
Objective: to design the pipeline (size of your conduit) with the least cost for a particular
discharge Q.
CWR 4202 page (1)
Lecture #3
Announcements:
Outline:
Read text book pages 223-243.
 Design considerations
 Energy equation: pump head and
friction head loss
o Pump characteristic curves
o Head loss pipe problems
 Estimation of head loss
o Moody Diagram (examples) Homework 1: 5-1
o Hazen Williams formula 5-8
 Head loss in noncircular systems Problems 5-12 due _______
o Examples 5-13 ___________
 Minor head losses 5-30
5-31
Design considerations:
Consider a simple system like this:
2
L V
hl  f
D 2g
We want to convey a discharge Q through the system from the lake to the reservoir.
The two design variables design variables that can be selected are
1) pipes (diameter, roughness, material)
2) pumps
CWR 4202 page (2)
Your objective is to design the system to convey discharge Q while minimizing the total cost.
1) initial cost (installation and initial cost of pipes and pump)
2) maintenance and operational cost (energy to operate pump, and perhaps replace the
system in the future)
Usually the smaller the pipe size (save on initial cost) the higher the velocity of flow, the more
head loss you will have in your system. → A higher head needs to be provided by the pump
(higher operational cost)
Also pipe material affects losses in pipe. → more head losses in cast iron or concrete pipes than in
smooth steel pipes.
Energy equation between points (1) and (2).
Without energy losses: H 1
 H 2
2
p1 V1
H 1
 z 1     
 g
2
p2 V2
H 2
 z 2     
 g
With energy losses:

2 2
p1 V1 p2 V2
z 1      h p   z 2     h lf  h lm
 g  g
Pump head
What is the power provided by the pump to the flow?
hp is energy per unit weight of water
o Multiply by the weight of water → total energy provided by the pump to the water.
o Multiple by the rate of passage of weight of water → power.
Rate of passage of water L
3
F F
weight: Q    3
→  Q 
T L T
Power provided by the P   Qh p

pump to the water:
Add pump efficiency  Qh p
(mechanical or electrical): P 
e
Usually pump manufacturers provide “performance” or “characteristic” curves for pump linking
discharge, head, and efficiency of pump for a given rotation speed of pump.
CWR 4202 page (3)
Pump Charateristic Curve for a Fixed Rotation Speed
75 100%
80%
Head (m), Power (kW)
Efficeincy (%)
50
60%
40%
25
20%
0 0%
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Discharge (m3/sec)
System Pump Power Efficiency
The higher the discharge Q the lower the head provided by the pump.
If Q is given then head can be directly estimated from the pump characteristic curve.
If Q is unknown (running a pump but not knowing the discharge), then head loss is unknown. To
solve this problem you have to solve simultaneously fort he energy equation (system curve) and
the fro the performance of the pump. The system curve is equal to the head losses in the piping
system for various discharges.
Pump Charateristic Curve for a Fixed Rotation Speed
75
50
Head (m)
25
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Discharge (m3/sec)
System Pump
CWR 4202 page (4)
Friction head loss:

Friction head loss is the energy dissipated due to resistance to flow in the pipes.
How is it expressed?
It is usually expresses by the Darcy-Weisbach formula:
f  friction factor (dimensionless)
L  length of pipe
2
L V
hf  f
D 2g D  diameter of pipe
V  velocity of flow in pipe
What is the friction factor, f , a function of?

1) pipe diameter and material because it determines roughness of the pipe. (e.g. steel
is smoother than concrete so it offers less resistance to flow)
 VD
2) Reynolds # (laminar vs. turbulent flow) Re 

Laminar Flow
64
f  (Re<2000)
Re
Turbulent and transitional flow

 ks  ks
f  f  Re,   relative roughness of a pipe (see Figure 5-5 p.229)
 D
 D 
ks  equivalent sand roughness of the pipe (that pipe which has

the same resistance characteristics as a sand-roughened pipe.
Equivalent sand roughness provides a means of evaluating pipe roughness.
ks is smaller for pipes made of smoother material.
k s ( steel )  0 . 0046 mm  0 . 00015 ft
k s ( concrete )  0 . 3 mm  0 . 001 ft
To estimate the friction factor

1) Use pipe diameter and pipe material in figure 5.5 and estimate relative roughness.
2) Use Re and ks in figure 5-4 on page 228 to estimate the friction factor.
Example problems of calculations of friction head loss.
3 types of problems:
1) Given flow rate , pipe material, and pipe size estimate the frictional head loss.
2) Given head loss, pipe size, and pipe material estimate the flow rate.
3) Given flow rate and head loss, estimate (design) pipe size and material.
CWR 4202 page (5)
Problem type #1 (example 5-1 pg. 230)

3
Water at 20°C flows at a rate of 0.05 m s in a 20cm asphalted cast iron pipe. What is head loss
per km of pipe?
Write the formula:
L  1 km  1000 m
  ( 0 .2 )
2
A   0 . 0314 m
2
D  0 .2 m
6
2
L V
h f
 f Q 0 . 05 m
3
V    1 . 59
s
D 2g m
s
2
A 0 . 0314 m
 ks 
f  f  Re, 

 D 
 VD VD 1 . 59  0 . 2
Re     3 . 2  10
5
6
 U 1  10
 6 m
U  U ( 20  C )  1  10
2
kinetic viscosity: . s (See table A.4 pg. 634)

for an asphalt cast D  7 . 98 "

iron pipe: k s  0 . 004 ft
ks
 0 . 007
D
f  0 . 019 (Moody diagram)
Re  3 . 2  10
5
2
1000 1 . 59
h f
 0 . 019    12 . 2 m
0 .2 2  9 . 81
Head loss per km of pipe = 12.2m

hl 12 . 2
Energy Gradient:   0 . 0122 m
m
L 1000
Problem type #2 (example not in textbook)

You are measuring the head loss across your piping
system, but you want to know your flow rate. Water at
20°C flows in a 50 cm diameter welded steel pipe. If the
energy gradient is 0.006, determine the flow rate.
CWR 4202 page (6)
hl 1 V
2 What is the difficulty in this problem?
 0 . 006  f
L D 2g What are the unknowns? f (Re) and V (velocity determines discharge)
Procedure: (iteration)
Assume f , calculate V, calculate Re, refine estimate of f .
ks
 0 . 00009 (figure 5.5 pg. 229)
D
assume f  0 . 03
2
1 V
0 . 006  0 . 03  
0 .5 2  9 . 81
 1 . 96 ( m s ) V  1 .4
2 2 m
V s
DV 0 .5  1 .4
Re    7  10
5
6
U 1  10
Since the f verses Re curve is relatively flat, assume f  0 . 0135 .

2
1 V
0 . 006  0 . 0135  
0 .5 2  9 . 81
V  2 . 12 m
s
Re  10
6
→ f  0 . 0135
f  0 . 0135
V  2 . 12 m
s
Answer:
  0 .5
2
Q   2 . 12  0 . 415
3
m
s
4
Problem type #3: (example 5-2 pg. 231)

You know the flow that you want the pipe to carry and the head loss you want in the pipe,
designate the pipe size (diameter).
What size asphalted cast-iron pie is needed to carry water at a discharge of 12cfs with a head loss
of 4ft per 1000ft of pipe.
2 2 2
L V L Q L Q
hl  f  f  f
 
2 2

D
2
D 2g D 2 gA D 2g
4
2 2
fLQ fQ
 
5
D 2 hl
2
0 . 785 ( 2 gh l ) 0 . 785 (2 g L
)
Two unknowns: D and f

CWR 4202 page (7)
 ks 
remember: f  f  Re, 

 D 
Procedure: assume f , solve for D , solve for V , solve for Re, refine value of f .
Assume f  0 . 015
0 . 015  12
2
  13 . 63 ft
5 5
D
0 . 615  64 . 4  0 . 004
D  1 . 69 ft  20 . 3 "
ks Q 12
 0 . 00025 V    5 . 34
ft
, 2 s
D A 0 . 785 ( 2 . 86 )
 1 . 69 ft
ft
5 . 34
Re   7 . 47  10
s 5
5 2
1 . 21  10
ft
s
Moody diagram: f  0 . 0155 (very close to assumed)

recompute D
0 . 0155
  13 . 63 ft  14 . 08 ft
5 5 5
D
0 . 015
D  1 . 70 ft  20 . 4 "
Round up to 22” (commercially available pope size)

Head loss using Hazen-Williams Formula:
Another empirical formula that was derived to estimate head loss (not widely used anymore)
In English units:
V  velocity in ft/s
C h
 Hazen-Williams friction coefficient (table 5-2, page 233)
D
V  1 . 318 C h R
0 . 63 0 . 54
S Rh  hydraulic radius = (pipe flowing full)
4
h f
S  (slope of energy grade line)
L
 V 
1 . 85
h l  3 . 02 LD
 1 . 167  
C 
h 

This empirical head loss formula is applicable for head losses in the usual range of pipe sizes and
discharges found in water distribution systems. (Wholly turbulent range, friction coefficient
constant and independent of Re.)
Headloss in noncircular conduit: tunnel(nonuniform slopes)
A modified version of Darcy-Weisbach equation can be used.
CWR 4202 page (8)
D
Rh  (for circular conduits)
2
L V 4
hf  f
4Rh 2g area  of  flow
Rh  (for noncircular conduits)
wetted  perimeter
ks
u  (relative roughness)
Use u and Re to estimate the friction 4Rh
factor from the Moody Diagram page
235. V  4Rh
Re 
v
Example 5-3 page 235
Estimate head loss in 1 mile of tunnel . Water

flows at 12 fps.
2
(10  20 )  0 . 5 (   20
2
L V / 4) 357
hf  f Rh    5 ft
4Rh 2g 10  10  20    20 / 2 71 . 4
5
V  4Rh 12  4  5 water @ 60°F v  1 . 22  10
ft
s
Re    1 . 96  10
7
v 1 . 22  10
5 (Table A-4 page 634)
ks f  0 . 017 (from Moody Diagram)
k s  0 . 01 ft  0 . 0005
4R
1 mile  5280
ft 2
12
 0 . 017  10
mile ft
h f mile
45 2  32 . 2
Minor losses: are losses due to transitions and

fittings that alter the uniform flow required in
the conduit.
Additional turbulence is created which is transformed into heat.

Minor head losses are expressed as:
2
V
h m in or
 K
2g
K is a loss coefficient for the particular fitting that is involved.
See coefficient values on page 237.
CWR 4202 page (9)
CWR 4202 page (10)
CWR 4202 page (1)
Lecture #4
Announcements:
Outline:
Finish reading Chapter 5
 Minor head losses
 Complex conduit systems
o pipes in series
o pipes in parallel
o branching pipes
o pipe network
Minor losses in a system
Minor losses are energy losses due to transitions and fittings that alter the flow
required. (e.g. bends, gates, contractions, expansions)
Additional turbulence is created which is dissipated into heat.

Head loss associated with transitions and fittings is expressed as:
V
2
hM = minor head loss due to transition or fitting
hM  K
2g K  coefficient that depends on type of fitting (see page 237, Table 5-3)
V  average velocity of flow
Minor head losses are small as compared with frictional losses for pipes longer than 1000*diameter.
Complex Conduit Systems
Pipes in Series
Let us say that different pipes in series connect two reservoirs.
Smaller pipe diameter (higher
slope gradient and higher
2
L V
velocity head) h f
 f .
D 2g
The problem is solved by using Continuity and energy equations.

Continuity equation:
Q  Q1  Q 2  Q 3
D1
2
D 2
2
D 3
2
(1)
Q  V1  V2  V3
4 4 4
CWR 4202 page (2)
Energy equation:
h l  h l1  h l 2  h l 3
2 2 2
L1 V1 L2 V2 L3 V3 (2)
hl  f1  f2  f3
D1 2 g D2 2g D3 2g
Two types of problems:

Type 1: Discharge Q is given, calculate total head loss. Use eq. (1) to solve for V 1 ,V 2 , V3 and
plug into eq. (2).
Type 2: Total head loss is known, calculate Q
Three steps:
(1) Use continuity equation (1) to express all velocities in terms of one velocity
2 2
 D1   D1 
(or in terms of Q). V2    V1 ; V3    V1
   
 D2  D
 3 
(2) Replace velocity in head loss equation (2), assume reasonable value for f ,
and solve for V 1 .
(3) Reassess your assumption of f .
Example (not in textbook)
Find flow rate between A and B. All pipes are new cast iron pipes.
pipe 1: L 1  300 m , D 1  30 cm
pipe 2: L 2  150 m ,D2  20 cm
pipe3: L 3  250 m , D 3  25 cm
T  15  C , h l  10 m
2
step 1: 3
V2    V 1  2 . 25 V 1
2
2
 3 
V3    V 1  1 . 44 V 1
 2 .5 
step 2: For cast iron pipe, k s  0 . 25 mm
relative roughness: 1 0.00083

2 0.00125
3 0.001
What should be the values of the friction factors ( f )?
Look at the Moody diagram with relative roughness between 0.00083 and 0.001 (narrow range).
Re  4  10
5
Assume we are in the completely turbulent range (flat zone) .
CWR 4202 page (3)
Good initial assumption.

f 1  0 . 019 , f 2  0 . 021 , f 3  0 . 020
 300   V 1   V1   V1 
2 2 2
 150   250 
10  0 . 019      0 . 021     0 . 020   
2 2
  2 . 25  2g  1 . 44  2g 
 0 .3   2 g   0 . 2     0 . 25   
2
V1
Rearrange and solve for
2g
2
V1
 0 . 072 m
2g
1
V 1  ( 0 . 072  2  9 . 81 ) 2
 1 . 18 m
s
V 2  2 . 65 m
s ; V 3  1 . 70 m
s
The corresponding Reynolds numbers are:

step 3: Re 1
 3 . 1  10
5
pipe 1
 10 . 5  10
5
 4  10
5
Re 2
pipe 2
completely turbulent, rough pipes
 5 . 4  10  4  10
5 5
Re 3
pipe 3
Refine your estimate of “ f ” and iterate (not really needed in this case, because the change in “ f ” is very
small).
 ( 0 .3 )
2
Q  A 1V 1   1 . 18  0 . 083
3
m
s
4
Q  0 . 086
3
If we did reiterate a better estimate of Q would be derived: m
s
Pipes in Parallel
Consider a pipe that branches into several other pipes and then rejoins.
CWR 4202 page (4)
Continuity and energy equations require that:

Q  Q1  Q 2  Q 3
h l  h l1  h l 2  h l 3

Type 1: Head loss is given, estimate total flow.
2
L1 V1
Knowing hl  f , estimate V1
D1 2 g
Knowing V1 , estimate Q1
Repeat for the rest of the pipes and sum Q’s.

Type 2: Total discharge (Q) is given, estimate head loss and flow rate in each pipe.
Procedure: (1) Assume f values.
(2) Write discharge in terms of head loss
2
L1 V1 hl D1

2
hl  f ; V1 2g
D1 2 g f1 L1
1 1
 2 g D1   2 g D1 
2 2
1 1
V1    hl 2
; Q1  A1   hl 2
 C1 hl
   
 f1 L1   f1 L1 
1
 2 gD 1 
2
C1  A1  
 
 f1 L1 
1 1
 2g D2   2g D2 
2 2
1 1
V2    hl 2
; Q2  A2   hl 2
 C2 hl
   
 f2L2   f2L2 
1
 2 gD 2 
2
C2  A2  
 
 f2 L2 
Q1  C1 hl
Q2  C2 hl
Q3  C3 hl
(3) Knowing total flow rate, Q  C 1  C 2  C 3  h l , solve for hl .
(4) Knowing head loss, calculate velocities and Reynolds #s in pipes. Check f values.
(5) If needed reiterate with better f value.
CWR 4202 page (5)
Branching Pipes
Consider three reservoirs connected by a branched pipe system.
The problem is to determine the discharge in each pipe and the head at the junction point D.
PD
There are four unknowns in the system: V AD , V BD , V DC , and .

Usually a solution is written by ignoring both velocity and minor heads (Friction is dominate)
PD
What is the direction of flow between reservoir A and D? (Depends on )

Four equations and 4 unknowns.
Energy equation between B and D.
Energy equation between C and D.
2
L BD V BD
z B  z D  
PD
f BD (1) 2
L CD V CD
z C  z D    
 PD
D BD 2g f CD (3)
D CD 2g
Energy equation between A and D. Continuity equation:

2
L AD V AD V BD A BD  V AD A AD  V DC A DC
z A  z D    
PD
f AD (2)
D AD 2g Q BD  Q AD
 Q DC (4)
Again we have 4 unknowns (3 velocities and P  ), how do you solve this problem? Remember that the
D
f’s depend on velocity through the Reynolds #. These are not linear algebraic equations so some iteration
is needed.
CWR 4202 page (6)
Procedure:
PD
(1) Assume  and f, solve for head loss and Q using eqs. (1), (2), and (3).
(2) Substitute in (4) and check :
PD
>0 increase 
Q Bd  Q AD
 Q DC =0 correct
PD
<0 decrease 
PD
(3)If needed, adjust  and go to step (1).
Problem 5-33 page 282
Length of pipe >1000D, so we can ignore minor losses and velocity head.
Assume flow direction.
Energy equation between A and B.
10 12 
2 2
D
AAB    3 . 14  0 . 545 ft
A 2
4 4
2 2 2
L AB V AB L AB Q AB 10000 Q AB
h l , AB    0 . 02  12 . 53 Q AB
2
f f
2  32 . 2  0 . 545
2 10 2
D Ab 2g D Ab 2 gA AB 12
 1 
2
1 1
Q AB    h l , AB 2
 0 . 283 h l , AB 2
 12 . 53 
h l , AB  150  H  12 . 53 Q AB
2
B
Energy equation between C and B.

 8 12 
2 2
DC
   3 . 14  0 . 349 ft
2
A CB
4 4
2 2 2
L CB V CB L CB Q CB 10000 Q CB
   0 . 02  15 . 3 Q CB
2
h l , CB f f
2  32 . 2  0 . 349
2 8 2
D CB 2g D CB 2 gA CB 12
 1 
2
1 1
Q CB    h l , CB 2
 0 . 256 h l , CB 2
 15 . 3 
 100  H  15 . 3 Q CB
2
h l , CB B
Energy loss equation between B and D

1
Q CB  0 . 63 h l , BD 2
h l , BD  H B
 0  H B
CWR 4202 page (7)
Mass Balance
Q AB
 Q CB  Q BD (continuity requares that Q AB
 Q CB  Q BD  0 )
Iterate to solve for Q
Assume a value for H B
, ft
 Q CB  Q BD  0
3 3 3
H B
, ft h l , AB , ft Q ,
ft
s
h l , AB , ft Q CB ,
ft h l , BD , ft Q BD ,
ft
s
Q AB
AB s
50 100 2.83 50 1.81 50 4.45 0.19>0

55 95.0 2.75 45 1.72 55 4.67 -0.20<0
52.5 97.5 2.79 47.5 1.76 52.5 4.57 -0.02 (close
enough)
Pipe Networks:
(1) Continuity: flow into junction = flow out of junction.
(2) Head loss between any two junctions should be the same.
(3) Flow and head must satisfy head loss equations.
see page 251
2 2 2
L1 V 1 L1 Q1  
2 4
D D
hl  f  f A
2
    
2
D1 2 g D 1 2 gA
2
 
 4  16
h l  kQ
2
(higher Q, higher head loss) k 
8 fL
gD 
5 2
CWR 4202 page (1)
Lecture #5
Outline: Announcements:
 Pipe Networks Finish reading Chapter 5
 Discharge measurement
o velocity-area method (Next week we will start free surface flow)
o orifice Midterm Exam:__________________
o Venturi meters Exam Review:___________________
 Forces and stresses in pipes and bends
Homework 2: 5-35
5-35
Problems 5-38 due _______
5-40 ___________
5-42
Pipe Networks:
Figure 5-16 page 251 shows a schematic of a pipe network.
These networks are used for water distribution for municipalities
Input Sources Output Loads
Loads are ussually lumped to represent a
load at a junction:
As a Hydraulic engineer, you might be asked to design a pipe network for a newly developed
area or expand an existing network.
One thing that we need to keep in mind when we are dealig with such a problem is that there
are design codes which may varyy for different municipalities.
Evaluate an exisitng network (pressure distribution at different junctions and loads).
Pressure head is the governing component of total head. Head loss is the main mechanism
for energy loss dissipation.
Nowadays compter programs are used to handle large pipe networks (computaions are fast
and answers can be obtained quickly), so it is tempting to give you a computer program to
work with. But I will not do that for 2 reasons:
1) There are many programs available, and if I give you one, I am not sure it will be the
program you will be using in the real world to solve such problems.
2) We tend to trust answers from these progrmas without verifying that the answer
makes engineering sense.
My approach is to get you to understand the basic approach and engineering concepts behind
pipe networks, so you can design your own program or be better able to interpert the results
from a programif you use one.
CWR 4202 page (2)
The solution of a pipe network problem should satisfy 3 requirements:

1) Continuity of flow at a junction: flow into a junction should be equal to flow out of a
junction 9no water storage at a junction)
2) Head loss between any two junctions should be the same (continuity of pressure
regaurdless of path taken) Head loss in a clockwise direction should be equal to head
loss in a counter clockwise direction.
3) Discharge and head loss must satisfy the velocity-head loss equation
(Darcy_Weisbach equation).
1) Q1  Q AB
 Q AD
Q Ab
 Q BC  Q 2  Q 3
2) Between nodes A and C

h l , AB  h l , BC  H A
 H C
h l , AD  h l , DC  H A
 H C
Between nodes A and D

h l , AB  h l , BC  h l , DC  h l , AD
Algorithm or procedure fro solving a pipe network problem:

(1) Assume flow distribution that satisfies continuity at nodes. Obviously this distribution of
flow won’t satisfy energy balance (rrequirement 2). Write head loss equaiton as:
h l , AB  kQ
n
AB
2
L AB Q AB
  kQ
n
h l , AB f 2
D AB 2 gA AB
L AB 1
k AB
 f 2
; n  2
D AB
2 gA AB
Write all head loss in terms of discharge:

h L  kQ
n
 h LC   h LCC
k AB Q AB  k BC Q BC  k DC Q DC  k AD Q AD
n n n n
 k QC  
n n
k Q CC
Very likely, the energy balance will not be satisfied, and a correction ΔQ must be applied to
satisfy head loss equation.
CWR 4202 page (3)
How to apply ΔQ?

Head loss in clockwise direction is higher
 h LC   h LCC
Positive ΔQ will be applied in the counter clockwise direction (reduce the flow rate in the
clockwise direction to reduce head loss).
If ΔQ is applied uniformly, we will maintain balance.
To acheive balance of energy:
Q  Q 
n n
 k C
 Q   k CC
 Q
What should the magnitude of ΔQ be? (Non-linear algebra equation – can’t solve for ΔQ.
Expand the function f(Q) around Q using a taylor series exponential.
f n 1
f (Q )  Q  nQ
n
;
Q
f f Q f Q
2 n
f (Q   Q )  f (Q )  Q   ....... 
Q Q Q
2 n
2! n!
n 1
(Q   Q )  Q  nQ Q
n n
Substitute by its approximation
 k Q n
C
 nQ
n 1
Q    k Q n
CC
 nQ
n 1
CC
Q 
 kQ C   Q
n
 nkQ
n 1
C
  nkQ
n 1
CC
   kQ CC
n
Solve for ΔQ:
 kQ C   kQ
n n
CC
Q 
   nkQ
n 1 n 1
nkQ C CC
(2) If ΔQ is the correction that should be applied in the counter clockwise direction, add ΔQ to
CC flow and subtract ΔQ from C flow.
(3) Repeat (1) for all loops. (Calculate correctrion for all loops).
(4) Apply correction to all loops
(5) Iterate untill you satisfy equations 1 and 2. ΔQ will be very small.
*See Example 5-8 on page 254
Discharge Measurements
How do you measure flow rate in a pipe system?
*Direct (measure discharge) vs. Indirect (Orficie, Venturi meters)
Direct Methods
(a) Direct volume or weight measurement. Measure volume or weight of fluids and time it.
CWR 4202 page (4)
volume
 Q
time
(b) Area integration Q   VdA

Measures velocity variation along pipe using
a pilot tube.
If flow is radially symmetric:
V2(pi)r
V  V (r )
dA  2  rdr The integratin can be done Area
Q   V 2  rdr
graphically or numerically.
radius (r)
Q will be the area under the curve, your
discharge.
More commonly used for streams and rivers.
Indirect Methods:
Obtain Q by measuring changes in pressure across an oriciec or Venturi meter.
Orifice: An orifice is a restricted opening used to measure the discharge in a pipeline.
Relates hl (drop in pressure head) toproperties of orifice and Q).

Why do we have a drop in pressure head across the orifice?
CWR 4202 page (5)
1) sonversion of pressure head to velocity head (the smaller the area, the higher the
velocity)
2) some energy loss
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between (1) and (2) and assume no energy loss (ideal).
2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2
 z1    z2 
 2g  2g
V 1 A1  V 0 A 0
2
A0 d
V1  V 0  V0 2
A1 D
d  orifice diameter
D  pipe
Replace V1 by its equivalent and solve for V0 and Q ( Q  A 0V 0 )
 
A0 P1 P2
Q  2g 
 
2
1 
A0
2
A1
P1 P2

 
 h
In reality the flow occurs across a contrated area, sot he actal area of flow is C C A0 .
 d 
CC  f , Re 
 D 
Also, if Re is small, then viscous forces are signifigant. A further reduction in discharge
meay result from viscous effects accounted for by adding a coefficient of velocity, C V .
C V C C A0
Q  2 g  h 
2
1  CC
2 A0
2
A1
Let:
CV CC
K 
2
1  CC
2 A0
2
A1
Q  KA 0
2 g  h 
By knowing Δh and K, Q can be determined.

Table 5-21 page 260 shows how to estimate K.
K  f  Dd , Re 
CWR 4202 page (6)

1) Given: Δh estimate: Q
2) Given: Q estimate: Δh
Type #1
Enter figure using upper axis ( 2 g  h Dd ) follow the slanted line until you hit the
appropriate Dd curve then move horizontally from the intersection to the y-axis to find the
correct K value. Use the K value to solve for Q.
Type #2
4Q
Enter figure using lower axis, , and move vertically until you hit the appropriate d
D
 dv
curve then move horizontally from the intersection to the y-axis to find the correct K value.
Solve for Δh.
2
 Q  1
Q  KA 0
2 g  h  h  



 KA 0  2g
Example 5-9 page 260

CWR 4202 page (7)
CWR 4202 page (8)
CWR 4202 page (9)
Venturi meters: page262

Operate on the same principal as the orifice, but with much smaller head loss. See Figure
5-22 on page 262. (Smooth transistion and streamlined, which eliminates energy loss
associated with sudden contraction.)
Q  KA 2 gh (K is from Figure 5-21)
Forces in Pipe Bends and Transisitons:
 F  Qv
Read Example 5-11 page 266.

CWR 4202 page (1)
Lecture #6
Announcements:
Outline:
 Discharge measurement
o Orifices
o Venturi meters
 Forces and stresses in pipes
o Bends and transitions
o Temperature stresses
o External loading
Midterm Exam:__________________
Exam Review:___________________
Orifices
An orifice is a restricted opening used to estimate discharge by observing the pressure drop
across the orifice.
P1 P2
hL  
 
P1 P2

 
 h (this is observed)
Q  KA 0
2 g  h 
K  f  Dd , Re  from Figure 5-21 page 260

CWR 4202 page (2)
Type #1 Given: Δh estimate: Q
Enter figure using upper axis ( 2 gh d

D
) follow the slanted line until you hit the appropriate
d
D
curve then move horizontally from the intersection to the y-axis to find the correct K
value. Use the K value to solve for Q.
Venturi Meter:
The sampe principal as the orifice, but with a smooth transition and streamlining of flow,
eliminating contraction flow. Head loss is smaller than that of an orifice. Disadvantage:
more expensive.
Figure 5-22 page 262 shows a typical Venturi meter.
Discahrge across a Venturi meter:

Q  KA 2 gh Δh is observed and K is obtained from the upper curves in Figure 5-21 on
page 260.
Forces and Stresses in Pipes and Bends
Because of the change in momentum that occurs in bends and transisitons, forces used to be
evaluated to protect the bend or transition.
Bend:
CWR 4202 page (3)
Holding water hose to irrigate your garden. What happens to the hose when it is bent?
Momentum equation:
 F system    VQ Vector force
 F x   Q (V 2 x  V 1 x )
 F y   Q (V 2 y  V 1 y ) See Example 5-10 page 264
 F z   Q (V 2 z  V 1 z )
Temperature stresses in pipes

Temperature stresses result from temperature fluctuations after the pipe is installed if the
pipe is restricted from expansion.
Temperature rise:
L  TL
L  longitudinal expansion of pipe

T  change in temperature
  coefficient of thermal expansion (depends on pipe material)
L= length of pipe
L
   T
L
  longitudial strain
If elongation is prevented, stress will occur.
stress =   E  ET
E = elastic modulus
How do you prevent temperature stress? Use expansion joints to allow the pipe to expand.
Expansion joints are spaced at a distance L to allow ΔL elongation to satisfy the following:
L  TL
See Figure 5-26 page 270

CWR 4202 page (4)
External loading: page 271

Pipes that are laid in trenches should be albe to handle the external loads assiciated with the
fill material in the trench.
You may need to estimate the pressure applied by the soil to determine the correct pipe
material to use.
Bd  width of trench
Bc  outer diameter of pipe
Then the force per unit length of pipe should be:

W  C sBd
2
(for rigid pipes)
W  force per unit length of pipe

 s
 specific weight of soil
Bd  trench width
C  coefficient from Figure 5-28 page 272
C  f   C is higher for clay and saturated soils.
H
Bd
For flexible pipes (steelor plastic), and well compacted soil, the ____ wall will carry some
of the weight.
W  C sBd Bc
CWR 4202 page (5)
Now we know the load, what about the strength of the pipe. (to determine whether pipes can
resist the load)
For rigid pipes the three-edge bearing test is used.
Determine F load for pipe to crack. Modify to account for the bedding factor. The bedding
factor accounts for distribution of force along pipe. See Figure 5-27 page 271
S 3  edge  F load
S safe 
F safety
S safe  safe supporting strength of conduit
S 3  edge  three-edge bearing strength of conduit (see Table 5-4 page 273)
F load  bedding load factor (see Figure 5-27 page 271)

F safety  factor of safety (  1 .5 )
Read pages 274-275 pipe materials.

CWR 4202 page (1)
Lecture #7
Announcements:
Outline:
Start reading chapter 4 p. 157-161
 Steady Free Surface Flow
o Introduction
o Uniform flow, slopes:
 energy gradient (slope) 4-5
Homework 3:
 water slope 4-6
 channel slope Problems 4-7
o Chezy Formula of uniform flow 4-10 due _______
o Manning Formula of uniform flow 4-12 ___________
4-13
4-14
4-15
Introduction:
What is open channel flow (free surface flow)?
Any flow in a conduit in which the surface of the liquid is a free surface, open to the
atmosphere.
What is the major physical difference between free surface flow and flow in pressure
conduits (fully flowing pipes)?
Pressure Head!! In a
pressure pipe, one can
build pressure that can be
used to increase and drive
flow. (Pressure head can
be built in a pipe)
Can we build an open
channel to convey water
from lake to reservoir?
No!
CWR 4202 page (2)
Maximum pressure in an
open channel is at the
bottom of the channel.
But we cannot build an
open channel to convey
water form the reservoir to
the lake. Why?
Gravity is the main driving force in the case of open channel flow. Gravity plays an
important role in driving the flow in an open channel.
Accurate solutions of open channel flow problems are more difficult to obtain. Why?
All pipes are round. Cross sections of open channels can have arbitrary shapes.
Also range of roughness (resistance to flow) variation in a pipe is usually small.
In open channels, the surface of the open channel can be that of a river or a smooth lined
concrete channel.
Friction factors are more difficult to estimate in case of open channels.
Examples of Open Channel:
Natural: stream, river, or creek
Artificial: canals for irrigation, water supply, drainage, or flood control. Sewer lines
which flow partially full, street gutters.
Hydraulic engineer’s selected tasks:
1. Design cross section and slope to convey water
2. Evaluate the efficiency of a cross section
On the PE exam, you almost always have one problem dealing with open channel flow,
usually design or evaluation of a cross section.
Uniform Flow:
Consider flow down a spillway. Open the gate and allow water to flow.
Initially: you will have transient flow, and gradually you will reach steady state conditions.
CWR 4202 page (3)
At early times the depth of water is a function of both time and displacement. y  y( x, t) .
Steady state flow means that y is not a function of time. Refers to no variation in time.
y  y(x) .
Uniform flow means that depth of flow does not change (remains constant) over a certain
reach of channel. y  y  constant.
Uniform flow will eventually be established in a long channel with a constant slope and
cross section.
In other words, for any given cross section and slope, there is one and only one depth for
which the flow will be uniform.
To analyze this profile you need to think in terms of the driving force (gravity) and
resistance forces (occur at the interface between water and surface).
What is happening between B and C? Flow is accelerating, because gravity component is
greater than the boundary stream resistance.
As the flow accelerate, velocity increases the boundary shear resistance increases until we
reach a balance. gravity force = shear resistance force at the bottom
From C to D, there is no acceleration or deceleration. Uniform flow balance between
forces.
What happens between points D and E? Sudden deceleration of flow because slope is
flatter, less gravity, decreased driving force.
Beyond E, a new uniform flow is established.
Open channel flow is usually turbulent with high Reynolds’s numbers.
CWR 4202 page (4)
Reynolds’s # is given by:

 R hV
N R


Area of flow A
Rh  
Wetted perimeter W p
Rh is called the hydraulic radius

Uniform Flow:
In open channel flow, we have to deal with 3 slopes:
(1) Channel Slope (steeper slope –
more gravity force
(2) Slope of water surface Sw When water surface is parallel to channel bed
(hydraulic grade line) → uniform flow → constant uniform depth
What happens if Sw is steeper than channel slope S 0 ? → Accelerating flow
Why?
CWR 4202 page (5)
y1  y 2 Q1  Q 2
V 1 A1  V 2 A 2
V1 y1b  V 2 y 2 b
y1 y1
V 2  V1  1
y2 y2
V 2  V1 → accelerationg flow
(3) Energy Slope (energy grade line, EGL)
hL hL is head loss due to frictional resistance
S 
L to flow
In the case of uniform flow: gravity (driving force) balances with the shear resistance to
flow force → energy slope = channel slope
Uniform flow:
CWR 4202 page (6)
S  S0  Sw (uniform flow)
Chezy Formula for uniform flow:
Chezy (French engineer) develped an equation that relates the unifrom flow to slope and
cross section charactersistcs of a channel.
The water is neither accelerating or decelerating since there is no change in depth between
the two stations.
The only force in direction of motion is that of gravity (  LA sin  ) .
The forcce against the direction of motion is the shear resistance to flow ( PL ) .
CWR 4202 page (7)
 LA sin    PL  0
A A
   sin   Rh
P P
for small  (  5  )
sin   tan   S 0
The shear stress can be expressed in terms of density  , a resistance coeffient C f

, and a
velocity V.
2
V
  C f
2
2
V
C f  R h S 0 ,   g
2
1
 2g 
2
V    R h S 0 
1
2
C 
 f 
V  C RhS0
C=Chezy coefficient
f
The resistance coefficient: C f

4
f is the friction factor from Moody’s Diagram on page 228. (instead of D in relative
K s
roughness, use 4Rh ; .
4Rh
8g
V  R h S 0 
f
4 R hV
Open channel flow, N R
 , is always turbulent (high N R
).

So, we are always in the flat portion of the curve. Complete roughness.
Discharge Q  VA
Read Example 4-1 page 159.

CWR 4202 page (8)
Long channel → normal depth (normal

flow has been established.
Q  VA  AC Rh S0
2 * 5
Rh   1 . 11 ft
2  2  5
S 0  0 . 002
8g
C 
f
3
For concrete, k s  5  10 ;
3
ks 5  10 3
Relative roughness   1 . 13  10
4Rh 4 * 1 . 11
Enter Moody diagram with the relative roughness and assume you are in the wholly
turbulent range.
f  0 . 02
8 * 32 . 2
1 . 11 
1
Q  2 * 5 * * 0 . 002 2
 53 . 5 cfs
0 . 02
53 . 5 cfs
V   5 . 35
ft
s
10
5 2
 ( 60  )  1 . 22  10 ft
s
5 . 35 * 4 * 1 . 11
  1 . 95  10
6
N R 5
1 . 22  10
 We are in the complete turbulent range.

Manning’s equation:
This is the most widely used discharger equation by hydraulic engineers.
1
Robert Manning (Irish engineer) found that the Chezy Coefficient, C, varies with Rh6 .
CWR 4202 page (9)
In metric units:
1 2 1
V (m s )  Rh3S0 2
n
Where n is a roughness coefficient.

Comparing Manning’s equation with the Chezy equation we find that
f
n  Rh
8g
In English units:
1 . 49 2 1
V ( fps )  Rh3 S 02
n
1 f
n  1 . 49 R h 6
8g
n is the Manning’s roughness coefficient tabulated on page 161 Table 4-1.

CWR 4202 page (1)
Lecture #8
Announcements:
Outline:
 Uniform flow in rectangular channels
(pages 157-172)
 Review for test
What is Uniform flow (normal flow)?

Uniform flow means that depth (and velocity) remain constant over a certain reach of the
channel.
What are the three slopes in an open channel?

 Channel slope, S0
 Water surface, Sw (slope of HGL)
 Energy slope, S (slope of EGL)
For uniform flow, S0= Sw=S.
friction resistance force = gravity driving force
CWR 4202 page (2)
For a given discharge in a channel, there is one and only one uniform or normal depth.
What formulas (equations) are used for relationships between discharge and depth for
uniform flow?
Chezy:
A
V  C Rh S 0 Rh  ; S0
Wp
 8g 
C=Chezy coefficient  C   f=friction factor form the Moody Diagram

 f 
Q  VA A=Area of flow
Manning:
1 2 3 12 (SI Units)
V (m s )  Rh S0
n
1
Q 
2 1
ARh 3 S 0 2 (SI Units)
n
1.49 2 3 12
V ( fps )  Rh S 0 (English units)
n
1.49 (English units)
Q 
2 1
ARh 3 S 0 2
n
n=Manning’s roughness coefficient
Why is normal depth important?
If a channel is long enough, you want to design a cross-section to handle uniform flow.
Typical cross
sections we need
to handle in open
channel flow:
rectangular,
trapezoidal,
circular, and
complex.
CWR 4202 page (3)

1. Given discharge, estimate normal depth (design cross-section).
2. Given normal depth, estimate discharge (rectangular channel calculate area,
hydraulic radius, and replace in equation.)
Example of type 1: A rectangular channel on a 0.002 slope is constructed of finished
concrete and is 8’ wide. What is the discharge if water is 5’ deep?
finished concrete n= 0.012 (table 4-1, page 161)
A  5  8  40 ft
A 40
Rh    2.22 ft
Wp 8  10
1.49
Q   40  2.22 3  0.002 2  378cfs
2 1
0.012
1.49
Type 2: Given Q, estimate y. Q 
2 1 2
ARh 3 S 0 2 , AR 3 is a nonlinear function of y, so
n
some iteration or use of special graphs is required.
Example of type 2: A rectangular channel on a 0.002 slope is constructed of finished
concrete and is 8’ wide. What is the depth of flow if the discharge is 378 cfs?
1.49
Q 
2 1
ARh 3 S 0 2
n
A  8y
8y
Rh 
8  2y
2
8 y  8 y 
3
378 
1.49
0.002
1
2
0.012  8  2y 
5
y 3
Solve for y, assume ya, calculate LHS and compare to
 2.11 (nonlinear)
8  2 y  2
3 RHS.
Assume: y=3’; LHS=1.06<2.11

y=4’; LHS=1.57<2.11
y=5’; LHS=2.11’=2.11’ (this is difficult to solve)
CWR 4202 page (4)
An alternative approach is to use the curves on page 165 for a rectangular cross section.
2
AR 3
On the x-axis, we have 8 .
b3
On the y-axis, we have y/b (b is the width of the channel)
1.49
Q 
2 1
ARh 3 S 0 2 , we find that
n
Qn
ARh 3 
2
1
1.49S 0 2
2
AR h 3 Qn
8
 8 1
b 3
1.49b 3 S 0 2
Procedure: Calculate the RHS and enter the x-axis of Figure 4-7 until you hit z=0, move
horizontally and get y/b. Let us do that.
Qn 378  0.012
  0.266
1.49  8 3  0.002 2
8 1 8 1
1.49b 3 S 0 2
Go to the rectangular area, y/b=0.62; y=0.62*8=5’
Exam Review:
Any questions about the midterm exam?
What should you expect?
The test will require 2 hours. Problems will be similar (perhaps slightly more difficult)
than what you should expect on the PE exam.
Place some pressure on you (it is good for you). Don’t give up. The final grade for class
depends on my impression about the class (no relation to difficulty in test) Proportional to
effort shown in class
What do you like?
 difficult (challenging)
 easy
Problem 5-12
What is the role of the nozzle? (Ignore minor losses)
AnozzelVnozzel  ApipeV pipe
A nozzle is smaller → higher velocity or higher kinetic energy head
You can use a nozzle on the hose when you are irrigating the lawn to increase velocity
head.
CWR 4202 page (5)
Energy equation from surface to nozzle:

p1 V2 p V2
z1  1  2 z 2  2  hL  hmin or
 g  g
z1  100'
z 2  60' (Where is head loss occurring?)
L p V p2
hL  f
D p 2g
L  1000'
D  1'
ks
 0.00016
D
(assume f=0.0015 from Moody diagram)
2
V22 1000' V p
100'  60'  0.015    hmin or
2g 1' 2g
Minor head losses can be neglected if: length of pipe > 1000*diameter of pipe
Q p  Q2  V p Ap  V2 A2
 12  0.52
Vp  V2 V2  4V p
4 4
V22  1000' 1 1
40'  1  0.015    0.1  
2  32.2  1' 16 16 
V2  36.35 fps
 0.52
Q  36.35   7.13cfs
4
Check f:
36.35  1
Re   7.6  10 5 f  0.015
1.2  10  5
ks
 0.00016
D
CWR 4202 page (6)
Problem 5-31:
D  8"  2 '
3
Ignore minor head losses (L>1000D)
Apply Bernoulli equation:
p1 V12 p2 V22
z1   h p  z 2   hL
 g  g
10'h p  30'hL
L p V p2
hL  f
D p 2g
1000 Q2
hL  0.02  
8
  8 2 
2  32.2   12 
12

 4 
hL  3.82Q 2
h p  3.82Q 2  20'  System curve
Higher discharge, higher
80
frictional losses, higher head
required by pump
60
(Use Table A-1 page 628
conversion tables
hp
1cfs=449gpm) 40
Pump characteristic curve:

20
3.82 2
hp  Q  20'
449 2 0
5
h p  1.90  10 Q  20' 2 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Q
Q p  1700 gpm
System Curve Pump Characteristic Curve
h p  75 ft
CWR 4202 page (7)
Problem 5-30:
Design:
Choose:
a. Pipe material (affects k s , but also durability of material) & pipe diameter
b. Pump h p , Q   select a pump that is highly efficient for the conditions

Consider:
a. initial costs
b. operational costs
Choose steel: k s  0.046 ; L=400m
Apply Bernoulli between lower reservoir & upper tank
L Q2
450  h p  f  500
D 2 g  4 D 2 2
400 0.5
2
L Q2
h p  50  f  50  f
D 2g  4 D 2  2
D 12.07 D 4
8.28 f
h p  50 
D5
Say nowadays, we care more about energy cost and need to keep h p low. Then, choose
steel with k s  0.046 and f=0.014. Assume flow is in turbulent range.
ks
 0.0002
D
0.046
Assume: D   230mm assume D=240mm and check f.
0.002
D=24mm
0.5 11.06  0.24
V   11.06 m s ; Re   3.3  10 6

4 0.24 2
8  10 7
Flow is wholly turbulent range if f=0.014

0.014
Pump required: h p  50   8.28  195.6m
0.245
Buy  h p  200m ; Q  0.5 m
3
s
CWR 4202 page (1)
Lecture #9
Announcements:
Outline:
 Uniform flow in trapezoidal and
circular channels and natural streams
 Unlined erodible channels
 Most efficient cross section Homework # 3
Due:
Problems: 4-5, 4-6, 4-7, 4-10, 4-12, 4-13, 4-14,
4-15
Uniform flow: (What is it? When is it established? Formula?)

Trapezoidal Channels:
Geometry characterized
by: b (channel width)
and side slope (given by
z horizontal for 1
vertical)
A  by  zy 2
P  b  2 y2  z2 y2

 b  2y 1  z2  1
2
by  zy 2 Easier to solve using Figure 47 page 165

Rh 

b  2y 1  z2  1
2
2
1.49 Qn ARh 3
Q  ARh 3 S 0 2  
2 1
1 8 8
n 1.49S 0 2 b 3 b3
(1) y is given, estimate Q
a) Alternative 1  calculate A, Rh
b) Alternative 2  calculate y
b enter Figure 4-2 and move horizontally until you
2
AR h 3 Qn
hit the right area and move down until you get 8
 1 8
.
b 3
1.49S 0 2 b 3
Solve for Q.
CWR 4202 page (2)
(2) Q is given, estimate y

Equation is highly nonlinear function of y. Better to use figure 4-7
2
AR h 3 Qn
8
 1 8
, knowing Q, n, So, and b.
b 3
1.49S 0 2 b 3
Start form x-axis, and go up until you hit the corresponding z curve, and move
horizontally until you get y/b. Calculate y.
(Solve 4-3 page 165)
Uniform flow in circular cross section
Circular cross sections:
Example: Highway culverts and
city sewers.
y is flow depth and d 0 is the pipe
diameter
1.49
Q 
2 1
ARh 3 S 0 2
n
Two steps:
(1) Use a nanograph to estimate discharge if pipe is flowing full. Q0  pipe flowing full.
Figure 4-6 page 164. Knowing slope, Manning’s roughness coefficient, Diameter D
estimate Q0
(2) Knowing full discharge Q0 , estimate partial discharge Q using figure 4-5 page 163.
1.49
Q  ARh 3 S 0 2  pipe is flowing partially full
2 1
n
1.49
Q0  A0 Rh 03 S 0 2  pipe is flowing full
2 1
n
2
Q AR 3
 2
Q0 A0 R0 3
Figure 4-5 is a plot of y / d 0 vs. Q / Q0 and V / V0 .
2
V R 3
 2
V0 R0 3
CWR 4202 page (3)
Example: say y / d 0  0.6 , what is the ratio of

Q / Q0 and V / V0
Solve example 4-2 page 162 (Illustrate how to estimate Q0 discharge of pipe flowing full)
Other option: Use figure 4-7 page 165.
Flow in natural channels and streams
1.49
Q 
2 1
ARh 3 S 0 2
n
One section, or different sections if
flow over both.
Q  Q1  Q2  Q3
Flow around an island

Q  Q1  Q2
1
2  z 
2
1.49
Q1  A1 R1 3  1 
n1  L1 
1
2  z 
2
1.49
Q2  A2 R2 3  2 
n2  L2 
CWR 4202 page (4)
Erodible Channels
Two types of channels
 lined canals (concrete, asphalt, wood)
 unlined or erodible channels (earth material like rock or sand)
2 considerations:
(1) side slope
(2) maximum velocity
(1) side slopes (geometrical problem to insure stability of the channel) See Table 4-2 page
166 for limit on side slopes for different materials.
(2) maximum velocity permissible. You do not want to exceed this velocity because erosion
will occur.
High velocity  high shear at the bottom  dislocate earth material  erosion
Table 4-3 page 167 shows permissible velocities and n values for different materials.
In design of erodible channels, you want to make sure that your cross-section meets the
design criteria.
Let us look at example 4-4 page 166.
Variables to design for: side
slope, channel width, and
normal depth.
Most efficient cross-section:

1.49
Q 
2 1
ARh 3 S 0 2
n
2
AR is called the section factor. For a given area A of flow. Discharge capacity increases as
3
 
Rh  A  increases, when wetted perimeter decreases.
 W p 
The same flow area that has the minimum wetted perimeter will be the most efficient cross-
section in carrying the flow.
CWR 4202 page (5)
Fix area and minimize P to get relationship between b and y.
A  by  b  A
y
P  b 2y
P  A  2y
y
dP A
  2  0
dy y2
y  b
2
Occurs when y  b / 2 for rect. channels. (depth of flow = ½ the width of the channel)
Example: Let us say you want to design a channel to carry discharge Q. What do you want to
design your cross-section to look like?
2 2
A  b A  b
2 2
P  2b P  5b
2
 AR
2 2
AR 3 3
The cross section on the right will be more efficient in carrying the flow, even though some
amount of excavation is needed.
Read note on page 168.
CWR 4202 page (1)
Lecture #10
Announcements:
Outline:
 Most efficient cross section.
 Non-uniform flow:
a) specific energy curve
b) alternate depth and critical flow Homework # 4
 Slope classification (mild, steep, and
critical slope) Due:
 Occurrence of critical flow Chapter 4 problems: 17, 20, 24, 28, 36
For the last two weeks we have been talking about uniform flow in open channels. Uniform flow
is a very important concept because cross-sections should be designed to handle uniform flow
(constant normal or uniform depth).
Today, we are starting to study steady non-uniform flow.
steady: depth and velocity do not change with time.
non-uniform: depth and velocity do change with space.
y1 ( x1 )  y 2 ( x2 )
Some new concepts need to be introduced in studying non-uniform flow.
Specific Energy
The specific energy is the energy at a section with reference to the channel bed.
CWR 4202 page (2)
Since the datum is the channel bed,

V2 Q  VA
E  y 
2g V  Q
A
y = pressure head (potential energy)
V2
= velocity head (kinetic energy)
2g
Q2
E  y 
2gA 2
Since the area is a function of depth y, then the specific energy is a function of y fro any given
discharge.
For a rectangular channel
A  by
Q2
E  y 
2 gb 2 y 2
If we denote q to be the flow per unit width of channel q  Q b , then
q2
E  y  . This is the relationship between energy, depth, and discharge.
2gy 2
3 variables: E, y, and q
Let us fix the discharge, q, and look at the relationship between E and y.
CWR 4202 page (3)
For any particular value

of specific energy we
have two alternate
y
depths.
Specific energy diagram for constant discharge, q.

We can see that for the same specific energy, we may have 2 depths that satisfy:
q2
E  y  .
2gy 2
In case of flow with depth y1 , potential energy is high and kinetic energy is small.
(subcritical flow)
In case of flow with depth y 2 , potential energy is small and kinetic energy is high.
(supercritical flow)
y1 and y 2 are known as the alternate depths.
One place to observe the alternate depths is flow under a sluice gate.
CWR 4202 page (4)
constant specific
energy
Eupstream  Edownstream
V12 V2
y1   y2  2
2g 2g
If you know upstream depth y1 and discharge q, you can calculate the downstream depth.
Q
Q  V1 A1  V1 y1b V1 
y1b
Q2 1 Q2 1
E  y1    y2  
 y1b2 2g  y2b 2 g
2
You know y1 and Q, determine Eupstream, and solve for the alternate depth y 2 downstream.
If we maintain the same discharge in the channel, but increase the gate opening, what is going
to happen?
y 2 becomes bigger (downstream depth increases)  E decreases  y1 becomes smaller
(upstream depth decreases)
Opening gate some more  reduces specific energy required to get the flow through the gate.
Finally, we see from the specific energy curve that we reach a depth for which the specific
energy is a minimum and only a single depth occurs.
This depth is called the critical depth, y c .
The critical depth is the depth of flow for which specific energy, E, is minimum for a given
discharge.
y  yc subcritical flow (tranquil, upper stage flow)
y  yc critical flow
y  yc supercritical flow (rapid, lower stage flow)
CWR 4202 page (5)
Upstream of a sluice gate, we have subcritical flow, whereas downstream we have

supercritical flow.
One way to know if flow is sub or super critical is to compare depth of flow to y c .
How do you estimate the critical depth?
Critical flow depth occurs when E is the minimum specific energy for a given discharge.
Physically,
dE
 0
dy criticalflow
V2 Q2
E  y   y 
2g 2 gA 2
Area of flow is always a function of y.
A  A( y)
for a rectangular channel A=by
for a trapezoidal channel A  by  zy 2
dE d  Q 2  dA
1   (chain rule of differentiation)
dy dA  2 gA 2  dy
dE  2Q 2  dA
1  
3 
dy  2 gA  dy
Tdy  dA
dA
T,
dy
the width of the channel at the surface
dE Q 2Tc Q 2Tc
 0 1  0  1 for critical flow
dy 2 gAc3 2 gAc3
Another way of writing this relationship is:
Ac Q2

Tc gAc2
(make sure you use a subscript c for A and T since this is only true for critical flow.)
CWR 4202 page (6)
Case of a rectangular channel.

Tc  b
Ac  by c
Q  by c  Vc
q  y c  Vc
Q  qb
b2q2 q2  q2 
3
by c
  y 3
c   y c   
b gb 2 y c2 g  g 
1
 q2 
3
In a rectangular open channel, the critical depth is: yc   

 g 
How much is the critical velocity?
q  Vy c
gyc3  V 2 yc2
Vc  gy c critical velocity
Another way of checking whether you have sub or super critical flow in your channel is to
compare velocities.
V  Vc  subcritical flow
V  Vc  supercritical flow
Vc2 3
Ec  y c   yc
2g 2
CWR 4202 page (1)
Lecture #11
Announcements:
Outline:
 Specific energy and critical depth in
trapezoidal and circular channels.
Froude #
 Mild, steep, and critical slopes
 Occurrence of critical depths
Specific energy:
V2
E  y 
2g
Energy head at a section in reference to bottom of channel is equal to the sum of the kinetic and
potential energies.
Q2
E  y 
2gA 2
CWR 4202 page (2)
For a rectangular channel:

Q2
E  y 
2 gb 2 y 2
Trapezoid:
Q2
E  y

2 g by  zy 2 
2
Definition: q = discharge per unit width = Q .

b
q2
E  y
2gy 2
Plot y verses E for a constant q.
y
y1 and y 2 are called the alternate depths.

CWR 4202 page (3)
At depth y1  flow is deep and slow (subcritical flow)

At depth y 2  flow is shallow but rapid (supercritical flow)
If we increase the opening of the gate y u becomes smaller and y d becomes bigger. (shift to the
left, reduce specific energy)
If we reduce the gate opening, y u becomes bigger and y d becomes smaller.
Alternate depths are calculated by setting :
Eu  E d
Vu2 V2
yu   yd  d
2g 2g
q = constant
Vu yu  Vd y d
Finally, we see from the specific energy curve that we reach a depth for which the specific energy
is at minimum and only a single depth occurs. This is the critical depth
Q2
E  y 
2gA 2
dE  2Q 2  dA
1  
3 
dy  2 gA  dy
Tdy  dA
T is the width of the channel at surface.

Q 2T Q2 Ac3
 1 or 
gAc3 g Tc
Rectangular channel
Q  qb
A  by
T  b
q2
1
gy c3
1
 q2 
3
y c     critical depth
 g 
CWR 4202 page (4)
q2
yc3 
g
q  Vc yc
Vc2 y c2 V2
y c3   yc  c
g g
Vc2
Ec  y c 
2g
Ec  3
2 yc or yc  2
3 Ec
Also,
Vc2  gyc ; Vc  gy c
Vc
1
gy c
V
The ratio is called the Froude number.
gy
V
F=
gy
F  1  critical flow
F  1  supercritical flow
F  1  subcritical flow
For a given q, E c is he minimum specific energy of the flow.
What happens if the specific energy is reduced to a point below E c ? Discharge q will be
reduced.
CWR 4202 page (5)
Keep in mind that

Ec1  3 2 yc is the
minimum specific
energy to maintain q1 ,
similarly, E c 2 is the
minimum to maintain
y
q2
y 3c
y 2c
y 1c
E1c E2c E3c E
q1 q2 q3
How to estimate critical depth for trapezoidal and circular channels

Q 2Tc
1
gAc3
Q2 Ac3

g Tc
Tc  b  2 zyc
Ac  byc  zyc2
Given Q, estimate y c .
Given y c , estimate Q.
Both A and T are functions of y and are nonlinear algebraic equations.

(1) Solve by iteration, or
(2) Use curves on page 177
Lower x-axis for circular channels
upper x-axis for trapezoidal channels
CWR 4202 page (6)
Example on page 175:

Q  500cfs iteration yields  yc  2.57 ft
b  20 ft Find y c
Ac3 A3
z 1 (Pick a y c and solve for until c  7764
T T
500
 7764 ft 
2 
20 y c  y c2 
3
and you have found the correct value of y c )
32.2 20  2 yc 
Alternatively, use figure on page 177.
Q 500
  0.0492
gb 2.5
32.2  20 2.5
enter graph on top scale
yc
 0.13
b
yc  0.13  20  2.6'
Slope Classification:
A slope can be classified as mild, steep, or critical depending on the normal depth of flow in
relation to critical flow depth.
y n  normal or uniform depth
y c  critical depth
yn  yc  subcritical flow
Slope is mild
y n  yc  critical flow
critical slope
CWR 4202 page (7)
y n  yc  supercritical flow
steep slope
In designing a channel, we want to avoid critical flow, because a large change in depth can occur
from a small change in specific energy.
In most of the cases, the normal depth is in the subcritical flow range, supercritical flow may
occur if you have a steep slope.
Occurrence of critical depth
(a) Broad Crested Weir
What happens when there is a bump in the bottom of your channel?
Is the depth going to increase or decrease, why?
CWR 4202 page (8)
E1  E2  z y
Is y 2 bigger or
smaller than y1 y1
y 2 is smaller
(subcritical flow)
y2
Δz1
Δzc
yc
Ec E2 E1 E
Let us say, we increase z (flow has to go over a higher bump)

y, decreases until we reach y c over the broad crested weir.
CWR 4202 page (9)
What happens if z is further increased, discharge will be reduced or impounded upstream. So

the broad crested weir is a point where critical depth of flow will occur. (control point)
For a rectangular channel, we found that discharge per unit width of channel is:
1
 q2 
3
y c   
 g 
q  gy c3
Q  L gy c3 L = length of weir
 V2 
yc  2
3 Ec ; 
E c is total energy above the crest  H  
 2 g 
V2
H   E
2g
Q  L g 2 3  2 E c 2
3 3
V2
For higher weir, (P is high), upstream velocity is small,  0
2g
Q  0.385L 2 g H
3
2
CWR 4202 page (10)
Theoretical equation that relates water depth above weir to discharge over the weir.
However, to account for energy losses over the weir, we essentially use a discharge coefficient
that is calibrated experimentally.
Q  CL 2 g H
3
2
(b) Occurrence of critical depth (transitions between slopes)
Two long channels

(c) Long mild slope channel upstream of free fall. Knowing where critical depth occurs, helps
you in developing surface water profiles.
CWR 4202 page (1)
Lecture #12
Announcements:
Outline:
 Occurrence of critical depths
 Gradually varied flow
 Hydraulic Jump
Occurrence of critical flow
q=constant
y1
Subcritical Fr #<1
P
yc Critical Fr#=1
Supercritical Fr#>1
Ec E1 E
Critical depth occurs in a channel where E is at a minimum value.

It is important to recognize where critical depth occurs in a channel because it helps in plotting
the water surface profile.
Three locations:
(a) Broad Crested Weir
CWR 4202 page (2)
H = upstream height over weir

E1  E2  z
E1  E2  P
E2  Ec  E1  P
2
Vapp
E1  P  H 
2g
2
Vapp
E2  Ec  E1  P  H   H
2g
q  g yc3
Q  L g yc3
for critical flow in a rectangular channel.
yc  2 3 Ec  2 3 H
Q  L g 2 3 H   L g 2 3  2 H
3 3 3
2
2
Q  L 2g
3
3 H 2
2
3
2
3  0.385
2
3
Q  0.385  L 2 g H 2
3
Theoretical. Introduce Cd , discharge coefficient, to account for head loss.

CWR 4202 page (3)
Advantage  If you know H, you can easily calculate discharge in channel (you have to create
critical depth)
(b) Change in slopes
Is the critical depth going to change over mild or steep slope? No!
Normal depth? Yes!
Remember normal depth occurs when gravity force balances with the shear resistance force
V2
(which is proportional to c ).
2g
Steep slope larger gravity force, velocity is high  normal flow is supercritical
Critical depth occurs at or very close to intersection of slopes.
(c) Free overfall
3 numerical examples
CWR 4202 page (4)
Example 1: Water flows uniformly in a triangular channel (z=1) at a steady rate of 14cfs. The
bottom of the channel is on a slope of 0.006 and n=0.012. Is the flow sub or supercritical?
Is the slope mild or steep?
How do you want to solve this problem?

(a) Compare uniform depth with critical depth
(b) Compute FR# for uniform flow.
(c) Calculate uniform depth.
Calculate normal depth:

1.49
Q 
2 1
AR 3 S0 2
n
A  y  2 y  .5  y 2
P  2  2 y  2.83 y
y2
Rh   0.354 y
2.83 y
y0  0.354 y0  3 0.005 2
1.49 2
14 
2 1
0.12
CWR 4202 page (5)
y 3  2.92
8
y0  1.495 ft
Calculate critical depth:
Q 2T Q2 A3
 1 or 
gA3 g T
142 y 2  3
 c  yc5  12.17  yc  1.65'

32.2 2 yc
1.5'  1.65'
 flow is supercritical
y0  yc
Instead of calculating critical depth, the Froude # could be checked.
V 14 / 1.52
Fr    1.27
gy / 2 32.2 * 15 / 2
Example 2: Uniform flow occurs in a 4ft wide rectangular flume at a depth of 2 ft. A hump of
height 0.3 ft is placed in the bottom of the flume. Calculate the water depth at the hump if flow
rate is 27cfs. What should be the height of hump so that critical depth occurs on it?
First, we notice that the specific energy will be reduced by 0.3’ at point 2. The depth of water at
point 2 may increase or decrease depending on whether upstream flow is sub or super.
Find yc
CWR 4202 page (6)
1
 27 
1 3
q 2

3 2

yc      4 
  1.12'
 g   32.2 
2  1.12'
y1  y2
 27 2  4  2 
V 12
E1  y1   2     2.18'
 
2g  2  32.2 
V22
E2  2.18  0.3  1.88'  y2 
2g
Q 27 6.75
 V2  
A2 4  yc y2
6.752 0.71
1.88  y2  2
 y2  2  1.88
2 * 32.2 * y2 y2
Solve for y2 by trial and error and an initial guess.
y2  2
We know that
yc  1.88
0.71
Try y2  1.70  1.70   1.94'  too high
1.702
0.71
Try y2  1.60  1.60   1.88'  good
1.602
y2  1.6'
Drop in water surface elevation of
2 - 1.6 - 0.3 = 0.1ft
Determine the height of hump z  that will make critical flow occur.
E1  z  E2
Eg  Ec
E1  2.18'  z  Ec
For a rectangular channel,
Ec  (3 / 2) yc  (3 / 2) * 1.12  1.68'
z  2.18  1.68  0.5'
CWR 4202 page (7)
What happens if z >0.5’? y
2 options:
(upstream) 2'
(1) Upstream depth increases
(2) Overflow and reduction in
discharge
Δz=0.5'
(over hump) 1.12'
Ec E1 E
Example 3 Solve problem 4-37 page 213 in textbook
What is going to happen to the depth of flow at point 2 and why?

To make it easy, I’m going to calculate the Fr# upstream.
V 3
Fr #    0.55  subcritical flow
gy 9.81 * 3
Let’s think in terms of specific energy.

What is happening at point 2?
What is happening to E?(stays the
same)
Eu  Ed
y
What is happening to q? (decreases)

A new qd develops which has a new
curve that is shifted to the right.
The depth at intersection should E
decrease. qu qd
CWR 4202 page (8)
Vu2 32
Eu  yu   3  3.46m
2g 2 * 9.981
Qu  Qd  Vu * yu * bu  3 * 3 * 3  27
27 27 10.39
ydVd   Vd   or q d  10.4 m
3
s
2.6 2.6 yd yd
qd2
Eu  Ed  3.46  yd 
2 gyd2
10.42
3.46  yd 
2 * 9.81 * yd2
5.50
3.46  yd 
yd2
Solve for yd by iteration.
We already know that yd  3m.
Try yd  2.90 solve for RHS and compare with LHS
2.90  5.5 / 2.92  3.55

Try yd  2.70
2.7  5.5 / 2.72  3.46m

 yd  2.70m
y watersurface  y up  y d  3  2.7  0.30m
What is the width of the greatest contraction without effecting depth upstream?
Occurs when yd is at critical depth.
yd  yc  2 / 3E  2 / 3 * 3.46  2.31m
Vc  gyc  9.81 * 2.31  4.76 m s
Q1  Q2  27  bdVc yc
27
bd   2.46m
4.76 * 2.31
CWR 4202 page (1)
Lecture #13
Announcements:
Outline:
Read the rest of chapter 4
 Nonuniform flow
(1) Gradually varied flow
(a) Surface profiles on steep and
mild slopes Homework #5: Due ________________
(b) Computation of surface
profiles Chapter 4 (43, 45, 47, 48, 49)
(2) Rapidly varied flow (hydraulic
jump)
In an open channel gravity is the force that drives the motion of the liquid.
Gravity: tends to increase the velocity in the channel in the path of fluid. Gravity is opposed by shear
resistance (the frictional force at the bottom of the channel)
Frictional Resistance: increases as the velocity of the fluid increases
Uniform flow: (Chezy and Manning eqn’s) the two forces are balanced (limiting case) [Neither
acceleration nor deceleration along path] { V  const, y  const  y0 }
Nonuniform flow: two forces are not in balance (flow is either acceleration or decelerating)
{ V  V ( x), y  y( x)
Review slope classifications: Steep, mild, and critical slopes
Two types of nonuniform flow:
(1) Gradually varied flow (GVF) – y(x) smooth
(2) Rapidly varied flow (RVF) – hydraulic jump
CWR 4202 page (2)
y0
1 4 3 2 E
Differential Equations for gradually varied flow (GVF)

CWR 4202 page (3)
V12 V2
z1  y1   z2  y2  2  hL
2g 2g
hL  S f x Sf 
hL
x
z1  z2  S0x
z1  z2
S0 
x
2 2
V V
y1  1
 S0 x  y2  2
 S f x
2g 2g S0  S f for uniform flow
rearrange terms
V22 V12
( S0  S f )x  y2  y1  
2g 2g
(S0  S f )x  E2  E1
Divide by x , and take the limit as x  0

 V22 V12 
  
lim  y2  y1  lim  2 g 2g 
( S0  S f )     
x  0  x  x  0 x
 
 
dy 1 d 2
S0  S f   V
dx 2 g dx
dV 2 dV 2 dy
 (chain rule)
dx dy dx
CWR 4202 page (4)
dy  1 dV 2 
S0  S f  1  
dx  2 g dy 
Thus, we find that
dy

S0  S f 
dx  1 dV 2 
1  
 2 g dy 
 1 dV 2 
To obtain a more usable form, express 1   in terms of the FR#.
 2 g dy 
Q Q2
V   V2  2
A A
1 d 2 Q2 d  1 
V    remember A  A( y)
2 g dy 2 g dy  A2 
d  1  2 dA 2T
 2   3   3
dy  A  A dy A
1 d 2 Q 2T
V  
2 g dy gA3
A
 D
T
1 dV 2 V2
  or
2 g dg gD
V A
 Fr # D 
gD T
1 dV 2
  Fr 2
2 g dy
dy S0  S f

dx 1  Fr 2
This equation will govern the water profile for GVF.
Uniform Flow
dy
 0 for uniform flow (slope of water surface)
dx
also implies
CWR 4202 page (5)
S0  S f
S f x  S0 x
Nonuniform Flow
We need to look at the slope of y to determine whether y increases or decreases with x.
Classification of water surface profiles
Water surface profiles are classified according to:
(1) Channel slope (mild, steep, critical, horizontal, and adverse)
(2) Actual depth of flow in relation to normal and critical depth
Let us start with water surface profiles on mild slopes (M curves)
CWR 4202 page (6)
How would we know the behavior of the water profiles?

dy S0  S f

dx 1  Fr 2
Zone 1: Actual depth > y0 and yc
( y  y0 and y  yc )
Zone 1: Actual depth is between y0 and yc

( y0  y  yc or yc  y  y0 )
Zone 1: Actual depth < y0 and yc

( y  y0 and y  yc )
dy
Need to look at the sign of to determine whether y  or  with x.
dx
Denominator:
subcritical flow  Fr  1  denominator is positive
supercritical flow  Fr  1  denominator is negative
Numerator:
We know that friction head loss is proportional to V 2
When depth of flow y is y0 (normal depth) than velocity is the normal velocity
1.49 2 3 12
V0  R0 S0
n
Where y  y0 is velocity going to be higher or lower than the normal velocity, V0 ?
CWR 4202 page (7)
 y 
 q  yV  y0V0  const  V  0 V0 
 y 
y  y0  V  V0  S0  S f  S0  S f  0
y  y0  S0  S f  0
y  y0  S0  S f  0
Occurrence of an M1 curve:
y
E
dy
Note as y  yc  Fr  1  denom    
dx
Therefore, there is 2 dimensional flow and our model will not hold.
CWR 4202 page (8)
y
E
dy
Note as y  yc  Fr  1  is not smooth any more
dx
y is going to vary rapidly with x  RVF  HJ
Profiles on steep slope:
Examples:
S1 curve
CWR 4202 page (9)
y
E
S2 curve
S3 curve
y
E
CWR 4202 page (10)
Turn to page 194, Figure 4-29 shows the water surface profiles on different slopes and zones.
The other slopes that we can have are horizontal, critical, and adverse.
Horizontal Slope:
Zone 1: y0   , zone 1, we don’t have a profile
dy S0  S f 
Zone 2: yc  y  y0    
dx 1  Fr 2

dy S0  S f 
Zone 3: y  yc  y0    
dx 1  Fr 2

CWR 4202 page (1)
Lecture #14
Announcements:
Outline:
Read the rest of chapter 4
• Nonuniform flow
(1) Gradually varied flow
(a) classification of profiles
(b) Computation of profiles Homework #5: Due ________________
(2) Rapidly varied flow (hydraulic
jump) Chapter 4 (43, 45, 47, 48, 49)
Two important equations derived last lecture

(1) (S0 − S f )∆x = E2 − E1
dy S0 − S f
(2) =
dx 1 − Fr 2
dy
is the slope of the water profile in channel
dx
dy
> 0 → y ↑
dx
dy
< 0 → y ↓
dx
Classifications are made according to
(1) Slope (mild, steep, critical, horizontal, and adverse)
(2) Actual depth in relation to normal and critical depths
Zone 1: Actual depth > y0 and yc
( y > y0 and y > yc )
Zone 1: Actual depth is between y0 and yc

( y0 > y > yc or yc > y > y0 )
Zone 1: Actual depth < y0 and yc

( y < y0 and y < yc )
So, for example if we say this is an M2 profile, then is means we have a mild slope and the profile
is in zone 2.
What does an M2 curve look like?
dy
We need to look at the slope .
dx
CWR 4202 page (2)
dy
< 0 , depth decreases with x.
dx
Profiles on steep slopes
CWR 4202 page (3)
Examples of S1 and S2
y0
4 2 3 1 E
CWR 4202 page (4)
Example of an S3 curve
Turn to page 194 Figure 4-29 shows the water surface profiles on different slopes and in different
zones.
Horizontal Slope:
Zone 1: y0 → ∞ , zone 1, we don’t have a profile
dy S0 − S f −
Zone 2: yc < y < y0 = = = −
dx 1 − Fr 2
+
dy S0 − S f −
Zone 3: y < yc < y0 = = = +
dx 1 − Fr 2
−
Evaluation of surface profiles
Now that you know which profiles you can have in a channel, you are ready to calculate (evaluate
quantitatively) the depth variation in the profile.
Usually, a computer program is used, but as we said, I am not going to give you the code. WE
need to learn the hydraulic concepts behind the code. So you can interpret results should you
need to use code in the future.
CWR 4202 page (5)
Procedure to evaluate profiles by (1) direct step method (2) standard step method
First, we should know what profile we are on (classify the profile).

Basic equations to be used:
(S 0 − S f )∆x = E2 − E1
V12 V2
E1 = y1 + ; E2 = y 2 + 2
2g 2g
E − E2
∆x = 1
S f − S0
Steps in Direct Step Method:

(1) Knowing conditions at 1, assume depth increment ∆y = y2 − y1 and calculate
Q
corresponding E2 andV2 =
A2
(2) Estimate average friction slope between 1 and 2. Using Manning’s equation.
CWR 4202 page (6)
n 2V 2
Smaller Sf = 4 (Manning’s eq.)
2.22 R 3
∆y increments, better
estimate of S f fV 2
Sf = (Darcy-Weisbach eq.)
8 gR
V1 + V2 R + R2
V = ,R = 1
2 2
E1 − E2
(3) Determine ∆x , the reach increment for which depth is y2 , using ∆x = .
S f − S0
(4) Go back to step 1.

Let us look at Example 4-10 on page 197
Standard Step Method:
Fix ∆x and find y2
E1 − E2
∆x =
S f − S0
V12 V2
y1 + + S0 ∆x = y2 + 2 + S f ∆x
2g 2g
Assume ∆x (fixed) and iterate to find y2 (conditions at 1 are known)
Why do you have to iterate?
V2 Q2
=
2 g ( A( y ) )
2
2g
A = A( y )
n 2V 2 both functions of y.
Sf = 4
2.22 R 3
Numerical code HEC-RAS developed by USACE uses a standard step method.
CWR 4202 page (1)
Lecture #15
Announcements:
Outline:
Read pages 187-192
 Rapidly Varied Flow (RVF)
(1) The hydraulic jump
(a) occurrence of HJ
(b) governing equations (depth-velocity Homework #5: Due ________________
relationship example)
(c) HJ in a rectangular channel (conjugate Chapter 4 (43, 45, 47, 48, 49)
depths)
(d) Example: location of HJ
Occurrence of Hydraulic Jump

When the flow is supercritical and then forced to become subcritical downstream, then a hydraulic jump
occurs, with considerable turbulence and energy loss. We gave several examples of HJ’s when we
studied surface profiles.
Who can give an example of a HJ?
CWR 4202 page (2)
Dam  HJ occurs on the apron of spillway to avoid supercritical flow in channel and erosion. HJ
reduces energy and velocity
HJ can be designed to reduce velocity and energy of flow.
Mixing of chemicals.
Because considerable energy is lost in HJ and this energy is unknown, momentum equation and not
energy equations are used to analyze HJ. (depth-velocity relationship)
Newton’s second law:
sum of forces = change in momentum
Because slope is small, gravity force component is negligible. Also, because the channel length involved
is small, frictional forces are ignored.
Fx  QV2  V1 
hc1 A1  hc 2 A2  QV2  QV2
QV1  hc1 A1  QV2  hc 2 A2
CWR 4202 page (3)
This states that momentum + pressure force on cross-sectional are is constant.

Dividing by   g and noting that V  Q / A ,
Q2 Q2
 A1hc1   A2 hc 2
A1 g A2 g
Q2
F   Ahc  const.
Ag
This equation applies to any type of channel cross-section. See example 4-9 page 188.
In the case of the rectangular channel:
q  Q / b , A1  y1b
q 2b 2 y q 2b 2 y
 y1b i   y 2b 2
y1bg 2 y2bg 2
Definition:
f = force per unit width
F q2 y2 q2 y2
f    1   2
b y1 g 2 y2 g 2
q2 y2
f    const.
yg 2
Fix q and plot y vs. f
2 1
E
CWR 4202 page (4)
E  energy loss in HJ
y1 and y2 are called the conjugate depths.
Energy loss in HJ
 V12   V22 

E   y1  
   y2  2 g 

 2 g   
y1 is in supercritical range
y2 is in subcritical range
Let us solve for y2 in terms of y1 .
q2 y12 q2 y22
  
gy1 2 gy2 2
 q 2  1 1 1 2
     y1  y22   0
 g  y1 y2  2
 q 2  y2  y1  1
     y2  y1  y2  y1   0
 g  y1 y2  2
 q2  1
   y1 y2  y1  y2 
 g 2
Rearrange and solve for y2 .
q2
12 y1 y22  12 y2 y12   0
g
Using the quadratic equation, we find that y2 is given by:
  8q 2  
y2 
y1  1  1  3  
2   gy1  
 
V1
Fr  and q  V1 y1 for rectangular channel
gy
  8V 2  
y2 
y1  1  1  1  
2   gy1  
 
y2 
y1
2
 1  8Fr   1
2
CWR 4202 page (5)
Conjugate depths y1 and y2 in terms of Fr # for rectangular channels only.

If you know upstream conjugate depth, you can calculate downstream depth with the previous
equation or use figure 4-25 page 190.
Length of Hydraulic Jump
Why do you need to know the length of the jump?

No theoretical solution exists to determine the length of a HJ.
Experiments in rectangular channels led to some results.
L  6y2 for 4  Fr1  20
Fr1  20
L  6y2 for
Fr1  4
Numerical Example
Analyze the water profile in a long rectangular channel with concrete lining (n=0.013). The
channel is 10’ wide, the flow rate is 400cfs and there is abrupt change in channel slope from
S01  0.015 to S02  0.0016 . Find energy loss in HJ.
CWR 4202 page (6)
There is abrupt change in channel slope.

Normal flow in steep channel ( S01  0.015 ) is likely to be supercritical.
Normal flow in mild channel ( S02  0.0016 ) is likely to be subcritical.

Let us first calculate the critical depth.
 
1
 400 2 
3
1
q 2
  10 
3
yc        3.68'
 g   32.2 
 
Now, let’s find the normal depth on the upstream and down stream slopes.
Compare normal depth with the critical depth to determine if normal flow is super or sub critical.
Upstream slope: (use eqn. or table)

2
 10 y01 
 
3
 0.015 2
1.49
400  10 y01 
1
0.013  10  2 y01 
Solve y01  2.17'
2.17'  3.68'
 normal flow is supercritical
y01  yc
Downstream slope:
2
 10 y02 

10 y02 
3
 0.0016 2
1.49
400 
1
0.013  10  2 y02 
CWR 4202 page (7)
Solve y02  4.80'

4.80'  3.68'
 normal flow is subcritical
y02  yc
Upper slope is a steep slope.

Lower slope is a mild slope.
Two scenarios may occur:
(1) HJ on upper slope followed by an S1 curve (if conjugate depth y01 is smaller than y02 )
y2' conjugate depth of y01  2.17'
 1

  840  
2 2
2.17
y '2  1  
  1   3 
32.22.17     5.75'  4.80'
2
  
This scenario is not possible.
(2) M 3 curve on downstream slope followed by a HJ.
Calculate the conjugate depth of 4.8’
 1

y1 '   840  
2 2
4.80  1 1  
2  
 32.2 y13  
 
y1 '  2.76'  2.17'
M 3 curve to bring depth up from 2.17’ to 2.76’ followed by HJ.
CWR 4202 page (1)
Lecture #16
Announcements:
Outline:
Read pages 203-210
 Measuring discharge in open channel
 Weirs
 Venturi flumes
 Spillway
 Sluice gate
Weirs:
Sharp crested: (page 203)
A simple device for measuring discharge is the sharp crested weir.
Q  K 2 g LH
2
3
K is a flow coefficient given as:

H
K  0.40  0.05
P
Contracted Weir:
For a contracted weir (a weir that has end walls) flow will be contracted.
Q  K 2 g L  0.20H H
2
3
The -0.20H is
attributed to the
contraction in area of
flow.
CWR 4202 page (2)
Triangular (V-notch) Weir:

Usually used when flow rate is small.
8   5
Q  K 2 g tan  H 2
15 2
0.57  K  0.6
0.2 ft  H  2 ft
Broad Crested Weir:

Q  0.385CL 2 g H
3
2
C can be found on page

205 figure 4-37
Venturi Flume:
Disadvantage of weir is low velocity next to weir cause sediment to accumulate in front of weir
and also head loss due to dimensionality of flow.
To avoid the impacts of a weir, use a Venturi flume of Parshall flume from CSU.
Venturi or Parshall flumes flow is contracted to create a control section used to predict head
discharge relationship. See figure 4-38 on page 206 to see an illustration of a Parshall flume.
Q  K 2 gWH u 3
2
W = width of throat of Parshall flume

Hu = head above floor level at location shown in figure 4-38
K = flow coefficient (Hu/W) in figure 4-39 on page 207
CWR 4202 page (3)
Spillways:
Discharge over spillway is
given as:
Q  KL 2 g H
2
3
K = flow coefficient (H/P)

H is measured from the crest
of the spillway
Sluice Gate:
Used to control and measure discharge in canals.
Conservation of energy Q2 V12

 H   Cc y
V12 V2 2 gA22 2g
y1   y2  2
2g 2g
V12
Q  CV A2 2 g H   Cc y
V2 Q2 2g
 , y2  Cc y , A2  Cc Ly
2g 2 gA2
V12
Q  CV Cc Ly 2 g H   Cc y
Q2 V12 2g
 Cc y  H 
2 gA22 2g
Q  KLy 2 gH
CWR 4202 page (1)
Lecture #17
Announcements:
Review Outline:
 Any questions related to chapter 4?
 Selected 2 problems to solve today (4-36, 4-
48)
Problem 4-36:
read problem.
V  2 ms
y  3m(rect .)
y  ?
z  60 cm (upstep , smooth)
z  15 cm (downstep )
Maximum upstep before change in water profile upstream occurs.
Discharge per unit width

q  Vy  2  3  6 m
3
m /s
Critical depth
1 1
 q2  3
 62  3
yc        1.54m
 g  9.81 
Ec  3 yc  2.31
2
y1  yc  flow is subcritical
CWR 4202 page (2)
y1=3m
y2
Δz=0.89m
1.54 m
Ec=2.31m E1=3.20 E
E2=2.6m
(a) Specific energy of upstream flow

22
E1  3   3.20m
2  9.81
Apply conservation of energy between 1 and 2
E1  E2  z
E2  E1  z  3.20  0.6  2.60
V22
2.60  y2 
2g
y2V2  q  6
6
V2 
y2
62
2.60  y2 
y22 * 2 * 9.81
1.84
2.60  y2  solve for y2 by iteration
y22
Initial guess 1.5m  y2  2.6m
Try y2  2.0m
CWR 4202 page (3)
1.84
2.0   2.46 m  2.6m
2.02
Try y2  2.2m
1.84
2.2   2.58 m  2.6m
2.22
y2  2.24m
Change in water depth
y  y1  y2  3  2.24  0.76m
(b)
E1  3.20m
E1  E2  z
E2  3.20  0.15  3.35m
V22
3.35  y2 
2g
CWR 4202 page (4)
q 6
V2  
y2 y2
2
6 
 y 
3.35  y2   2 
2 * 9.81
Solve and find y2  3.17m  y1
Maximum upstep
z  E1  Ec  3.20  2.31  0.89m
Problem 4-48
b  3m
3
Q  5m
s
m3
q  5 s
3 m
 
1
 5 2 3
 
yc  critical depth   3   0.66m
 9.8 
 
yn  yc (supercritical flow)
Calculate Froude #
5
Fr 
V

3 * 0.3  3.24  1  supercritical
gy 9.81 * 0.3
(Normal depth is supercritical  it is a steep slope
CWR 4202 page (5)
Flow over sharp crested weir
Q  K 2 g LH
3
2
K  0.40  0.05 H P
5  0.04  0.05H 3 *
3
2 * 9.81 * H 2
1.6
Use iteration to solve for H
H  0.917m
Depth upstream of weir:
y  0.917  1.6  2.52m  yc  0.66m  hydraulic jump
Hydraulic jump may occur on steep slope or on horizontal slope.
Scenario (1):
HJ followed by an S1 curve. Conjugate depth of yn should be less than 2.57m
Conjugate depth:
y2 
y1
2
 1  8Fr 1
2

1
0.3 
y2   1  83.24  1  1.23m
2
2  
Energy loss in HJ
E  Eup  Ed
CWR 4202 page (6)

 1.67
0.3

2
 
  
1.67
1.23

2


 0.3  2 * 9.81   1.23  2 * 9.81 
   
   
 1.88  1.32  0.56m
yd=1.23m
HJ
yc=0.66m
yu=0.3m
Ec=0.99 E

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Hydraulics Lecture #1

Velocity: distance traveled divided by time. (symbol V)

Steady flow: a = 0, V = constant

Newton’s Second Law states that:

One Newton force applied to a 1 kg mass will give it an acceleration of 1 m/sec2.

Weight: a particular type of force due to the acceleration of gravity (g).

W (lb) = m (slugs) g (ft/sec2) (British units)

Work = Force x displacement

Power: Rate at which work is done.

Units for Power: lb ft (British units)

Total Energy Head = P αV2

elevation kinetic energy

Energy (or work) and total hydraulic head:

Types of energy head:

Velocity head, , [L]

H1 = H2 (If there is no energy loss)

H1 = H2 Bernoulli Eq between (1) and (2)

Q   uda α:1.04-1.06 for turbulent flow (uniform velocity distribution)

Laminar & Turbulent flow: Reynolds #, Re

Apply Bernoulli’s law between point 1 and 2.

What is the pressure at 1 and 2?

Discharge per unit width

HGL coincides with the water surface level.

Total head at:

0.256 psi 14.7 psi

P gage  0 . 256  14 . 7   14 . 4 psi

Apply Bernoulli between (1) and (3).

Apply Bernoulli between (1) and (2).

Friction Head Loss:

total head at (1) total head at (2)

With energy losses:

Power provided by the P   Qh p

Pump Charateristic Curve for a Fixed Rotation Speed

System Pump Power Efficiency

Pump Charateristic Curve for a Fixed Rotation Speed

Friction head loss:

What is the friction factor, f , a function of?

Turbulent and transitional flow

ks  equivalent sand roughness of the pipe (that pipe which has

To estimate the friction factor

Problem type #1 (example 5-1 pg. 230)

for an asphalt cast D  7 . 98 "

Head loss per km of pipe = 12.2m

Problem type #2 (example not in textbook)

Since the f verses Re curve is relatively flat, assume f  0 . 0135 .

Problem type #3: (example 5-2 pg. 231)

Two unknowns: D and f

Moody diagram: f  0 . 0155 (very close to assumed)

Round up to 22” (commercially available pope size)

Example 5-3 page 235

Estimate head loss in 1 mile of tunnel . Water

Minor losses: are losses due to transitions and

Additional turbulence is created which is transformed into heat.

Additional turbulence is created which is dissipated into heat.

The problem is solved by using Continuity and energy equations.

Two types of problems:

step 2: For cast iron pipe, k s  0 . 25 mm

relative roughness: 1 0.00083

Good initial assumption.

The corresponding Reynolds numbers are:

Continuity and energy equations require that:

Two types of problems:

Repeat for the rest of the pipes and sum Q’s.