CIVN2009A: MATERIALS AND Ms.

Alex Steenbeek
STRUCTURES II
INTRODUCTION
Course Co-ordinator: Dr. T Ekneligoda (thushan.ekneligoda@wits.ac.za)

Course lecturers: Ms. Alex Steenbeek (788537@students.wits.ac.za)

Ms. Dikeledi Maboea (dikeledi.maboea@wits.ac.za)
Timetable:
Week Wednesday Thursday Friday Friday
commencing 8.00-8.45 9.00-9.45 10.15-11.00 11.15-12.00 12.30-13.15 14.15-15.00 15.00-16.00 16.15-17.00
02-Aug AS1 AS1 AS1 AS1 AS 1/Tut
09-Aug AS1 AS1 AS1 AS1 AS 2/Tut Make sure that
16-Aug
23-Aug
AS2
AS3
AS2
AS3
AS2
AS3
AS2
AS3
AS 3/Tut
AS 4/Tut
Lab 1 (G1)
Lab 1 (G4)
Lab 1 (G2)
Lab 1 (G5)
Lab 1 (G3)
Lab 1 (G6) your tutorials
30-Aug
06-Sep
AS4
AS5
AS4
AS5
AS4
AS5
AS4
AS5
AS 5/Tut
AS 6/Tut
Lab 1 (G7)
Lab 1 (G10)
Lab 1 (G8)
Lab 1 (G11)
Lab 1 (G9)
Lab 1 (G12)
and lab reports
13-Sep
2021-09-20
AS6 AS6 Class Test Lab 2 (G1) Lab 2 (G2) Lab 2 (G3)
are submitted in
27-Sep
04-Oct
DM7
DM9
DM8
DM9
DM8
DM9
DM9
DM10
DM 8/Tut
DM 9 /Tut
Lab 2 (G4)
Lab 2 (G7)
Lab 2 (G5) Lab 2 (G6)
Lab 2 (G8) Lab 2 (G9)
pen and are
11-Oct DM10 DM10 DM10 DM10 DM 10/Tut Lab 2 (G10) Lab 2 (G11) Lab 2 (G12) very clear!
18-Oct DM11 DM11 DM11 DM11 DM 11 /Tut
25-Oct DM11 DM11 DM11 DM11 DM 11/Tut
01-Nov DM11 DM11 DM11 DM11

Tutorials: 3-4 q’s of which 2 q’s to be submitted (10%)

Labs: 1hr per group, attendance compulsory, report

submission (10%)

Class Test: 16 September 2021 (10h15 – 12h00) (30%)

BENDING AND THE FLEXURE FORMULA
A. Bending deformation of straight member

Cross-section remains plane causing tensile stress in one portion and compressive stress
in the other. In between these portions exists the NA which experiences no/zero stress.

The NA runs through the centroid of the cross-sectional area based on the fact that the
resultant normal force acting on the cross-section must be zero.
BENDING AND THE FLEXURE FORMULA
A. Bending deformation of straight member

Longitudinal strain varies linearly from zero at NA to a max at the outer fibres of the
beam.

Stress will also vary linearly over the cross-section provided that the material is
homogenous and linear elastic.
BENDING AND THE FLEXURE FORMULA
B. The flexure formula

The flexure formula is based on the requirement that

the resultant internal moment on the cross-section is
equal to the moment produced by the normal stress
about the NA.

Where σ = normal stress in the member

M = resultant internal moment
I = moment of inertia
y = perpendicular distance from the neutral
axis

NOTE: By the right-hand rule, M is positive along the +z axis, y is positive upwards and
σ therefore must be negative (compressive) since it acts in the negative x-direction as
per the figure.
BENDING AND THE FLEXURE FORMULA
B. The flexure formula

Material assumed linear-elastic. Therefore linear

strain as a result of linear stress. Looking at the
figure and by proportionality of triangles

𝑦
𝜎=− 𝜎
𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑥
For + M, + y gives
Thus, 𝜎max/c = - 𝜎/y and - 𝜎, compressive

Where c = perpendicular distance from NA to

point farthest away from NA
𝜎max = the maximum normal stress in the
member which occurs at c
BENDING AND THE FLEXURE FORMULA
C. Procedure for application of flexure formula

1. Locate the NA of the cross-section.

2. Determine internal moment.
a. Calculated about the NA.
b. Section member at point where bending is to be determined.
3. Determine the moment of inertia for the cross-section.
a. Calculated about the NA.
4. Specify y.
a. Measured perpendicularly to NA from point where bending is to be
determined.
5. Apply flexure formula.

NOTE: force created by stress at a point contributes

a moment that is in the same direction as the
internal moment, M.
BENDING AND THE FLEXURE FORMULA
D. An example of the procedure

Example 1: The simply supported beam has the cross-sectional area as shown.
Determine the absolute maximum bending stress in the beam and draw the stress
distribution over the cross section at this location.
BENDING AND THE FLEXURE FORMULA
D. An example of the procedure

Solution to Example 1:

By symmetry, the centroid C and thus the neutral axis pass through the mid-height of
the beam, and the moment of inertia is
BENDING AND THE FLEXURE FORMULA
D. An example of the procedure

Continued solution to Example 1:

Applying the flexure formula for maximum stress where c = 170 mm

Notice how points B and D on the cross-

section develop a force that contributes
a moment about the NA that has the
same direction as M.

Specifically at point B, yB = 150mm

COMPOSITE SECTIONS
A. Motivation
Beams are often made of different materials in order to efficiently carry a load. This
allows for smaller dimensions and can be more economic. Composite beams are made
of two or more materials.

Two questions that arise with composite beams are:

1. What is their effective bending stiffness; and

2. What is the bending stress distribution on the cross-section of a composite
beam?
COMPOSITE SECTIONS
B. Key assumptions of composite beams
Bending kinematics:
Even with a composite beam, a planar cross-
section still remains planar during bending.

In other words, the bending strain distribution over

the section is linear:

Where the material on the beam cross-section section changes, the stress distribution will
be discontinuous.
COMPOSITE SECTIONS
C. General treatment of composite sections
1. Begin by assuming that the beam section is made of two materials designated 1
and 2, with Young’s moduli: E1and E2, respectively.

2. The cross-section of the beam will be transformed entirely into either material 1 or
material 2.
a. Let’s assume here that the beam is being transformed entirely into material 1.
Thus, wherever material 2 exists, we will replace it with material 1.
b. A material transformation factor n is introduced. For the case at hand:
c. When the transformed material 2 is replaced on the cross-section with
material 1, its distance from the top or bottom of the section is unchanged,
and its width is multiplied by the transformation factor n.

3. Once the cross-section of the beam is transformed into a homogeneous material:

a. the centroid is located; and
b. the area moment of inertia I* for the transformed section about the centroid
is computed.
COMPOSITE SECTIONS
C. General treatment of composite sections
4. For an applied moment M, the radius of curvature for the beam at the section of
interest is computed as follows:

5. The strain distribution on the section is:

6. The stress distribution is simply the strains multiplied by the appropriate value of E
in the original cross-section.
a. Where material 1 exists on the section,

b. Where material 2 exists on the section:

COMPOSITE SECTIONS
D. An example of the procedure
Example 2 A wooden beam is reinforced with
steel straps at its top and bottom as shown.
Determine the maximum bending stress
developed in the wood and steel if the beam is
subjected to a bending moment of M=5kN·m.
Sketch the stress distribution acting over the cross
section. Take Ew=11 GPa and Est=200 GPa.

Solution to Example 2:
Transform the wood to steel.

Transformed wood = n x 200mm = 11mm

COMPOSITE SECTIONS
D. An example of the procedure

The centroid is located at mid-height of the beam by means of symmetry.

The second moment of area is calculated as follows:

Bending stresses in the steel:

At top of section, y = 170mm

At bottom of top flange: y =150mm

COMPOSITE SECTIONS
D. An example of the procedure
Bending stresses in the wood:

At top of web, y = 150mm

Therefore, the stress distribution acting across the cross-section looks like this:
COMBINED LOADING STRESS
A. Stress caused by basic loading
Fundamental mechanics of materials teaches stress caused by basic loading. The stress
caused by the three basic loading types:

Axial stress:

Torsional stress: (not covered here)

Flexural stress:

Where P = axial load

A = cross-sectional area
M = bending moment
y = location on the cross-section away from the neutral axis
I = cross-section’s moment of inertia
COMBINED LOADING STRESS
A. Combination of axial and flexural loads

(a) Flexural stress (b) Axial stress (c) Combined

Because all stresses act normal to the cross-section, the combined stress is simply the
axial stress plus the flexural stress.

But they may be compressive or tensile. Therefore, pay close attention to signs.
COMBINED LOADING STRESS
B. Procedure of analysis

1. Determine section properties such as cross-sectional area and moment of inertia.

2. Determine internal loading such as normal force and bending moments etc.
a. Force components should act through the centroid of the cross-section.
b. Moment components should be computed about the centroidal-axes which
represent the principal axes of inertia for the cross-section.
3. Determine the stress components.
𝑃
a. Normal force, 𝜎 = 𝐴
𝑀𝑦
b. Bending moment, 𝜎 = − 𝐼
4. Use principle of superposition to calculate resultant state of stress and represent
as a distribution over the cross-section.
a. One approach:
𝑃 𝑀𝑥 𝑀𝑦
𝜎= ± 𝑦± 𝑥
𝐴 𝐼𝑥 𝐼𝑦
Where compressive stresses are taken as positive and the signs are dictated by
the coordinates x and y.
COMBINED LOADING STRESS
C. An example of the procedure

Example 3 A force of 15kN is applied to the

edge of the member. Neglect the weight of the
member and determine the state of stress at points
B and C.

Solution to Example 3:
Determine section properties.

𝐴 = 100𝑚𝑚 40𝑚𝑚 = 4000𝑚𝑚2

D C
𝑏𝑑 3 (40𝑚𝑚)(100𝑚𝑚)3
𝐼𝑥 = = = 3,33 × 106 𝑚𝑚4 y
12 12

B A
x
COMBINED LOADING STRESS
C. An example of the procedure

Determine internal loading.

Normal force, P = 15kN

Moment, Mx = P x y = (15kN)(50mm) = 750kNmm

Determine normal stresses.

At B, x = 20mm and y = -50mm

Therefore
15 103 𝑁 750 103 𝑁𝑚𝑚 ∙ 50𝑚𝑚
𝜎𝐵 = − = −7,5𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
4000𝑚𝑚2 3,33 × 106 𝑚𝑚4

At C, x = -20mm and y = 50mm

Therefore
15 103 𝑁 750 103 𝑁𝑚𝑚 ∙ 50𝑚𝑚
𝜎𝐶 = + = 15𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
4000𝑚𝑚2 3,33 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
COMBINED LOADING STRESS
C. An example of the procedure

Although it is not needed here, the location of the line of zero stress can be found
using similar triangles:
WEEK 1 TUTORIAL QUESTIONS Questions 2,
4 &5 will
need to be
A. Question 1 submitted!

The composite beam in the figure below is made of wood and reinforced with a
steel strap located on its bottom side. If the beam is subjected to bending
moment of M=2 kNm,
a) Transform the section into one made entirely of steel.
b) Determine the normal stress at points B and C. Take Ew=12GPa and
Est=200GPa.
WEEK 1 TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
A. Question 1
WEEK 1 TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
A. Question 1
NA

36,38

36,38 - 20
WEEK 1 TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
A. Question 1

170 – 36,38
WEEK 1 TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
B. Question 3

The block is subjected to the eccentric load shown. Determine the normal stress
developed at points A and B. Neglect the weight of the block.
WEEK 1 TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
B. Question 3
WEEK 1 TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
B. Question 3
WEEK 1 TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
B. Question 3

Following the same procedure, the stress at points C and D may also be
calculated. This would allow us to plot the stress distribution over the cross section
as shown below.