Monochromatic Color Literature Study

RESERCH IN ARCHITECTURE I
NAME: TEJAS R. KALE

ROLL NO:26
IV YEAR; B.ARCH,TERM I,20-21
DIV:B
SCOA, PUNE Subject Faculties: Dr. Manjusha Gokhale, Ar. Bijal Vakharia
INDEX
SR. NO Content PAGE NO.

1 Assignment 01: Students have to make a Report 1-3
for three topics for Thesis and Research domain in
which they are having interest and also looking
into scope of work. Please brief the reasons for
choosing those Topics.
2 Assignment 05: Report writing based on Ar. 4

Prasanna Dessai Sir's Lecture on Thesis Selection
3 Assignment 06: Review Writing based on Movies, 5

series, etc.
4 Assignment 8: Literature Review 01 6-18
5 Assignment 09: Find out 10 Research Papers 19

related to your Research Domain. And List down
the title and author's Name.
6 Assignment 10: Literature Review 02: Read three 20-35

Research Papers and Fill up within the format
shared to you.
7 Assignment 11: Literature Review 03: Read three 36-75

more Research Papers and write a review over it
in the format shared earlier.
8 Assignment 13: Research Proposal 76-78
RIA-I TEJAS KALE (26) .

Assignment 01
THESIS TOPICS RESEARCH TOPICS
• Urban Stadia • Topic : retractable roof .
• Aim : integrating stadium design • Need : This Kind of roof protect
with mixed-use building. user against various weather
circumstances.
• Typology : mixed use.
• Abstract: sporting stadiums
impact the socio-economic
capabilities in all of the areas in
which they exist. Some have a
good impact, they are able to
fully integrate into the urban
environment and benefit the
area through areas such as
economics, walkability,
transportation, etc. But there are
many that do not accomplish
this. They essentially become
ginormous concrete structures
that are surrounded by
thousands of asphalt-laden
parking spaces and they only
end up serving the community
on the days in which the sporting
team plays, usually once or
twice a week.
• Example :
• Olympic stadium, Kiev, Ukraine

GMP (gerkan, marg und partner)
• Typology: mixed-use Olympic
soccer stadium (renovated)
• Year built: 2011
• Size: 1.6 million
• Seating capacity: 68,000
• Cost: $380 million IMAGE SOURCES: https://www.sheerfill.com
SOURCES:https://archello.com
RIA-I TEJAS KALE (26) 1

• SPIRITUAL CENTER • Topic : Monochromatic color and
its effects in interior environment
• TYPOLOGY : PUBLIC
• Need : color are inseparable as
• AIM : stress free mind move us
well as important aspect of interior
closer towards peace.
design.so it is very important to
• ABSTRACT : to design simple yet study the color and its effect in
timeless beautiful center that interior environment.
invokes positivity and spirituality.
• Objective :
❑ to create humble and
soothing spaces,
❑Revive connection of man and
nature and pay nature due
respect
❑To design architecturally in
terms of spaces and not just
plans and elevation
• EXAMPLES :
THE ART OF LIVING INTERNATIONAL

CENTER, BENGALURU
• Typology: Ashram(religious)
• Creator : Ravi shanker
• Size: 250 acer+
• Visitors : 1.2 million persons/year
SOURCES :https://www.artofliving.org
IMAGE SOURCES: PINTEREST

• CITY CENTER • Topic : ROLE OF PUBLIC VISUAL ARTS IN
URBAN SPACES.
• TYPOLOGY : PUBLIC
• Need :to study the accurate
• AIM : To create a identity space
height , color ,role, visual
for the city.
cohesiveness of a public visual art
• ABSTRACT : to design simple yet in a certain space.
timeless beautiful center that can
attract public as well as tourist.
• Objective :
❑To create a tourist place,
❑Revive historic architecture of
the city and represent it in a
modern way.
❑To design architecturally in
terms of spaces and not just
plans and elevation
• EXAMPLES :
Jawahar Kala Kendra, RAJASTHAN

• Typology: city center
• Architect : Charles correa
• Size: -
• Visitors : -
SOURCES :https://www.artofliving.org

Assignment 05
• Topic : Approach to B.Arch Thesis (online seminar).
• Speaker : Ar. Prassana Desai Sir. (urban designer and lecturer )
• Conducted by: MIT School of Architecture, Pune
• Conducted on: google meet and Facebook live.
• Date : 31 July 2020
• Time : 4 pm IST
An online seminar was organized on the topic

“approach to B.Arch thesis” by MIT school of architecture, pune. The chief
guest of the seminar was ar. Prassana desai sir who believes “plan your work
and work your plan”. He is professor and director at PVP college of
architecture, practicing architect and urban designer also he is a guiding
force of FEED which is the academic classroom for student’s of architecture in
pune.
In the seminar he spoke about the challenges faced by students while

selecting the thesis topics, conducting methodical research, etc. He discussed
the several aspects of thesis writing typology of the project, transition to the
process of design.
In the session we learnt about : thoughts, typologies, transition, translation.

Thesis is not only design but culmination of all subjects through the five years of
the course. Thesis is beginning of the long, almost 40 years, architectural
journey. He stated that architecture as a profession is a huge pendulum. You
need to have interest in what you are doing, should be ready take initiative,
ready to be fully involved.
Thought: thesis begins with exposure beyond the syllabus, thesis approach
should be beyond just design programmed, site and the project. The topic
should be your area of interest which you are passionate about as the topic of
your thesis may curb the path of your architectural career.
Typologies: he introduced several typologies of thesis projects such as housing,
transportation- railway station, city/interstate bus terminus, domestic or
international airports, cultural educational projects – museum, art galleries,
university and colleges, libraries, technical and specialized projects – hospital,
clinic, film and tv studios, prefabricated or industrialized, urban design – river
front development, redevelopment of heritage sites, mill land, conservation-
adaptive reuse, restoration.
Then detail it and broad the design program into built-up area, services,
parking, open spaces. One should do the patron and users study of their
project that is who is the imaginary patron who owns the project, who are
clients, user and stake holders- who will be funding for the project.
He also suggested to study from references such as literature, films, drama,
theaters, music, and study of site and site analysis by context, culture, crafts,
topography, climate, services, built forms. Explained of building case studies
such as live case study, book case study, parallel case study and similar case
study.
Assignment 06
• Movie: Gone Girl.

• Release: 10 October,2014.
• Actors: Ben Affleck, Rosamund Pike, Neil Ptraic Harris, Ki
Dickens, Tyler Perry.
• Director: Daid Fincher.
• Genre: Mystery, Thriller, Crime, Drama.
The movie is the adaption of Gillian Flynn’s bestseller book- “Gone Girl.”
The movie is set in a small fictional town Missouri, where admits his crumbling
marriage Nick comes home one day to find his beautiful wife, Amy, missing and
as the police investigation takes place shocking truths come to light.
It’s the story of how Nick and moved from New York due to family crisis and how
their down the hill marriage resulted in a Amy disappearing one day.
The film is narrated through voice-overs by the lead actors alternating from their
happy past to the unhappy ever after. It is the tale of a modern marriage that
turned into a murder mystery,
The story hasgot everything depth, element of surprise , and Very interesting
characters. The
Screenplay is also carried out well and actors have done a praise worthy job.
Reference : IMBD

Assignment 08
❑ RESEARCHE PAPER 1:
1. Sevinc Kurt
AUTHOR 2. Kelechi Kingsley Osueke
YEAR January-March 2014

TITLE
The Effects of Color on the Moods of College Students
This research aims to discover the psychological effects of colors on
AIM
individuals, using the students’ union complex in a
university campus.
An interior is a three-dimensional world that completely
Scope of the Study
envelops you in colour, This research will study the various
colors, how they are perceived by individuals.
▪ site selection
METHODS
▪ Data Collection
▪ Direct Observations
▪ Findings and Analysis of Data
▪ Marital status of the respondents.
▪ Respondent’s of questionaries'
▪ Analysis of data.
Around 550 questionnaires were distributed randomly to
users of the complex at different times of the day. Four hundred ninety
of them were successfully retrieved and therefore the analysis of the
results would be of four hundred ninety respondents
SAMPLE Courtyards , cafeterias , break points .
The results of this research not only support most of the

CONCLUSION
theories and results of other researchers but also reveal the
psychological properties and effects of colors on the moods
of individuals.
LIMITATIONS All the colors of the color wheel were not used in the
students’ union complex, therefore the full psychological
effects of all the colors would not be completely accessed.
This research and its findings are limited to the university
where the research is done.
RESEARCH GAP Theresearchers has not emphasize on effects of colour on height and depth perception of an
area.
Reference : sgo.sagepub.com

Article
SAGE Open
The Effects of Color on the Moods January-March 2014: 1–12

© The Author(s) 2014
of College Students DOI: 10.1177/2158244014525423
sgo.sagepub.com
Sevinc Kurt1 and Kelechi Kingsley Osueke2
Abstract
This research aims to discover the psychological effects of colors on individuals, using the students’ union complex in a
university campus. This building was chosen due to its richness in color variances. The research method is survey, and
questionnaires were drawn up and distributed to an even range of students, comprising both international and local students;
undergraduate and graduate. Questionnaires have been collected and analyzed to find out the effects different colors had on
students’ moods in different spaces of the students’ union complex. This research would contribute to understand more
about colors and how they affect our feelings and therefore to make better decisions and increase the use of spaces when
choosing colors for different spacesto suit the purpose for which they are designed.
Keywords
color, mood, architectural space
Introduction Keller, & Stoner, 2003). So the use of color is one of the
crucial elements in designing the appropriate circulation of
We live in a world of color (Huchendorf, 2007, p. 1). public interiors. Furthermore, the function, surrounding
According to the various researches, the color that surrounds environment, the users’ profile are also important factors
us in our daily lives has a profound effect on our mood and which interactively be effectual on people’s emotional
on our behavior (e.g., Babin, Hardesty, & Suter, 2003; situations. Therefore, colors must be studied in real contexts
Kwallek, Lewis, & Robbins, 1988; Kwallek, Woodson, because they are experienced in environments where
Lewis, & Sales, 1997; Rosenstein, 1985). In clothing, complex patterns interact with perceptions and behavior
interiors, landscape, and even natural light, a color can (Tofle, Schwarz, Voon, & Max-Royaie, 2004).
change our mood from sad to happy, from confusion to This research study is conducted to discover the
intelligence, from fear to confidence. It can actually be used psychological effects of colors on individuals, using the
to “level out” emotions or to create different moods (Aves students’ union complex as a research area.
& Aves, 1994, p. 120). The design of an environment
through a variety of means such as temperature, sounds,
layout, lighting, and colors can stimulate perceptual and Problem Statement
emotional responses in consumers and affect their behavior
Color has been found to increase a person’s arousal
(Kotler, 1973 in Yildirim, Akalinbaskaya, & Hidayetoglu,
(Huchendorf, 2007). They have a subterranean consequence on
2007, p. 3233). Therefore, it may follow that if we could
how people feel both psychologically and physically. Various
measure it, we may get a clue as to how our mood varies
colors represent various moods; therefore, the need to know
when in any enclosed space. The ambiance of the interior
what color to paint a particular enclosed space is necessary so
space affects the users’ behaviors and perception of that
that the space will be best utilized by its intended users. Color,
place by influencing their emotional situation. In this
is one of the effective factors in a space which influences the
context, it is believed that the various physical components
way individuals express their emotions.
including light and color have a great importance on the
According to Birren (2006), colors have many emotional
environmental characteristics of space, especially in public
impacts, namely, temperature, strong and weak, hard and
use like students’ union centers.
Hence, using the appropriate color in design is important
in such buildings. It is also significant to draw cognitive 1Cyprus International University, Nicosia
map and way finding in interiors. Environmental 2Zedrock and Herman Architecture, Delta State, Nigeria
interventions that promote way finding can be implemented
on two levels: the design of the floor plan typology and Corresponding Author:
Sevinc Kurt, Associate Professor, Faculty of Fine Arts, Department of
environmental cues, which comprise signage, furnishings, Architecture, Cyprus International University, Haspolat Campus,
lighting, colors, and so on. Vivid color coding may enhance Nicosia, Mersin 10, Cyprus.
short-term memory and improve functional ability (Cernin, Email: sevinckurt@yahoo.com

2 SAGEOpen
soft, and active and calm. For hardness and softness, claimed that “architecture and color . . . is a vast field,
brightness and low saturation create a soft feeling, whereas occasionally even a love-hate relationship; but always a
dimness and high saturation create a hard feeling. Also, fascinating area of activity for architects and designers” (p.
weaker contrast and saturation convey calmness as opposed 6). After all, color by its very nature—whether surviving its
to stronger contrast and saturation, which convey activeness. effect is cool or warm, light or dark, introverted or
Warm colors are those that are vivid in nature. He also extroverted—is defined through the interplay of light and
asserted that warm colors, such as red and yellow, increase shade, through location and other environmental influences.
arousal more than cool colors, such as green and blue. In other words, color changes with its surroundings. Red, for
Similarly, Pamuk and Göknar (2002, p. 204) define red by example, is never the same tone but changes depending on
its own words as “I’m so fortunate to be red! I’m fiery. I’m the surface material and the neighboring surfaces that may
strong. I know men take notice of me and that I cannot be swallow or reflect light.
resisted.” Colors are psychological experiences. To explain them
Likewise, Johannes Itten (1973) claimed that, as red is reductively with neurological processes (if that is possible)
always active, so blue is always passive, from the point of requires linking propositions that attempt to create a
view of material space. From the point of view of spiritual credible link between subjective experiences and
immateriality, blue seems active and red passive. Blue is objectively measured data related to neural responses or
always cold, red is always warm. Blue is always shadowy, physical measures of reflectance—or spectral power
and tends in its greatest glory to darkness. When blue is (Kuehni, 2003, p. 339). Color is fundamental to sight,
dimmed, it falls into superstition, fear, grief, and perdition, identification, interpretation, perceptions, and senses. Some
but always it points to the realm of the transcendental. colors evoke psychological reactions through signals such as
Moreover, Greene, Bell, and Boyer (1983) determined that warmth, relaxation, danger, energy, purity, and death
warm colors increase stimulation compared with cool (Courtis, 2004, p. 266). According to Angela Wright (1998,
colors. p. 23), the psychology of color works as follows: When
All architecture, from prehistoric times to the end of the light strikes the eye, each wavelength does so slightly
Baroque era, involved some use of color (Meyhöfer, 2008, differently. Red, the longest wavelength, requires the most
p. 6). Colors are all about us and the sheer variety of shades adjustment to look at it, and therefore appears to be nearer
used, for instance in interior decorations, are an indication than it is, while green requires no adjustment whatever, and
(Carruthers, Morris, Tarrier, & Whorwell, 2010). So in a is therefore restful. In the retina, these vibrations of light are
deep sense, the architect only ever thinks in color, builds in converted into electrical impulses which pass to the brain—
color, and huge part of our experience of architecture is not eventually to the hypothalamus, which governs the
as proceeding color from the object but making the color of endocrine glands, which in turn produce and secrete our
the object. Color is one way to think the whole field of hormones. In simple terms, each color (wavelength) focuses
architecture, the same way that ecology is a way to think on a particular part of the body, evoking a specific
(Serra, 2011). physiological response, which in turn produces a
Consequently, it is certain that, color is impressive and psychological reaction. Particular colors have very different
memorable within a context. The perception of any indoor effects on each individual. Response to a color may be
or outdoor space is directly related to its color and in fact it influenced by a number of factors such as the body’s need
is necessary to search the users’ awareness of the place for a specific color, a sad or happy memory associated with
where their activities occur. Therefore, the student activity a color, family history, or current trends (Aves & Aves,
center in campus will be investigated. 1994, p. 120).
In general, the main aim of this study is to investigate the
psychological effects of different colors used in the student
Aim of the Study complex and discuss the significance and proper use of
This research was undertaken to find out how individuals colors in common spaces.
react when in an enclosed, colored space; if their moods
change and if colors can increase stimulation, and
Scope of the Study
stimulation can increase memory, then it is possible that we
could find that color can increase memory. Furthermore, An interior is a three-dimensional world that completely
colors are frequently used to describe emotions such as envelops you in color; color surfaces are all around you,
“green with envy,” “red with rage,” and being “in the blues” above you, and beneath you. Interior color is, therefore,
when depressed (Carruthers et al., 2010). Color can perform experienced quite differently from any other color use
a multitude of roles and can affect a person’s emotions, (Miller, 1997, p. 9). This research will study the various
energy level, and sense of order, or disorder. As well it can colors, how they are perceived by individuals, their
set the tone of interior and make it seem formal, or informal, psychological properties and how they also affect
masculine or feminine, coolly aloof or invitingly warm individual’s mood in enclosed spaces in context of the
(Poore, 1994). Dirk Meyhöfer (2008) student union complex.

Kurt and Osueke 3
Limitations a color. Neutrals are subtle shades from the palest range of
colors (beige, cream), and are used for balancing vibrant or
All the colors of the color wheel were not used in the rich colors.
students’ union complex, therefore the full psychological Cold colors have a high proportion of blue in their make-
effects of all the colors would not be completely accessed. up such as violet blue and some greens and they have a
This research and its findings are limited to the university calming effect. Warm colors are energizing, have more red
where the research is done. and yellow in their make-up.
Literature Review Combining Colors

Definition of Color Colors can look quite different in combination; they play a
Color is the visual perceptual property corresponding in trick on the brains at times, it is therefore important when
humans to the categories called red, green, blue, and others. designing interior spaces to use the color wheel. The color
Color derives from the spectrum of light (distribution of wheel shows the relationships between the colors of the
light energy versus wavelength) interacting in the eye with spectrum. Wright claimed that, the complementary colors
the spectral sensitivities of the light receptors (Brodie, n.d.). are red/green, blue/orange, and yellow/violet. In color
The seven colors of the spectrum are produced by light psychology, the importance of this becomes clearer when
waves of varied lengths that reflect off tangible animate and we realize that complementary colors, when put together,
inanimate objects (Marberry, 1995, p. 15). Light and color present perfect balance, as all the pigment primaries are then
are simply a matter of vibrational frequency. Chromatics, present:
the science of color, is the study of this relationship
(Graham, 1990). Red and (Blue + Yellow)
The narrow band of energy that the human eye can detect
Blue and (Red + Yellow)
extends from 380 nm at the red end to 760 nm at the violet
end. Sunlight produces all color wavelengths. When human
Yellow and (Red + Blue) (Wright, 1998, p. 23)
eyes interpret the wavelengths of light reflected from an
object, they see color (Day & Rich, 2009). Wright (2008)
As seen in Figure 1, the contrasting colors sit opposite
defines color as, “color is light, which travels to us in waves
each other on the color wheel. They are also referred to as
from the sun, on the same electro-magnetic spectrum as
complementary colors by interior designers
radio and television waves, micro waves, x- rays etc.” The
(“Understanding Colour,” 2004). On the color wheel,
human eye is capable of seeing over 7 million colors. These
harmonious or complementary colors are next to each other,
colors are gotten from the basic blocks of the primary,
warm colors are on the orange side, and cool on the blue
secondary, and tertiary colors.
side.
Knowing what color to paint and combine in a given
The primary colors. The primary colors are the three basic
interior space so as to evoke the desired mood should be the
hues red, blue, and yellow (Aves & Aves, 1994). These objective of every interior designer. Different shades of
colors cannot be created by mixing others, and they are the color can be used in creating illusions and effects, for
basis of all the other shades of colors which they generated. example, the eye can be drawn to a particular object in a
If the primary colors are mixed in equal amounts, the room by varying the tone of the color in relation to the color
resulting color is always black. of the wall on which it leans on in the room.
The secondary colors. These are the colors that are achieved by
mixing equal amounts of two primaries. There are three TheContext ofColor
secondary colors: green (a mixture of red and yellow),
Color, is one of the effective factors in a space which
orange (a mixture of blue and yellow), and violet (a mixture
influences to express one’s emotion. A single color can
of red and blue).
have series of meanings and interpretations to various
people in various regions of the world; take for example
The tertiary colors. Tertiary colors are achieved by mixing
the people of China who see white as a sad color because
equal amount of primary and secondary hues. There are six
they wear white when mourning whereas some other
tertiary colors which are lime as a mixture of green with
societies in Europe perceive it as purity, virginity, and
yellow, purple as a mixture of violet with red, saffron as a
cleanliness. De Bortoli and Maroto (2001) also states that
mixture of orange and red, lavender as a mixture of violet
in Asia, orange is a positive, spiritually enlightened, and
with blue, amber as a mixture of yellow with orange, and
life-affirming color, whereas in the United States, it is a
turquoise as a mixture of green with blue.
color of road hazards, traffic delays, and fast-food
When blending black or white to these colors, tints and
restaurants.
shades will be the results, while tones describe the depth of

4 SAGEOpen
Yellow. According to Eiseman (2006),
Yellow is thought of as joyful, outgoing, open, and friendly.

Psychologically, yellow is the strongest color. In color-mood
association studies, yellow is associated with comedy, a happy
mood, and playfulness. Yellow ribbons have been used as a
sign of hope and optimism since the nineteenth century (p. 45).
Psychologically, yellow is the strongest color, it is about

emotions, self esteem, and creativity (Wright, 1998).
Light pastel yellows are seen as childlike. Canary yellow is
delicate and feather soft. Ambered yellows are perceived as
mellow and warm. Yellow is most associated with words like
“cheerful,” “jovial,” “joyful,” and “sunny”; somewhat
associated with “exciting” and “stimulating”; and almost never
associated with “despondent,” “dejected,” “melancholy,” or
“unhappy.” Yellow as acolor lets the sunshine in.
Green. Green is considered an emotionally calming color. It

Figure 1. Color wheel. gives a sense of refreshment, harmony, and equilibrium. It
Source. Adapted from Interior color by design: Adesign tool for architects, symbolizes universal love, environmental awareness, and
interior designers, and homeowners,by J.Poore, 1994, Gloucester, MA:
Rockport. Copyright 1994 by Rockport Publishers.
peace. Leatrice Eiseman (2006) claims that people find cool
shades of blue and green and neutral earth tones to be
relaxing because these colors remind of nature. Because
Colors can be used to also distinguish between a series of green has the power to help people adjust to new
activities like fun and serious, old and young, and female environments, skillful designers use lots of plants and other
and male. forms of green in hotel lobbies, offices, and restaurants
(Aves & Aves, 1994). Although it is the color of balance, it
PsychologicalProperties ofColors may have negative effects too, such as being too bland,
bore, and demoralizing when incorrectly used.
Wright (2008) defines it as the effects of the electro-magnetic
radiation of light on human mood and behavior—a universal, Blue. Blue encourages intellectual activity, reason, and logical
psychophysical reaction, which is not as heavily influenced by thought. It is the color of the intellect. In the same evidence
culture, age, and gender as is generallythought. about raising blood pressure with red, blue is deemed to lower
It must be noted that there is a great difference between the blood pressure. Certainly, it is a soothing, calming color,
color psychology and color symbolism. The context of color encouraging reflection. Nature uses it in the sky and the sea
can be understood to be color symbolism whereas the (Wright, 1998, p. 27). Strong blues stimulate clear thought and
psychological properties of color is associated with moods lighter, soft blues calm the mind and aidconcentration.
of people in general.
Wright (2008) says there are four psychological primary
colors: red, blue, yellow, and green. They relate,
How Color Psychology Works
respectively, to the body, the mind, the emotions, and the When light strikes any colored object, the object absorbs only
essential balance between these three. The emotional effects the wavelengths that exactly match its own atomic structure
of the basic colors are as follows: and reflects the rest to the observer. When light strikes the
human eye, the wavelengths do so in different ways,
Red. Being the longest wavelength, red is a powerful, strong, influencing our perceptions. The hypothalamus is the part of
and very basic color. It has the property of appearing to be the brain governing our hormones and our endocrine system,
nearer than it is and therefore it grabs people’s attention when light hits the retina it is converted to electrical impulses
first. It may activate the “fight or flight” instinct. Pure red is that are then transmitted to the hypothalamusfor interpretation.
the simplest color, with no subtlety. It is stimulating and The hypothalamus houses the body’s biological clock
lively, very friendly. At the same time, it can be perceived (Wright, 2008). This is so because it governs our body’s
as demanding and aggressive Although the red colored temperature, our appetite, sexual functions, sleeping, and
spaces have courage, strength, warmth, energy, basic behavioral patterns, and so on. It has been proved several times
survival, “fight or flight,” stimulation, masculinity, that color has a physical effect on humans due to its energy; an
excitement effects on people (Wright, 1998). Defiance, experiment carried out on blind people to identify some colors
aggression, visual impact, and strain are among the negative resulted in these blind subjects identifying the colors with no
impacts of red color. problems at all.

Kurt and Osueke 5
Figure 4. The entrance door of Munch More.
Figure 2. The courtyard.
Figure 5. The Lake View cafeteria.
The Courtyard
As seen in Figure 2, the courtyard sits in the middle of all the
spaces which will be mentioned below; Break Point, Munch
More, Palm Inn, and Lake View cafeteria. So, its surrounding
walls happen to be the exterior walls of the mentioned spaces.
The view is very exciting due to the warm colors and nicely
Figure 3. Break Point from the courtyard. colored and patterned names on the Palm Inn, Break Point, and
Munch More. The view of the cafeteria is neither so exciting
nor relaxing because a large surface area is painted white, and
Method its link with the Palm Inn which is also white which increases
Area of Study the drabness effect that is created (see Figure 5).
Figure 3 shows the exterior of Break Point. The photo in
The site chosen for this research is the students’ union Figure 4 taken from the courtyard shows the exciting and
complex on the university campus. colorful exterior of Munch More. Arched doors and
The campus is situated 5 km away from the city center. windows are placed in the ground floor, whereas different
The climate is hot and dry during summer, mild and rainy in composition on the elevation effectively can be seen on the
the winter. Over 5,000 students are being educated in the upper part of the building. Figure 5 shows the façade of
university and more than 60% of them accommodate on the Lake View cafeteria with its modest entrance. The left part
campus. Social and dining activities mostly occur in the of the block connects the Palm Inn to the main dining hall.
student union which is placed around the main courtyard The last image is from the courtyard showing the exterior
between academic units and dormitories. wall of Palm Inn restaurant (Figure 6).

6 SAGEOpen
Figure 6. Image showing the exterior of the Palm Inn. Figure 9. Interior space of Break Point.
Data Collection Procedure

The study area was visited and direct observations and
assessments were completed, then later, a questionnaire was
generated; measures were taken to make the questions as
simple and straightforward as possible so as to lead them in
the direction of the aim of the research and not to confuse
them so as to obtain reliable results from the analysis of the
answers they give.
Direct Observations
The interior spaces of the students’ union complex were
explored and observed by the researcher. The details of
these observations are stated as follows:
Lake Viewcafeteria
Figure 7. Interior space of the Lake Viewcafeteria.
1. The use of warm colors: yellow, orange, and red was
evident. White is also used.
2. A large surface area was painted in white (see Figure 7)
3. Vegetable poster (see Figure 8) was well placed as a
sign that food being served is healthy.
Break Point and Munch More
1. The colors and patterns used on the interior walls

(Figure 11) complemented each other.
2. It was noticed that only few warm colors were used in
these spaces as seen in Figures 9 and 10.
3. Although there are some parts that lacked warm or
inviting colors, nice and colorful artworks were used
to adorn some walls also as seen in Figure 12.
Palm Inn
Figure 8. The large poster with vegetables on it in Lake View 1. The interior color of the walls and furniture are really
cafeteria. nice and inviting.

Kurt and Osueke 7
Figure 10. A section of the interior space of Munch More. Figure 13. A section of the interior of the Palm Inn.
3. The finishing and combining of colors is very c1assy

and suits the category of individuals the space is
intended for.
4. Different saturation of the color green was used in
making round shelves.
5. A section of the interior of the Palm Inn, as seen in
Figure 13, had an interesting color combination going
on and seemed really matured, the wall was gray and
with a strip of light green in its middle.
Findingsand Analysisof Data

Around 550 questionnaires were distributed randomly to
users of the complex at different times of the day. Four
hundred ninety of them were successfully retrieved and
Figure 11. Artworks complementing the surrounding furniture in therefore the analysis of the results would be of four
Munch More. hundred ninety respondents. The analyses of the
questionnaires are as following:
Respondent’s gender. From the graph, it is deduced that the

highest respondents were male with a total number of
276 as compared with the females who were 214 in
number. Graph 1 in Figure 14 shows the gender of
respondents, the horizontal axis of the graph indicates the
sex while the vertical shows the number count of the
particular sex.
Respondent’s age. The highest respondents of this

questionnaire fell in the age bracket of 17 to 24 as shown in
the graph with a total number of 332, then followed by the
age bracket of 25 to 30 with 138 respondents, then the least
fell in the age bracket of 31 and above with just 20
respondents.
From Graph 2 (see Figure 14), it is easily deduced that
Figure 12. Artworks decorating the walls in Break Point. the highest respondents are students with a total number of
460; the reason is not farfetched from the fact that the area
2. Graffiti-like artwork was used in adorning the walls of study is the student complex. The lower respondents are
which had glass. the staff with just 30 in number.

8 SAGEOpen
Figure 14. Statistical information about respondents.
Marital status of the respondents. The highest level rise is that 28, indicating that most respondents’ favorite color was
of the singles with a total number of 471, and the lowest blue which turned out to be highly favored with a total
being just 3 respondents as divorcees, the married count of 136, followed by green with 92, by yellow with
respondents were 3 as well, as indicated in the graph. 83, and by red with 42 respondents favoring them,
respectively.
Respondent’s least favorite color. The number of the respondents for each option of the
As seen on Graph 5 in Figure 14, brown (26%), orange (21%), answers is given in Table 1; the graphs showing
and gray (13%) comprise the majority of negative responses. respondents’ perception on space and color are shown in
Figure 15; and other relevant questions which are replied by
Respondent’s favorite color. The highest level on Graph 6 in the respondents are analyzed. The following are the
Figure 14 is that of others, with a total percentage of deductions:

Kurt and Osueke 9
Table 1. Analysis of the Data.
Strongly Strongly Do not

Likert-type questions agree Agree Disagree disagree know/NA
1. The colors used for the exterior of the students’ union complex are well 198 287 5 — —
combined
2. The colors used reflect the purpose for which the complex was built. 164 245 23 41 19
3. Some colors should have not been used. 76 136 240 26 12
4. More colors should have been used. 78 156 241 2 13
5. Your excitement level increases asyou approach the complex due to the 134 192 126 38 —
colors used on the complex.
6. The colors of the complex complement the environment and give asense of 142 205 110 18 15
belonging.
7. The interior color of the Palm Inn is warm and inviting. 105 227 101 39 18
8. The interior color of the cafeteria is warm and makes your meal enjoyable. 121 210 58 99 2
9. The interior color of Break Point makes you restless or too excited. 130 202 121 37 —
10. All interior colors of spaces of the student union complex were painted in 84 212 168 16 10
colors that reflect their purpose.
11. Events that take place within the complex remain vivid in your memory. 76 334 66 110 14
1. Four hundred eighty-five respondents claimed that the 14.Three hundred ninety-three respondents were not in
colors used for the exterior of the students’ union favor of the color of their favorite spot been painted
complex were well combined. a different color (see Graph 9 in Figure 3).
2. Four hundred nine respondents supposed that the colors However, when asked to those who agreed their
used reflect the purpose for which the complex was built. favorite spot to be painted a different color, what
Two hundred sixty-six respondents were against the idea color they preferred, they were unsure what color to
that some colors should not have been used. choose.
3. Two hundred twelve respondents stated that some 15.Forty-two individuals responded to using another
colors should have not been used in the student union. color while another 48 respondents had no comments.
From the given color options, red was the most
4. Two hundred forty-three respondents found it favored color with 26 respondents, and blue and green
unnecessary to use more colors. were at a tie with 11 apiece.
5. Three hundred twenty-six respondents claimed that 16.None of the respondents claimed to feel depressed in
their excitement level increased as they approached their favorite spot (see Graph 10 in Figure 3).
the complex due to the colors used on the complex. 17. Three hundred eleven respondents claimed that
6. Three hundred forty-seven respondents felt that the communication between them and friends
colors of the complex complemented the environment strengthened in the complex (see Graph 11 in Figure
and gave a sense of belonging. 15). Break Point is the spot where communication
7. Three hundred thirty-two respondents believe that the among peers strengthened with 375 respondents,
interior color of the Palm Inn is warm and inviting. followed by the Palm Inn with 48 respondents, then
8. Three hundred thirty-one respondents declared that the the courtyard with 42 respondents. Twenty-five of the
interior color of the cafeteria was warm and made their respondents had no comments.
meal enjoyable. 18. The place of boredom as deduced from the chart was
9. Three hundred thirty-two respondents stated that the the cafeteria with 191 respondents selecting the place
interior color of Break Point made them restless or too as the venue where they easily got bored (see Graph
excited. 12 in Figure 15).
10.Two hundred ninety-six respondents claimed that all
interior colors of spaces of the student union complex
were painted in colors that reflected their purpose. Results and Discussions
11.Four hundred forty respondents declared that events It is important to reiterate that, for a color study to be
that took place within the complex remained vivid in successful, confounding variables such as subjects’ age,
their memory. gender, emotion, hue, brightness, saturation, light sources,
12.Three hundred five respondents chose the Break Point adjacent colors, contexts, and cultural factors must be
as their favorite spot (see Graph 7 in Figure 15). precisely controlled (Park, 2009, p. 27). In this research, all
13.Most of the respondents (260) said they did not mind questions which have graphs in Figure 2 were in this
how long they spent in their favorite spot (see Graph 8 direction and respondents responded in favor of the claim.
in Figure 15).

10 SAGEOpen
Figure 15. Graphs showing respondents’ perception on space and color.
The analysis of the research questions indicates that the A shade of red is used extensively on the approach view
colors used for the exterior of the students’ union complex of the complex. Wright (2008) states that red grabs our
are well combined and the colors used on the complex attention first, red also reflects entertainment and
whether interior or exterior reflect the purpose for which it excitement. Studies finding red to be more arousing than
was built. Respondents were contented with color selection other colors are reviewed by Kwallek et al. (1988).
of the student union, generally. They found the level of Similarly, it was proposed by Faber Birren (2006) that
different color use enough and claimed that there is no need warm colors, such as red and yellow, increase arousal
to use more color in the complex. more than cool colors, such as green and blue, also
Analysis of related question as well as direct Spence, Wong, Rusan, and Rastegar (2006) found that
observation shows that due to the colors used on the color increased the recognition of the natural scenes by
complex, one gets excited on approaching the complex. approximately 5%.

Kurt and Osueke 11
courtyard. And according to most respondents’ opinions and

reminiscence, events that took place within the complex
remained vivid in their memory. Correspondingly, Myers
(2006) claimed that previous research had shown that
moderate arousal could increase memory retention.
Analysis of the interview and open-ended questions show
that a majority of the respondents perceived the white
painted large exterior walls of Lake View cafeteria as
boring and uninteresting.
Conclusion and Recommendations

The results of this research not only support most of the
theories and results of other researchers but also reveal the
psychological properties and effects of colors on the moods
of individuals. The following recommendations have been
Figure 16. The dining area of Palm Inn, light brown graffiti and
made based on the research findings and results:
art-like images on the walls.
1. The need to balance complexity and unity is a major

Analysis of the Question 6 in Table 1 showed that the problem faced by most designers and from the design
respondents were in favor of the colors of the complex of the colors used for the exterior walls which make
complementing the surrounding environment. Mahnke up the interior space of the courtyard, the problem is
(1996) says that in an environment there must be colors in evident with the large surface area of the wall painted
changing hue, saturation and brightness, colors in changing in white.
temperatures, by this he means the use of warm and cool
colors and the complementary of the dominant color should Unity and variety are the opposite of each other. The
also be present to a certain degree. By the result and mark of good color arrangement is knowing where to stop
analysis, the complex is successful in complementing the between these extremes (Kathy, 2003). From the above, we
environment by supporting Mahnke’s theory and can now understand that the white exterior wall of the Palm
respondents responding in favor of the propositions put to Inn that links directly with the Lake View cafeteria does not
them. It gives a sense of belonging to the place. meet the requirement of balance, rather it is monotonous
Analysis of the Question 7 in Table 1 shows that and therefore a little variety in terms of color should be
majority of respondents felt psychologically warm and thrown in to create the required balance.
invited in Palm Inn. Colors used in the space are shades of
green, gray on the walls, and the dining furniture is black 2. The interior of the Lake View cafeteria that has the
and brown tables covered in white and black clothing. large surface area of white should also receive the
Shades of green have a relaxing and refreshment effect. Pure same treatment suggested above.
gray is the only color that has no direct psychological 3. As a large group of the users of the complex belong to
properties, it is, however, quite suppressive (Wright, 2008), the age group 17 to 24, it is recommended that graffiti
and black shows coldness and efficiency, and brown is art work be done on the white walls of the Lake View
similar to black but in a calmer way. But the factor of light as a solution to the balance effect required.
should be considered very effective that direct sunlight
coming from south direction through windows (see Figure The need to know the effects of colors on moods of
16) gives interior a warm and friendly atmosphere which is individuals is very essential for architects. In most cases, the
inviting to the people. use of appropriate and/or correct colors would increase the
Analysis of the Questions 8 and 9 revealed that colors functionality of that space.
indeed have an effect on whether people feel warm, cool,
calm, invited, relaxed, or uninvited. The analysis of this
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
result supports the findings of the pink prison experiment
(Schauss, 1979). According to the study, when inmates were The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
placed in cells that were painted in bright pink color, they
article.
became less aggressive. Majority of respondents in the
above questions agreed they felt either warm or restless in
the spaces they found themselves. Concerning the rest of the Funding
questions, it is obvious that the students agreed that The author(s) received no financial support for the research and/or
communication was strengthened in the Break Point or authorship of this article.

12 SAGEOpen
References Kwallek, N., Woodson, H., Lewis, C. M., & Sales, C. (1997).
Aves, M., & Aves, J. (1994). Interior designers’ showcase of Impact of three interior color schemes on worker mood and
color. Gloucester, MA: Rockport Distributed by AIA Press. performance relative to individual environmental sensitivity.
Color Research and Application, 22, 121-132.
Babin, B. J., Hardesty, D. M., & Suter, T. A. (2003). Color and
shopping intentions: The intervening effect of price fairness Mahnke, F. (1996). Color, environment and human response. John
and perceived affect. Journal of Business Research, 56, 541- Wiley.
551. Retrieved from http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/ Marberry, S. (1995). The power of color: Creating healthy interior
spaces. New York, NY: John Wiley.
pii/S0148296301002466
Meyhöfer, D. (2008). In full color: Recent buildings and interiors.
Birren, F. (2006). Color psychology and color therapy: A factual
Berlin, Germany: Braun.
study of the influence of color on human life. Whitefish, MT:
Miller, M. (1997). Color for interior architecture. New York, NY:
Kessinger.
John Wiley.
Brodie, A. (n.d.). The basics about color. Retrieved from
Myers, D. G. (2006). Psychology (8th ed.). New York, NY:
http://www.andrew.cmu.edu/user/abrodie/color/index.html
Worth.
Carruthers, H. R., Morris, J., Tarrier, N., & Whorwell, P. J. (2010).
Pamuk, O., & Göknar, E. M. (2002). My name is Red. New York,
The Manchester Color Wheel: Development of a novel way of
identifying color choice and its validation in healthy, anxious NY: Alfred A. Knopf.
and depressed individuals. BMC Medical Research Park, J. G. (2009). Color perception in pediatric patient room
Methodology, 10(1), Article 12. design: Healthy children vs. pediatric patients. Health
Cernin, R. A., Keller, B. K., & Stoner, J. A. (2003). Color vision Environments Research & Design Journal, 2(3), 6-28.
in Alzheimer’s patients: Can we improve object recognition Poore, J. (1994). Interior color by design: A design tool for
with color cues? Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 10, architects, interior designers, and homeowners. Gloucester,
255-267. MA: Rockport.
Rosenstein, L. D. (1985). Effect of color of the environment on
Courtis, J. K. (2004). Color as visual rhetoric in financial
task performance and mood of males and females with high or
reporting. Accounting Forum, 28, 265-281.
low scores on the Scholastic Aptitude Test. Perceptual &
Day, T. D., & Rich, C. (2009). A theoretical model for
transforming the design of healing spas: Color and platonic Motor Skills, 60, 550.
solids. Health Environments Research & Design Journal, 2(3), Schauss, A. (1979). Tranquilizing effect of color reduces
aggressive behavior and potential violence. Journal of
84-107.
Orthomolecular Psychiatry, 8, 218-221.
De Bortoli, M., & Maroto, J. (2001). Colors across culture:
Translating colors in interactive marketing communications. In Serra, J. (2011). Color and space, practice and theory. Revista de
R. Russow & D. Barbereau (Eds.), Elicit 2001: Proceedings of EGA, 18, 280-287.
the European Languages and the Implementation of Spence, I., Wong, P., Rusan, M., & Rastegar, N. (2006). How
Communication and Information Technologies (Elicit) color enhances visual memory for natural scenes.
conference (pp. 3-4). UK: Paisley University Language Press. Psychological Science, 17, 1-6.
Eiseman, L. (2006). Color: Messages and meanings—A Pantone Tofle, R. B., Schwarz, B., Voon, S., & Max-Royaie, A. (2004).
color resource. Gloucester, MA: Hand Books Press Color in healthcare environments. Bonita, CA: The Coalition
Distributed by North Light Books. for Health Environments Research.
Graham, H. (1990). Time, energy and the psychology of healing. Understanding colour: All the know-how and inspiration you need
London, England: Jessica Kingsley. to succeed with colour in your home. (2004). Eastleigh, UK:
Greene, T. C., Bell, P. A., & Boyer, W. N. (1983). Coloring the B&Q.
environment: Hue, arousal, and boredom. Bulletin of the Wright, A. (1998). Beginner’s guide to color psychology. London,
Psychonomic Society, 21, 253-254. England: Color Affects.
Huchendorf, L. (2007). The effects of color on memory. Journal Wright, A. (2008). How it works. Retrieved from http://www.
of Undergraduate Research. Retrieved from colour-affects.co.uk/how-it-works
http://www.uwlax.edu/urc/jur- Yildirim, K., Akalinbaskaya, A., & Hidayetoglu, M. (2007).
online/PDF/2007/huchendorf.pdf Effects of indoor color on mood and cognitive performance.
Itten, J. (1973). The art of color: The subjective experience and Building and Environment, 42, 3233-3240. Retrieved from
objective rationale of color (E. van Haagen, Trans.). New http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S036013230600229
York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Kathy, L. (2003). Color experience. Retrieved from http:// Author Biographies
creativelatitude.com/articles/articles_lamacusa_colorexp.html Sevinc Kurt, associate professor, graduated from METU (Middle
Kotler, P. (1973). Atmospherics as a marketing tool. Journal of East Technical University). She is the head of Department of
Retailing, 49(4), 48-64. Interior Design in Cyprus International University in Cyprus.
Kuehni, R. (2003). Color space and its divisions: Color order
from antiquity to the present. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley. Kelechi Kingsley Osueke completed his master’s degree from the
Kwallek, N., Lewis, C., & Robbins, A. (1988). Effects of office Department of Architecture, Institute of Fine Arts at Cyprus
interior color on workers’ mood and productivity. Perceptual International University, Nicosia, Cyprus. He currently works at
& Motor Skills, 66, 123-128. Berkeley Baines Ltd, Abuja, Nigeria.

Assignment 09
Research Papers related to your Research Domain

1.The Effects of Color on the Moods of College Students
2.Effects of Interior Colors, Lighting and Decors on Perceived Sociability,

Emotion and Behavior Related to Social Dining
3.Colourand its effects in interior environment: a review
4.Birren,F. (1988). Lighting, Color and environment. Pennsylvania: Van

Nostrand congress catalog. Retrieved June 24, 2011
5.Ladu, R. (1989). Color in interior design and architecture.
6.Walker, Morton (1991). The Power of Color.
7.Wohlfarth, H. and Sam, C (1982). The effects of Color Psychodynamic

Environment Modification Upon Psycho-physiological and Behavioral
Reactions
8.Interior Color and Psychological Functioning in a University Residence Hall
9.The Effects of Color on Learning and Behavior.
10.Terwogt, M.M. & Hoeksema, J.B. (2001). Colors and emotions: preferences
and combinations.

Assignment 10
❑ RESEARCHE PAPER 1 :
AUTHOR
1. Prabu Wardono
2. Haruo Hibino
3. Shinichi Koyama
YEAR Malaysia, 7-9 December 2010
TITLE Effects of Interior Colors, Lighting and Decors on Perceived
Sociability, Emotion and Behavior Related to Social Dining
AIM
To study how color, lighting and décors have effects on
customers’ perceived sociability, emotion and behavioral
intention on social dining occasions
Research Hypothesis 1: The change of variable of interior elements will
hypothesis have a significant effect on the subjects’
psychological responses on dining with a friend/s
Hypothesis 2: The change of variable of interior elements will
have a significant effect on the subjects’
psychological responses on dining with a special friend
METHODS
site selection
participants
Design of experiments
Stimulus, questionnaire and facility
Analysis
162 senior students(age19-20) were selected from a survey to
395 students based on their willingness for participation and
views on social dining attitude to make sure how familiar they
are on the research issue. They were then grouped into eight
groups of twenty except one other is twenty-two.
SAMPLE Dinning area of a restaurant.
CONCLUSION
The study of interior elements and its effect on social behavior
is still immature. Regardless of this
study’s weaknesses, such initiative shares one of the lacking
reference that offers evidence on the fact that
colors, lighting and décor do influence social dining behavior.
RESEARCH The researchers has limited his research to a particular age group.
GAP
Reference : www.sciencedirect.com

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 38 (2012) 362 – 372
AicE-Bs 2010 Kuching
Asia Pacific International Conference on Environment-Behaviour Studies, Grand

Margherita Hotel, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia, 7-9 December 2010
Effects of Interior Colors, Lighting and Decors on Perceived

Sociability, Emotion and Behavior Related to Social Dining
Prabu Wardono*, Haruo Hibino and Shinichi Koyama
Graduate School of Engineering, Chiba University, Japan
Abstract
Today’s customers tend to select eating-places for satisfying pleasures through experiential socialization. This study
explores how color, lighting and décors have effects on customers’ perceived sociability, emotion and behavioural
intention on social dining occasions. Experimental method was used and 162 senior students were involved. The
results showed that the restaurant with monochromatic colors, dim lighting and plain décors yielded a statistically
significant difference in the entire dependent variables with almost any other interior conditions on romantic dining, as
opposed to the case of casual dining. Further research on subtler and diverse dimensions of interior element is
suggested to enrich previous findings.
2011 Published by Elsevier B.V.

© 2012 Ltd. Selection and/or
and peer-review under
peer-review responsibility
under of of
responsibility Centre forfor
Centre Environment-
Environment-
Behaviour Studies(cE-Bs),
Studies (cE-Bs),Faculty
Facultyof
ofArchitecture,
Architecture,Planning
Planning&&Surveying,
Surveying,Universiti
UniversitiTeknologi
TeknologiMARA,Malaysia
MARA, Malaysia
Keywords: Interior elements; perceived sociability;emotion; social dining behavior
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +62-22-2534126; fax: +62-22-2501214.
E-mail address: pwardono@yahoo.com
1877-0428 © 2012 Published by Elsevier B.V. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Centre for Environment-BehaviourStudies(cE-Bs),
Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.03.358

Prabu Wardono et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 38 (2012) 362 – 372 363
1. Introduction
After the post-industrialization era that we have been through where foods and drinks are abundant and
ubiquitously offered, consumer motives of consumption have shifted from meeting our basic nutritional
needs to a more pleasurable experience (Macht et.al, 2005).
The development of atmospheric eating-places has gained more interests among restaurant owners to
attract customers who seek exceptional and extraordinary places for leisure (Scott, et.al, 2009). This trend
clearly indicates how customers celebrate experience economy. In such economic situation, tourism or
retail business investors are focusing their attention on innovating their goods and services trying to
transform them into experience products that are memorable to customers (Joseph Pine II and James H.
Gilmore, 1998). These authors have found five key experience design-principles for designing memorable
experience including: “1. Theme the experience, 2. Harmonize impressions with positive cues, 3. Eliminate
negative cues, 4. Mix in memorabilia, 5. Engage all five senses”. Among eating activities hedonic eating
may represent the need of memorable eating experience, where stimuli consisting of foods, physical
environment and social factors as human external factors play a role in satisfying customers (Macht et.al.,
2005). These authors elaborate that environmental condition including, temperature, lighting, and acoustic
should be set up appropriately to support pleasurable eating. In addition, the attendance of familiar eating
partners such as, the family, friends or special friends will increase appetite and pleasure which may be
identified through psychological manifestation like eating behavior and subjective experiences, beside other
more physical responses. Wansink (2006) also adds this notion that pleasurable moments can be attained
when we share food with family and friends. In fact, gathering with friends or meeting new relatives
becomes a common reason for hangout and eating out. Many types of eating-places like coffee houses,
cafés, or bistros among many others have long been developed trying to find the best solution to fit that
need, the place where people gather for informal and relax socialization. Ray Oldenburg (1997) terms such
places, beside book shops, beauty salon, fitness center and the like as third place, after second place or
office where people go for working and first place, the home the most vital place of all where we spend
most of our time for our domestic life. Although we spend time the least in the third place and less
prominent in our life compared to the first and second one, it is still considered essential for balancing the
quality of our life. However, since the way people interact with others differs to one another depending on
their innate characteristic and how they learned since childhood (Flanagan, C., 1999), the place for their
socialization may be different too the characteristic of which might even be hard to tell. Unfortunately
research on sociability as part of socio-psychological aspects of consumer in relation to the need of place
for eating is very scarce. Therefore a question of how eating-places can be set up for satisfying the need for
informal gathering to cultivate our social life may not easily be answered.
Colors, lighting and décor are some of common major elements of physical service environment. This
study tries to explore how these support people’s eating intention on dining with a friend/s and with a
special friend? Which of these elements play most significant role than the other to encourage sociability
for each social dining intention? We hope to find elements of interior easy and inexpensive so that the
application of these can attract customers making the service businesses more competitive. We assume that
participants would be more satisfied if their positive responses are higher. Based on this assumption we
propose two hypotheses as follows:
Hypothesis 1: The change of variable of interior elements will have a significant effect on the subjects’
psychological responses on dining with a friend/s
Hypothesis 2: The change of variable of interior elements will have a significant effect on the subjects’
psychological responses on dining with a special friend

364 Prabu Wardono et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 38 (2012) 362 – 372
2. Literature Review
Sociability is part of five basic inborn personality attributes along with “ activity level, irritability or
emotionality, soot ability and fearfulness” Goldsmith et. al (1987) said as Flanagan (1999) quotes, the
human complexity of which might be even more when people are incidentally placed with unexpected
environmental influences. For example, environmental stress such as severe temperature, humidity,
ventilation, vibration, noise and glare may all become irritating for a couple to talk (Wheldall, 1975).
In terms of how environmental settings support orientation of people when talking, Gifford and
Gallagher (1985) theorize that beside person-based variables and social context, physical settings are
important factors, which influence how people interact each other. They regulate how furniture should be
arranged in order that conversation can work effectively. However, apart from how environment should
practically support social interaction, people will also value whether an environment is appropriate or not
for a particular motive depending on their perception and emotional response that may occur before, during
and after they experience it. There are studies, which explore the effects of restaurant environment on
consumer behavior. For example, Lin (2004) found that servicescapes offer a subsequent impression to the
customers before being served. Therefore this relationship overshadows their contact with service staff.
However it seems that we cannot learn from this study how customers react cognitively or emotionally to
servicescape, which is important to assure an effective design of servicescape. To answer this issue, Ryu
and Jang (2007) using structural equation modeling analysis found that facility aesthetics, involving visual
cues like: furniture, color, lighting and décor, ambience (non visual cues) and employees influenced
significantly on the level of customer pleasure, and particularly ambience and employees gave impact
significantly to arousal. Liu and Jang (2009) using an extended model of Mehrabian and Russel model
proved that all the environmental features of a restaurant, tangible or intangible one gave significant impact
to those psychological responses of customer.. They concluded that it is vital to consider the effect of
restaurant atmosphere to enhance customers’ perceived value to ensure their return patronage.
However, corelational studies between environment and customer behavior discussed above are not in
the context of a particular dining motive, which is important to consider. In fact the success of satisfying
customer is not only determined by that relationship in isolation but also by other factors, factor of meal
partner or other guests. The existence of a restaurant, café or any other form of eating-place is now a spatial
representation of social formation where people, a couple of friends, relatives or lovers meet (Diane, 2005).
Good company either as customer’s eating companion/s or other guests is considered the most important
factor to predict dining experience for the latter can become an important reference of how customers
expect from the restaurant in terms of financial value, said Anderson and Mossberg (2004) as quoted by
Azizi (2010). Oldenburg (1997) gives a clue that people may tend to seek informal eating or drinking
places as “neutral ground”, which allow everybody to come, be humble, and lead them to create a sense of
belonging for the places making them feel free and fun to talk about personal, community and world issues.
On the contrary, there might be the case when places fail to welcome or attract people because they cannot
meet those criteria.
From the above reviews it is obvious that perception, emotion and behavior of customers as well as the
presence of their eating companions are important socio-psychological factors that determine their eating
experience satisfaction. But there is no detailed explanation how service environment should be prepared to
achieve that goal in the context of social eating intention.

3. Method of research
1. Participants
Participants were asked from162 senior students or aged between nineteen and twenty two years of age.
They were selected from a survey to 395 students based on their willingness for participation and views on
social dining attitude to make sure how familiar they are on the research issue. They were then grouped into
eight groups of twenty except one other is twenty-two. In return for their participation a voucher of
beverage at a café was given as a compliment.
2. Design of experiment
To answer the research questions an experimental method specifically stimulus response experiment will
be applied. Three factors of restaurant interior environment including colors, lighting and décors will be
examined, and in order to study more detail on them each of these factors was developed into two levels
making up all these factors into 8 different conditions, as independent variables, described in detail later.
The dependent variables were psychological factors consisting of perceived sociability, emotional
response and behavioral intention, which were prepared in the questionnaires and to be filled in by the
participants during the experiment.
Eight groups of participants of 20 set up from 162 students were independently assigned to value eight
different pictures (between subject designs) according to the psychological responses described above.
Each group of them carried out two trials; the first trial was to evaluate one picture in the context of dining
with a friend/s and the second, evaluation performed to the same picture in the context of dining with a
special friend.
3. Stimulus, questionnaire and facility
In this experiment we use a digital simulation to consider the practicality and effectiveness of the
experiment. In fact, such technique of visual simulation has been widely used for a visual perception and
behavioral response experiment. The simulation was developed using 3D-Max computer graphic software
to create eight different pictures of restaurant interior atmosphere based on one model of a restaurant. This
model shows a corner of simple restaurant interior with some sets of chairs and tables, which become a
fixed element except the colors of the wall, ceiling, floor, the table cloth, the pendant lamps, and the décors,
the design of which considered some general criteria appropriate for common casual dining space that is
accessible, simple and informal (Oldenburg,1997).
Eight pictures were differentiated based on that model, each of which uses one alternative level of color,
lighting and décor turning them into eight different restaurant interiors resulted from 2 levels of color
(monochromatic and complementary colors) x 2 levels of lighting quality (bright and dim lighting) x 2
levels of décor qualities (elaborate and plain decors), see Table 1 below.

Table 1. Scheme of research stimuli
The color schemes (monochromatic and complementary color) applied in these pictures were defined
according to some principles of Mussel color harmony. The color specifications adopted Adobe RGB
(1998) standard color as also applied by some researchers like Cheng, Lee and Lee (2007), Junko, Masashi,
and Minoru (2006), which can also refer to chromaticity coordinates as described and shown on Figure 1-8
below.
Wall (RGB:178,131,87/ X: 0.5137,Y: 0.341) Wall (RGB: 139,89,66/ X:0.3490,Y: 0.2588)

Floor (RGB: 185,140,85/ X: 0.5490,Y: 0.3333) Floor (RGB: 175,115,55/ X:0.4509, Y: 0.2156)
Ceiling (RGB: 255,255,255/ X: 0.3457,Y: 0.3585) Ceiling (RGB: 229,229,229/ X :0.3298, Y: 0.3340)
Fig. 1. Monochromatic color, bright lighting, elaborate décor; Fig. 2. Monochromatic color, dim lighting, elaborate decor
Wall (RGB: 129,203,176/ X: 0.7690,Y: 0.6901) Wall (RGB:89,132,112/ X: 0.5176,Y: 0.4392)

Floor (RGB: 185,140,85/ X: 0.5490,Y: 0.3333) Floor (RGB:175,115,55/ X:0.4509,Y: 0.2156)
Ceiling (RGB:163,90,99/ X: 0.3529, Y: 0.3882) Ceiling (RGB:120,67,73/ X:0.2627,Y: 0.2862)
Fig. 3. Complementary color, bright lighting, elaborate décor; Fig. 4. Complementary color, dim lighting, elaborate décor

Wall (RGB:178,131,87/ X: 0.5137,Y: 0.341) Wall (RGB: 139,89,66/ X:0.3490,Y: 0.2588)

Floor (RGB: 185,140,85/ X: 0.5490,Y: 0.3333 Floor (RGB: 175,115,55/ X:0.4509, Y: 0.2156)
Ceiling(RGB:255,255,255/X:0.3457,Y:.3585) Ceiling (RGB: 229,229,229/ X :0.3298, Y: 0.3340)
Fig. 5. Monochromatic color, bright lighting, plain décor; Fig. 6. Monochromatic color, dim lighting, plain decor
Wall (RGB: 129,203,176/ X:0.7690,Y: 0.6901) Wall (RGB: 89,132,112/ X:0.5176,Y: 0.4392)
Floor (RGB: 185,140,85/ X:0.5490,Y: 0.3333) Floor (RGB:175,115,55/ X:0.4509,Y: 0.2156)
Ceiling (RGB:163,90,99/ X:0.3529, Y: 0.3882) Ceiling (RGB:120,67,73/ X:0.2627,Y: 0.2862)
Fig. 7. Complementary colour, bright lighting, plain décor; Fig. 8. Complementary colour, dim lighting, plain decor
Beside the color factor specified above, the lighting in particular was set up to apply a different lamp and
light setting in the computer. In the case of bright lighted restaurants, the lamp and light was set using
fluorescent (day light) and 15.000 lm, and in the case of dim lighted restaurants: fluorescent (warm white)
and 5.000 lm. In differentiating the images in terms of the décor variable (the paintings, plants, lighting
armature) an exploratory approach was applied by considering the amount of décors (elaborate and plain)
used as clearly shown on the pictures.
Relevant literature and experts were referred to develop how such dependant variables were measured,
including Mehrabian and Russel (1974) and Ryu and Jang (2007). Interviews were also conducted with two
groups of student to identity valuable clues in related to their social dining experiences. As a result, a
questionnaire containing three sets of psychological response were defined including, perceived sociability,
emotional response and behavioral intention, consisting of, first (15 pairs of perceptual adjective words):
“appealing, attractive, welcoming, friendly, warm, hospitable, cozy, secure, private, convenient, homey,
intimate, casual, familiar and unique” second (8 emotional adjective words): “happy, satisfied, bored,
melancholic, awake, aroused, excited, and stimulated”; and third (3 behavioral statements): “want to revisit
several times, to linger long, and do not mind to wait”, respectively. These variables were measured using
seven point-scale semantic differential methods (+3 to -3).
To support this study a room of around 4 x 4 m2, at the Human-behavior relationship research unit,
Faculty of Fine Art and Design, Bandung Institute of Technology, Indonesia, designated for a lighting
laboratory, was used for doing the experiment. In this room the illumination can be controlled to set it

free from any possible glare from daylight distraction. In addition, table lamps were also provided to make
sure that when the experiment was running and the room light was set to dim in order that the projected
image appeared clearly, the subjects could still clearly see the questionnaire. To facilitate the experiment
four tables, chairs and equipments were provided for the research participants, researcher. The equipments
used for the experiment were a new high lumen video projector SONY VPL-ES7: 2000 lm, and a large
portable screen, MacBook laptop (Mac OSX Version 10.5.8, Processor 2.4 GHz Intel Core 2 Duo, Memory
2 GB 667 MHz DDR2 SDRAM) and portable projection screen.
3.4. Experimental Procedure
The picture was projected to the screen at around 2.5 m distance away from where the subjects sit. Each
of the groups was independently assigned and only observed and rated one picture (between subject
design). The order of presentation per session or day was not tightly regulated as it depended so much on
the students’ time availability, but since every group was independent, basically the presentation could be
flexibly conducted. The presentation of picture was also not timely limited as we expected that the
participants could observe it very carefully to ensure more convincing responses they could give.
4. Method of research
The mean scores for perceived sociability, emotional response, and behavioral intention on dining with a
friend/s and with a special friend, see Figure 9, Figure 10 and Figure 11 respectively below. To find out
whether there is a statistical difference in each of dependent variables between each of the groups, we run
Anova tests. The change of interior condition in the case of dining with a friend/s did not show any
statistically significant effect in all the variables either on the subjects’ perceived sociability (F=.802,
P=.587), emotion (F=.969, P=.456 ), and behavioral intention ( F=.571, P=.779) respectively.
In the context of dining with a special friend the change of interior condition yielded a significant effect
in the entire variables between some groups: perceived sociability (F=4.366, P=.000), emotion (F=5.007,
P=.000), and behavioral intention (F=6.698, P=.000) respectively. The interior condition of group 6
applying monochromatic colors, dim lighting and plain décor resulted in a statistically significant
difference in perceived sociability compared with the entire restaurant conditions, including with group 1
Fig. 9.Mean scores of perceived sociability on dining with a friend/s (col.) and dining with a special friend (line); Fig. 10. Mean
scores of emotional response on dining with a friend/s (col.) and dining with a special friend (line)

Fig. 11. Mean of scores of behavioral intention on dining with a friend/s (col.) and dining with a special friend (line)
(monochromatic colors, bright lighting, and elaborate décor – Mean diff.: 9.800, P=.009), group 3
(complementary colors, bright lighting, and elaborate décor-Mean diff.=11.600, P=.001), group 4
(complementary colors, dim lighting and elaborate décor - Mean diff. 11.350, P=.001), group 7
(complementary colors, bright lighting, and plain décor-Mean diff.=8.850, P=.027). But it was not
significantly different with group 2 (monochromatic colors, dim lighting and elaborate décor-Mean
diff.=5.650, P=.422), group 5 (monochromatic colors, bright lighting, and plain décor – Mean diff.
=8.250, P=.052) and group 8 applying complementary colors, dim lighting, and plain décor- (Mean
diff.=2.345, P=.987). With regard to emotional response, group 6 also resulted in a significant difference
compared with group 1 (Mean Diff.=2.850, P=.004), group 3 (Mean diff.=19.450, P=.001), group 4 (Mean
diff.= 16.700, P=.008), group5 (Mean diff.=14.700, P=.031) and group 7 (Mean diff. 16.650, P=.008),
whereas with group 2 and group 8, it did not show any significant difference. Comparing with the previous
result, only with group 5 their result was different. However if we notice, the P value of group 5 in
comparison with group 6 is only a little larger than the significant value: .052, so between perceived
sociability and emotional value it seems that the interior condition of group 6 compared with the rest of the
group can be considered the same.
Similar to the previous variables, group 6 in behavioral intention showed a significant difference with
almost the entire groups including with group 1 (Mean diff.=4.900, P=.001) , group 2 (Mean diff.=3.900,
P=.024), group 3 ( Mean diff. = 5.650, P=.000), group 4 (Mean diff.=5.700, P=.000), and group 7 (Mean
diff. =5.050, P=.001), whereas with group 5 and group 8 it did not show any significant difference ( Mean
diff.= 3.250, P=.110 and Mean diff.=1.141, P=.974 respectively).
Two tailed t-tests were also run to see differences in any variable within subjects in each of the groups.
The basic objective of such test is to find out how social dining motives influence the way the subjects
value the restaurant interior. In this experiment we compared their valuations of the restaurants between
dining with a friend/s and dining with a special friend. In the case of perception of sociability group 1 (t =
4.498, df=19, Sig.=.000), group 3 (t=2.944, df=19, Sig.=.008), group 4 (t=-2.880, df=19, Sig.=.008),
group 6 (t=-2.718, df=19, Sig.=.010) and group 7 (t=14.812, df=19, Sig.=.030) the results showed a
statistical difference between the two dining occasions, whereas in the case of emotional response the
significant differences only occurred on group 4 (t=2.658, df=19, Sig.=.016) and group 6 (t=-4.379, df=19,
Sig.=.000). Similar to the result of t-test of the groups in perception, group 1 (t=3.584, df=19,

Sig.=.002) group 4 (t=4.579, df=19, Sig.=.016), group 6 (t=-1.279, df=19, Sig.=.005) and group 7 (t=2.299,
df=19, Sig.=.033) also showed a significant difference in behavioral intention.
From the Anova test result we notice that in the case of dining with a/friends it seems that the subjects
was not so sensitive with the manipulation of interior element as there was no statistical difference between
one group to another. Referring to one of behavior-environment relationship theories that is, stimulation
theory (Kopec, 2006), we can also say that none of the groups could benefit more from the stimulation of its
restaurant atmosphere than the other, because it seemed that the subjects did not rate any of the eight
restaurants significantly stronger than the other. Such finding can also imply that casual relationships
between customers may not need a specially conditioned interior environment to support their dining
motives. In addition, from the perspective of restaurant design, the insignificant different responses toward
any of the groups given by the subjects may also be resulted from the fact that all the conditions was
considered acceptable, or the difference of interior condition was not too bad for them to dine with a
friend/s.
In the case of dining with a special friend, the significant differences in the way people psychologically
valued the restaurant atmosphere were clearly shown. The subjects of group 6 rating a restaurant with
monochromatic color, dim lighting and plain décor performed the highest positive perceived, emotional and
behavioral value compared with most of other groups. This means that such environmental condition was
effective to stimulate the subjects in the way they perceive, feel and behave towards the restaurant when
dining on a date. Their preference of such atmosphere may come from the fact that all the elements is not
visually stimulating as the colors are less contrast, the light level is moderately low, and the décor is much
simpler, which may be required for a couple to have a relaxing and romantic chat. Of all these elements, the
lighting characteristic is the most effective one to stimulate the subjects’ motivation for such dining motive.
With a moderately low level of light, the application of complementary color or of elaborate décor could
still be effective to support that dining occasion as shown in group 2, group 5 and group 8, which are not
significantly different from group 6 in most of the variables evaluated.
From this Anova tests result in some variables we can prove that atmospheric quality as created by the
three elements used in this experiment have effects on the subjects’ perception of sociability, emotional,
and behavioral intention, which was consistent to Mehrabian and Russell theory.
In addition, the perceived sociability and emotional response towards the restaurant interiors seemed to
have a strong relationship to one another as indicated by their very similar results. However, in the case of
behavioral intention the subjects seemed not to be very strongly influenced by what they perceived and felt.
This was indicated by a slight different result with that of the previous variables. This finding seemed to be
quite consistent with the previous statements of Woodruff (1997; Parasuraman and Grewal (2000); Cronin
et.al (2000) as quoted by Liu and Jang (2009) stating that perceived values have effects on behavioral
intentions.
From the T-test’s result we could infer that only in group 1, group 4, group 6, and group 7 the subjects
responded significantly different in related to the two dining motives. However, only with the output of the
Anova test we can infer more consistently why the differences occurred. For example, we notice that group
1 was not preferable for dining with a special friend, as well as group 4 and group 7. Because, beside that
these groups were statistically difference from group 6 in the Anova test in the case of dining with a special
friend, group 1 probably was too bright, and the elaborate décor was visually too striking, whereas in group
4 although the lighting was dim but it seemed that the complementary color and elaborate décor might be
too stimulating, and group 7, although the décor was plain but it might seem that stimulating effects
resulted from the complementary colors and the bright lighting was not appropriate for dining on a date.
Indeed, when these two elements are used effectively they may become a strategic element to stimulate
people, otherwise people will easily feel unpleasant and avoid.

5. Conclusion
The study of interior elements and its effect on social behavior is still immature. Regardless of this
study’s weaknesses, such initiative shares one of the lacking reference that offers evidence on the fact that
colors, lighting and décor do influence social dining behavior. The colors, lighting and décors, used as
physical stimuli in this experiment were defined by qualitative approach, because this study is still
considered exploratory. As a consequence this study may give fairly limited implication to the profession.
In the future, when the similar stimuli are used, a more quantitative approach using standardized measure
may be suggested to expect broader practical implication. In addition, a more focused of research could be
suggested considering the particular finding of this study, for instance: the lighting, which plays most
important role in creating intimate spaces. In this case, some measurable quality of lighting, for instance
illuminance level, types of luminaries and luminance distribution may be considered for future study.
Beside the eating places used in this study other commercial places where more specific sociability may
also profoundly occur could also be considered. In fact, this exploratory study found that the character of
social relationship influenced differently to the way people select atmosphere. However, the social
relationships we studied as mediator for social dining were common, and there are still many more complex
relationship people may create, whose social dining mediation-role may even be more complex leading to a
more sophisticated need of restaurant atmosphere. In addition, we have not also considered the cultural
influences (Rozin, P. et.al. 2002, Prescott, et.al., 2002) or any other personal attributes of the subjects,
which may become an important moderator in how their relationship influence the way they choose a
restaurant. For example, Japanese couples may choose a different dining atmosphere compared to Western
couples. A similar question may be raised for those with different age, religion or lifestyles. All these
curiosities are crucial as they are potential customers for service business industries. We, design scientists
are in need for some more clues from them to create guidelines for designers, which may need a distinctive
modus operandi to explore, as how this study has introduced for studying the effects of environmental
stimuli on human social behavior in a non-dining setting.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Drs. Andriyanto Wibisono, M.Ds. and Dr. Pribadi Widodo, M.Ds. for their
support to this study by providing a room and some equipment, at Human-Interior environment
relationship research unit, Faculty of Fine Art and Design, Institute of Technology, Bandung, Indonesia.
References
Azizi, T. (2010). The Dining Experience. Canada. The University of Lethbridge

Cheng, H., Lee, K., & Lee, H. (2007). Color Preference of the Korean Elderly. International Association of Societies of Design
Research, The Hongkong Polytechnic University.
Diane, S. (2005). Environmental distinctions: the discriminating dining environment. LesCahiers du CICLas. 6, 55-7.
Flanagan, C. (1999). Early Socialisation: Sociability and attachment. London, Routledge Modular Psychology Series.
Gifford, R. & Gallagher, M.B. (1985). Sociability: Personality, Social Context, and Physical Setting. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 48, 1015-1023.
Junko, I., Masashi, N., & Minoru, M. (2006). The Influence of colors on the psychological image of the wooden interior: application
of the image analysisin consideration of the accent color. Zairyo, 55, 373-377.
Kopec, D. (2006). Environmental Psychology for Design. New York, Fairchild Publications, Inc.
Lin, I.Y. (2004). Evaluating servicescape: the effect of cognition and emotion. Hospitality Management, 23, 163-178.

Liu, Y. & Jang, S. (2009). The Effects of Dinning Atmospherics; An extended Mehrabian-Russel model. International Journal of
Hospitality Management, 28, 494-503.
Macht, M., Meininger, J., & Roth, J. (2005). The Pleasures of Eating: a Qualitative Analysis. Journal of Hapiness Studies. 6,137-
160
Mehrabian, A., and Russel, J.A. (1974). An Approach to Environmental Psychology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Oldenburg, R. (1997). Great Good Place, Cambridge, Da Capo Press
Pine, J & Gilmore J.H. (1999). The Experience Economy. Boston, Harvard Business School Press
Prescott, J., Young, O., O’Neill, L., Yau, N.J.N., & Stevens, R. (2002). Motives for food choice: a comparison of consumers from
Japan, Taiwan, Malaysia and New Zealand. Food Quality and Preference, 13, 489-495.
Rozin, P., Kruzer, N.C., & Cohen, A. (2002). Free Associations to “food”: the effects of gender, generation, and culture. Journal of
Research in Personality, 36, 419-441.
Scott, N., Laws, E., & Boksberger, P. (2009). The marketing of Hospitality and Leisure Experiences, Journal of Hospitality
Marketing & Management, 18, 99-110.
Wansink, B. (2006). Mindless Eating: Why we eat more than we think. New York, Bantam Books.
Wheldall, K. (1975). Social Behavior: Key problems and social relevance. London, Methuen.

❑ RESEARCHE PAPER 2:
Soma Kalia
AUTHOR
YEAR Sep 2013

Color and its effects in interior environment : a review
TITLE
To study and summarized the color and its effect in interior
AIM environment.
• Collect literature related to the effect of color in interior
METHODS environment.
• Analyze collected literature (collected from internet, books,
journals , key words etc )
• Then the result were summarized which was the main aim of
this study.
SAMPLE Collect literature from various sources
The present analysis is done to investigate the appropriate use of

CONCLUSION color in interior
RESEARCH
GAP
Reference : www.ijarst.com

Int. J. Adv. Res. Sci. Technol. Volume 2, Issue2, 2013, pp 106-109.
International Journal of Advanced Research in ISSN 2319 – 1783 (Print)

Science and Technology ISSN 2320 – 1126 (Online)
journal homepage: www.ijarst.com
Colour and its effects in interior environment: a review

Soma Kalia*
Department of Interior Design, OIIFT, Utkal University of Culture, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India.
*Corresponding Author’s Email: somaghose@yahoo.in, Telephone: +91- 9338142990
ARTICLEIN FO ABSTRACT
Article history: Colour is an inseparable as well as an important aspect of an interior design.

Received 02 Sept. 2013 The maximum influence in interior comes with the design of colour. So it is
Accepted 30 Sept. 2013 very important to study the colour and its effect in interior environment, it
Available online 07 Oct. 2013 may be physiological as well as psychological. For this, articles were
reviewed and analyzed from the existing literature, related to use of colour
Keywords: in both residence as well as commercial interior. The three major areas
Colour, reviewed were (1) Psychological and physiological effect of colour (2)
Psychological impact, Meaning of Warm, Cool and Neutral Colour (3) Effect of Colour in forms.
Interior environment The results show that colour is important in designing functional spaces.
The results of this analysis may benefit to architects, interior designer, and
homeowner to use colour effectively in interior environment.
© 2013 International Journal of Advanced Research in Science and Technology (IJARST).

All rights reserved.
and the homeowner to choose the best colour while

Introduction: planning to colorings there interior environment . The
reviews was done initially by internet, books, journals
The primary goal of study the colour in interior is according to the key words like psychological effect of
to equip the architect, professional designer as well as the colour, colour, colour theory, nature of colour etc. finally
homeowner with the tool and understanding to use colour the systematic review of literature into the three
effectively in architectural and interior design. This categories that is psychological and physiological effect
review of literature is done to be used as a reference of colour, meaning of Warm, Cool and Neutral Colour,
manual, an actual tool to experiment with colour in effect of colour in form. Then the valuable result is
interior. The greatest challenge in colour design is to be summarized which is the main aim of this study.
able to predict and control the result of a colour scheme,
effective colour selection can be an inexpensive yet Literature Review:
powerful element in any design. Colour can perform a
multiple roles and can affect a parson’s emotions, energy Psychological and physiological effect of colour:
level, and séance of order or disorder as well, it can set
It is recognized that colour has strong
the tone of an interior and make it seem formal or
psychological influence on human reactions. (Pile,J,
informal, masculine or feminine, cool restful or invitingly
1997). Colour and light are major factors in man-made
worm. The aim of successful interior design is to be able
environments; and there is no doubt that they have a
to control these effects through the masterful use of
strong influence on psychological and physiological well
colour as a design tool itself.
being. We cannot assume that the only role of light and
Methodology: colour is to provide tolerable illumination and a pleasant
environment. Although colour vision does not appear in
So many studies and articles are published in this the forms of animal life, radiant energy and its spectral
field, my work is to compile the literature related to the component still provide various psychological processes
effect of colour in interior environment so that this article in all kind of living organism. For example: radiant
will guide and help the architect, interior designer
www.ijarst.com Soma Kalia

energy is apparently vital for the growth of plants Colour is kind of energy which is effect to the
(Mahnke,F, 1993). mind and emotional feeling. As John Ott writes, “Behind
the psychological response to colour are more
Psychological responses to colour include changes fundamental responses to specific radiant energy
in mood and attention (Engelbrecht 2003; Shabha, 2006). wavelength”(Birren,F, 1988).A person is likely to feel
The brain releases a hormone which affects moods, cheerful on a sunny day and glum on a rainy one.
mental clarity, and energy level when colour is Conversely, psychological attitudes trough the colour will
transmitted through the eyes (Engelbrecht, 2003). For affect bodily responses, and also it effect to the nervous
example, pink may suppress aggressive behavior in system and hormonal activity. The kind and amount of
prisoners (Walker, 1991). Interestingly, colour’s impact is energy that colour effect to the space, evoke some of
not limited to visual aspects since colour wavelengths are feeling response, it can calm or stimulate, cheer or
absorbed by the skin (Torice & Logrippo, 1989). depress. In the design of modern environments colour is
(Wohlforth and Sam 1982) also supported this claim in very important. In fact, it is ahead of form in mans
their study. Findings showed that changes in the colour of feelings. To talk about people, and their feeling about
the environment resulted in a drop in blood pressure and colour, many psychologists have noted that response to
reduction in aggressive behavior in blind children as well form is a kind of logical processes, while reactions to
as sighted. colour are more impulsive and emotional. (Birren,F,
1988,) There are indeed a great range of psychological
Some colour responses are temporary and others aspects of colour uncovered through the years of
may last for a long period of time. Many reactions are comprehensive researchers. For example: numerous
immediate (Morton, 1998). A number of studies have experimental studies suggest that colour can be identified
explored the impact of colour in the classroom in conjunction with colour, flavor and sound, weight and
(Engelbrecht, 2003; Grangaard, 1995; Imhof, 2004; distance (Vodvarka,F, 2008). Additionally, psychological
O’Connor et al., 1990; Wilkins, 2003). Findings are and physiological aspects of colour will become
inconsistent in determining the optimal colour choices in prominent in design decisions. According to the
learning environments. observations of theorists, the warm and cool colour effect
to the human personality and sense reaction. Warm
The research conducted by (Torice and Logrippo colour goes to the excitation, the extroverted human
1989) has shown that active children prefer cool colours being, but the cool colour goes to the tranquilization, the
and passive children are more comfortable surrounded by introverted human being. For example:
warm colours. A strong green may stimulate an individual
as much as a strong red (Morton, 1998). Table: 1. Categories, Findings and sources related to
psychological and physiological effect of colour
The quantity of colour should be considered in
the design of the physical learning environment. Large
amounts of colour over stimulate individuals. (Verghese Categories Findings Sources
2001) discusses the process of visual search and attention
Red Speed up heart and Vodvarka,F( 2008)
in regard to signal detection theory. This theory states that
the human mind continuously strives to organize visual respiration rates and to
information. Too much colour, motion, or pattern raise blood pressure.

functions as distracters making visual search more
difficult. A stressful learning environment will result Heightened sense of Engelbrecht (2003)
from excessive use of colour. Table 1 outlines findings, smell.

issues, and associations related to specific colours. Yellow Less aggressive in impact Pile,J (1997)
than red
It is recognized that colour has strong
It consider as sunny,
psychological influence on human reactions. There has
been some research in this field to reduce various beliefs cheerful and the happiest
to some reliable finding that can be put to practical use of all colours
(Pile,J, 1997). Colour and light are major factors in man- It seems to illuminate the
made environments; and there is no doubt that they have space. At maximum
a strong influence on psychological and physiological
saturation is the most
well being. Radiant energy and its spectral component
aggressive of the hues.
still provide various psychological processes in all kind of
Green It is often the choice of Pile,J (1997)
living organism. For example: radiant energy is
apparently vital for the growth of plants (Mahnke,F, persons who are
1993). intelligent, social, who are
www.ijarst.com given to voluble habits of
speech, and who
Soma Kalia

often have an intense society. Both affect how people feel about colour and
appetite for food, also
how they use it.
calming, relaxing, Meaning of Warm, Cool and Neutral Colour:
refreshing.
Blue Calming, restful, and Verghese (2001) Warm colours: In the daily life, is usually talking
comfortable.
about warm greeting, warm friendship and a warm
atmosphere. In colour terms, the hues on the warm side of
Reduce blood pressure,
the colour circle are generally understood as comfortable,
pulse, and respiration cozy and pleasant. Experiment proved that warm colour
rate. in space provides more comfortable area rather than cool
Orange Colour with Seybert,J(2007). colour (Pile,J, 1997).
happy
Cool colour: those are that give the feel of
implication.
coolness or calmness. These colour are green, blue, violet
Colour increases the are on the cool side of the circle. These colours give sense
oxygen through the brain. of relaxing and calmness. Cool colour may become
Attraction and depressive and negative in psychological impact.
encouragement.
Violet Pile,J (1997)
Neutral colour: white, black, gray are in this
The colour of sensitivity
category. They are between cool and warm and they have
and artistic expression.
less intense psychological effect. These colour may seems
Pale tint of violet are very boring but in the positive perspective, they are using
define as playful, magical. in practical area with a minimum of emotional content.
Deeper violet is dignified Achromatic colours are also considered as a neutral
and mysterical.
colour, like brown, beige and tans are also considered as
neutral colours (Hummie,Ed, 2009).
Brown The more positive Pile,J(1997)
Implication relate to the
Effect of Colour in Form:
comfort of the house.
When it combine with It has been suggested by some of the theorist that
other warm tones, it colour and form are related as expected. As a theory of
express the Itten, there were connection between primary colour i.e
comfort, red, blue and yellow and the simple geometric form of the
otherwise it will be very square, triangle and circle (Pile,J, 1997)
depressive if it doesn’t
Combine with lively Therefore, in terms of form perception, colour can
tones. be applied to stress, weaken, or convert perception of
Black Seriousness, dignity .Dark Ladu, R(1989) specific form into new sensation. Indeed beside its impact
gray and very dark blue
on the weight, size, and distance colour has ability to
shape the space, diminish the volume or it makes it more
can be close to the black;
pronounced. Apparently, colour form relationship is one
therefore such tones can of the aspects in a design. According to the Bauhaus
express the qualities of theory, the supporting theory argues that the square with
black. its horizontal and vertical lines is related to the gravity
White most light of any colour Ladu, R(1989) and so to red. The triangle and its weights it goes to the
Symbol of the blankness,
yellow, “the symbol of thought”, the circle which is
symbol of relaxation is then seen as relating to blue. To
simplicity,
move this theory further, Itten proposed that the
cleanliness secondary colour had relationship to geometrical form as
and well. For example: Trapezoid related to orange, spherical
purity,favori triangle relates to green and ellipse relate to violet (Pile,J,
To end up,tecolour andtones.
background light are as a form of 1997,)
energy.Gray
Colour affects
Dark to graythe can
people
be feeling, and
Birren, (1988)
To start with, it is worth to review the example of
encourages them to light
depressive provide
gray in satisfying human
colour form synthesis which has proposed by Brochman
relationships and it make their life enjoyable. Beside,
warm tone versions are on two dimensional planes. Firstly, Bochman draw a cube
colour is a response to physical phenomenon and cultural
useful as background. with red colour, but he left the third plane white
www.ijarst.com
Soma Kalia

(Hesselgren, S, 1969,) He note that conspicuous References:
perception of cube diminishes immediately, and appear as
a part which is cut from another larger object Along these 1. Birren,F. (1988). Lighting, Colour and environment.
lines, another experimental study was conducted by pennsylvania: Van Nostrand congress cataloge.
Retrieved June 24, 2011, from www.books.google.com
Swirnoff. Among numerous researchers on characteristic
2. Engelbrecht, K. (2003). The impact of colour on
of colour, Swirnoff, note that colour is one of the learning. Chicago, IL: Perkins & Will.
“constituents of form”, conducted a number of studies, 3. Grangaard, E. M. (1995, April). Colour and Light
and dedicated to effect of colour on visual appearance of Effects on Learning. Paper presented at the Association
object. One of the experiments according to this theory for Childhood Education International Study
was that, two cubes of equal size were joined together at Conference and Exhibition.
right angle by a square plane at their common base. It was 4. Hesselgren, S. (1969). The Language of
supposed that the observer would be placed the frontally Architecture.(2d ed). Sweden: Studentlitteratur,Lund.
the object. Further, the face of the cube was divided by 5. Hummie,Ed. (2009, October 18). Colour scheme and the
colour wheel. Retrieved July 30, 2010, from Google:
diagonal line into various patterns. As a result the
www. colour scheme and colour wheel.pdf
division of each plane resulted in cluster of triangle which 6. Imhof, M. (2004). Effects of colour stimulation on
turns into impression of pyramids (Swirnoff,L, 2003)and handwriting performance of children with ADHD
it should be note that, value and saturation of colour without and with additional learning disabilities.
rather than hue effect to the shape. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 13, 191-
198.
Conclusion: 7. Ladu, R. (1989). Colour in interior design and
architecture. Torento: Library of congress cataloge.
The present analysis is done to investigate the Retrieved June 24, 2011, from www.books.google.com
appropriate use of colour in interior. Colour plays a vital 8. Mahnke,F. (1993). Colour and Light in Man-Made
role in the world of design, and since design can cover Environment. NewYork: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
9. Morton, J. (1998). Colour voodoo for the office.
many different areas, it can be very powerful in human
Retrieved from Colourcom.com.
lives. Understanding the psychological impact of different
10. O’Connor, P.D., Sofo, F., Kendall, L. Olsen, G. (1990).
colours, it is essential for designers for working in various Reading disabilities and the effects of coloured filters.
sections such as interior design, logo; graphic design and Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23(10), 597-603.
advertising. In the world of marketing, colour 11. Pile,J. (1997). colour in interior design. NewYork:
combinations are not only used to attract our attention but McGraw-Hill.
are also used to represent a company's culture. red is 12. Seybert,J. (2007, May 21). colour meaning (n.d). pp. 5-
especially synonymous with speed, whether it is fast cars, 6.
fast food or fast phone and internet service. And also there 13. Shabha, G. (2006). An assessment of the impact of the
are some brands which are always dominate like, sensory environment on individuals’ behavior in special
needs schools. Facilities, 24(1/2), 31-42.
McDonald’s, or KFC, who all make use of red as a 14. Swirnoff,L. (2003). dimentioal Colour. London:
dominant colour Colour has the ability to affect a person's Birkhauser Boston.
appetite, so a restaurant owner has to be aware about the 15. Torrice, A F., Logrippo, R. (1989). In my Room:
hues that they pick. When choosing colours for interior Designing for and with Children. New York: Ballantine
environments, the functional aspects as well as aesthetics Books.
of colour should be emphasized. Over- stimulation 16. Verghese, P. (2001). Visual search and attention: a
through colour creates sensory overload. In contrast, signal detection theory approach. Neuron, 31, 523–535.
17. Vodvarka,F. (2008, 10 25). Aspect of colour. Retrieved
colourless interior spaces can be stressful and
May 17, 2010, from google: http://www.midwest-
nonproductive. In other words, an under-stimulating acilitators.net/downloads/mfn_19991025_frank_vodvar
environment may be as harmful as one that is over- ka.pdf
stimulating. With the basic understanding of colour it is 18. Walker, Morton (1991). The Power of Colour. New
possible to apply the rules fairly literally and come up York: Avery Publishing Group.Wilkins,
with conservative but successful colour schemes, by Studentlitteratur,Lund.
going through various literature a person’s skill and 19. Wohlfarth, H. and Sam, C (1982). The effects of Colour
confidence increases, and it is possible to take a more Psychodynamic Environment Modification Upon
intuitive approach to design colour in interior whether it Psycho-physiological and Behavioral Reactions of
is in residence or in commercial place. Several Handicapped Children. lnt J. Biosocial Res.,
3(1): 30-38.
www.ijarst.com
Soma Kalia

Assignment 11
AUTHOR
Marco Costa, Sergio Frumento, Mattia Nese and Iacopo
Predieri
YEAR 28 august 2018
TITLE Interior Colour and Psychological Functioning in a University
Residence Hall
AIM
To study Interior Colour and Psychological Functioning.
METHODS
• Participants (433 students)
• Producer and data analysis
• Result
This study exploited a unique architectural setting of a
university residence hall for long-term(1 year) student
accommodation, composed by six separate buildings that
matched for every design feature with the only exception of
interior color.
Each building interior was characterized by a specific color for
walls, ceiling, and floor in both common spaces and students’
rooms.
The colors were: violet, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red
SAMPLE residence hall for long-term student accommodation,
composed by six separate buildings that matched for every
design feature with the only exception of interior color.
CONCLUSION
Interior Colour Preference :
Blue was the preferred interior color (34.7%), followed by green
(23.1%), violet (14.1%), orange (11.9%), yellow (8.7%), and red
(7.5%)
participants living in the same colored hall of residence
preferred to stay in that color , even though preferring another
color for the interior.
RESEARCH -
GAP
Reference : doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01580

ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published: 28 August 2018
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01580
Interior Color and Psychological

Functioning in a University
Residence Hall
Marco Costa1*, Sergio Frumento2 , Mattia Nese1 and Iacopo Predieri1
1
Department of Psychology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy, 2 Department of Surgery, Medical, Molecular, and Critical
Area Pathology, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
The research exploited a unique architectural setting of a university residence hall

composed by six separate buildings that matched for every architectural detail and
differed only for the interior color (violet, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red). Four
hundred and forty-three students living in the six buildings for an average of
13.33 months participated in a study that assessed color preference (hue and lightness),
lightness preference, and the effects of color on studying and mood. The results
showed a preference for blue interiors, followed by green, violet, orange, yellow, and
red. A preference bias was found for the specific color in which the student lived.
Gender differences emerged for the preference of blue and violet. Room-lightness was
significantly affected by the interior color. Room ceiling was preferred white. Blue as
interior color was considered to facilitate studying activity. The use of differentiated colors
Edited by:
Patrik Sörqvist,
in the six buildings was evaluated to significantly facilitate orienting and wayfinding. A
Gävle University College, Sweden significant relation was found between a calm mood and preference for blue.
Reviewed by:
Keywords: color, chromatic preference, lightness preference, architecture, interior design
Francesca Pazzaglia,
Università degli Studi di Padova, Italy
Bernardo Hernández,
Universidad de La Laguna, Spain INTRODUCTION
*Correspondence:
MarcoCosta
Although color is a ubiquitous property of every architectural surface, evidence-based research on
marco.costa@unibo.it chromatic preference in architecture and psychological effects of color as a function of the
architectural design of a space is still sparse. This study exploited a unique architectural setting of
Specialty section: a university residence hall for long-term student accommodation, composed by six separate
This article was submitted to buildings that matched for every design feature with the only exception of interior color. Each
Environmental Psychology, building interior was characterized by a specific color for walls, ceiling, and floor in both common
a section of the journal spaces and students’ rooms. The colors were: violet, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. Students
Frontiers in Psychology
were independently assigned to the different colors by the residence administration. Therefore,
Received: 06 April 2018 this architectural setting resulted as an in vivo experiment that allowed a controlled assessment of
Accepted: 08 August 2018 students’ color preferences, their satisfaction with the color and lightness level of the building they
Published: 28 August 2018
lived in, and their assessment of the building color effect on their mood, studying activity, orienting
Citation: within the residence.
Costa M, Frumento S, Nese M and
Colors have three basic perceptual attributes: hue, saturation, and lightness (Hunt and Pointer,
Predieri I (2018) Interior Color
and Psychological Functioning in a
2011). Hue is the phenomenological correspondent of wavelength within the visible-light
University Residence Hall. spectrum. Saturation (chroma) describes the intensity or purity of a hue, whereas lightness (value)
Front. Psychol. 9:1580. varies according to the relative presence of black or white in the color. At the lower extreme of
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01580 saturation lie the achromatic colors gray, black, and white. Many models exist that map colors
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org August 2018 | Volume 9 | Article 1580
40

Costa et al. Interior Color in a University Residence Hall
along these attributes in two-dimensional or three-dimensional Furthermore, wall colors were preferred lighter in the imagined
spaces. Some of these models are perceptually uniform, and condition compared to the depicted condition. Jonauskaite et al.
match human-color perception (e.g., Munsell, CIE Lab), whereas (2016) investigated context-specific color preferences comparing
others are not perceptually uniform, and were developed to map abstract color preferences, imagined interior walls, and imagined
colors for specific technical domains (e.g., RGB, HSV, HSL, HSB, t-shirts. They used an unrestricted color selection approach with
CMYK). three-color dimensions (i.e., hue, chroma and lightness). Abstract
Color preferences were mainly investigated manipulating hue, colors were preferred with more chroma, whereas lighter colors
starting from the pioneering work by Eysenck (1941) who were preferred for walls, and darker colors were preferred for t-
established a universal preference hierarchy in colors. According shirts.
to his study the most preferred color was blue, followed by red, In the specific architectural context, Kunishima and Yanase
green, violet, orange, and yellow. This finding agreed with those (1985) investigated the visual effects of wall colors in living
obtained by Granger (1952) and Guilford and Smith (1959) who rooms. Architectural students had to evaluate living room models
found the highest preference ratings for the blue-green hues and differing in color. A factor analysis highlighted three main
the lowest for yellow and yellow-green hues. These results were dimensions: “activity,” “evaluation,” and “warmness.” “Activity”
further confirmed by Granger (1955), Dittmar (2001), Bakker et was mostly affected by the brightness of the wall color,
al. (2013), and Schloss et al. (2013). Hue preferences in adults “evaluation” by the saturation, and “warmness” by thehue.
follows a relatively smooth curvilinear function in which cool The impact of light and color on psychological mood in work
colors (green, cyan, blue) are generally preferred to warm colors environments was investigated by Küller et al. (2006) in a large-
(red, orange, yellow) (Palmer et al., 2013). Focusing on color scale study that involved 988 persons from different countries.
saturation, Palmer et al. (2013), in a review on color preference The presence of some colors, in comparison to a no-color, or
studies, concluded that, in general, more colorful and saturated neutral-color condition, resulted in a more positive worker’s
colors are preferred to less vivid color. Saturation interacts with mood. The use of very saturated colors, to the contrary, had a
preferences for lightness so that yellow is preferred at high negative effect on mood.
lightness levels, red and green at medium lightness levels, and Several studies investigated the role of sex and culture to test
blue and purple at low lightness levels (Guilford and Smith, 1959). the universality of color preference (Choungourian, 1968; Saito,
Dark shades of orange (browns) and yellow (olives) tend to be 1994, 1996; Ou et al., 2004, 2012; Hurlbert and Ling, 2007; Al-
strongly disliked relative to lighter, equally saturated oranges and Rasheed, 2015). A study on sex differences found a peak for the
yellow (Guilford and Smith, 1959; Palmer and Schloss, 2010). blue-green in the preference pattern of males and a peak for the
Color preference in these studies was assessed rating preselected reddish-purple region for females but when Chinese and British
color patches (either as physical colored chips, or presented on participants were analyzed separately the sex differences emerged
computer monitor), or asking participants to imagine colors, and only in the British subpopulation (Hurlbert and Ling, 2007).
was not referred to specific objects. Taylor et al. (2013a) pointed out that previous studies focused
The extent to which these global and abstract color preferences mainly on industrialized cultures, and they decided to compare
could be applied to specific contexts was the focus of different color preferences of British adults to those of Himba adults, who
studies. For example, Taft (1997) compared the abstract semantic belong to a non-industrialized culture in rural Namibia. Results
ratings of color samples with those of the same colors applied to suggested that predictive models proposed in previous studies
a variety of familiar objects (e.g., sofa, modern chair, antique cannot account for the differences observed in the two
chair, bicycle, cheese slicer, and computer), finding a good populations.
correspondence between the two sets of ratings. Overall, he Another cross-cultural study found significant differences
found that only in the 4% of cases the color on the sample was between a population from Poland and a population from Papua
judged different for attractiveness from the same color on an (Sorokowski et al., 2014), even if sex patterns had a much higher
object. The specificity of color preference for specific objects was effect size than cultural difference. In fact, although preferences
explained in terms of appropriateness of the color-object observed in the two populations were different, the differences
association based on people experience. Some objects, in fact, observed in the preference patterns of males and females were
can be found in a wide variety of colors (e.g., bicycles), whereas comparable in the twosamples.
many objects appear in a very limited range of colors (e.g., Some studies also investigated the relation between color
computers, smartphones). Schloss et al. (2013) showed eight preferences and age (Teller et al., 2004; Zemach et al., 2007;
hues, each at two levels of saturation and two levels of lightness, in Franklin et al., 2008, 2010; Taylor et al., 2013b). For hue
addition to five achromatic colors (black, white, and three shades preference there is good agreement between different age
of gray). Participants had to rate the preference of each color categories. In particular, both infants and adults tend to show a
contextless on simple patches, and with reference to different preference for blue and a dislike for greenish-yellow (Teller et al.,
objects, both imagined and depicted (e.g., car, t-shirt, walls, sofa 2004; Zemach et al., 2007; Franklin et al., 2008, 2010). Palmer
etc.). The results showed that people preferred more saturated and Schloss (2010) found significant differences for lightness and
colors when evaluating simple patches than real objects. They saturation (infants tend to prefer saturated and light hues). In
also preferred darker colors for objects (e.g., t-shirts, scarfs, and comparative studies, the preference for blue was also confirmed
couches) compared to participants’ general preferences, with the in rhesus monkeys (Humphrey, 1972; Sahgal et al., 1975), and
exception of walls that were preferred with lighter colors. pigeons (Sahgal and Iversen, 1975).
41

Different accounts have been proposed to explain color Zhu, 2009), and to performance enhancement on detail-oriented
preference. According to Hurlbert and Ling (2007) color tasks (Mehta and Zhu, 2009).
preference is rooted in the cone-opponent contrast neural Kwallek et al. (1996) compared nine monochromatic office
mechanisms which encode colors. Human color vision is in fact interior colors in a between-subjects study in which university
based on two cone-opponent systems, loosely called “red- students performed a proofreading task in one office for a total
green” and “blue-yellow.” The red-green system responds to the permanence of 45 min. The nine office colors varied for two
difference between long-wavelength-sensitive cone responses (L) levels of saturation (high/low), and two levels of lightness
and middle-wavelength-sensitive (M) responses (L–M), while (dark/light). Pre and post mood change and color preferences
the blue-yellow system differences short-wavelength-sensitive (S) were also recorded. The proofreading task performance was not
cones with a combination of L and M cones [S – (L + M)]. The affected by office color, whereas errors were higher in the white
blue-yellow system accounts for the greatest variance (44.5%) for office in comparison to the blue and red offices, even if it cannot
color preference across the population, with blue hues that are be excluded that this difference could stem from cognitive
preferred over yellow hues. To the contrary, the red-green differences between the groups in the different conditions.
system accounts mainly for sex differences, with females that Higher saturated color offices resulted in higher vigor scores for
prefer colors with “reddish” contrast against the background in mood. Lightness and coolness or warmth of the office color did
comparison to males (Hurlbert andLing, 2007). not influence mood. Pleasantness for the office color differed
In another perspective, color preference could be grounded on significantly between the groups. Individuals preferred to work
emotional associations of colors. Colors are strictly associated to in beige and white rooms than in orange and purple offices. In
specific emotional states (Ou et al., 2004), and if an emotional terms of whether they liked the office color, individuals in the
state is perceived as pleasant then indirectly the pleasantness is green and red offices preferred their office color more than
transferred to the color. According to this theory, active, light, individuals in the yellow and orange offices. Participants in the
and cool colors are being preferred over passive, heavy, and warm white, beige, blue, and gray offices liked the color of their offices
ones. This theory, however, fails to explain why although blue is more than participants in the orange office. Concerning the
associated with sadness it is the most preferred color, and why distracting effect of the color, participants in the purple, orange,
yellow which is associated with joy, is less preferred than blue. red, yellow office colors reported that their colors were more
According to the ecological valence theory (EVT, Palmer and distracting compared to participants in the green, gray, beige,
Schloss, 2010) color preferences arise from people’s average and white offices. Purple and yellow office colors were rated as
affective responses to color-associated objects, so that people like the most distracting, and white as the least distracting.
colors strongly associated with objects they like and dislike In the context of criminal detention holding cells Pellegrini
colors strongly associated with objects they dislike. For example, et al. (1981) found no difference in the incidence of aggressive
since water is important for surviving and water tends to be officer-arrestee encounters after changing the cell color from pale
blue, blue is largely appreciated; similarly, since rotten food is blue to hot pink.
dangerous for our health and rotten food tend to be greenish- Independently from the influence of color on behavior, people
yellow, this color is largely unappreciated. The EVT is able to strongly tend to associate colors to specific semantic clusters
explain both the universal trends and the minor variations: blue (Sutton and Altarriba, 2016). Bright colors (e.g., white, pink) are
is probably appreciated in every culture while red is generally often associated to positive emotions whereas dark colors (e.g.,
less appreciated, but for example the lucky effect that Chinese black, brown) tend to be associated with negative emotions
culture associate to this color make it more appreciable in China (Hemphill, 1996). Furthermore, we tend to infer the valence of a
compared to other countries. The authors of the EVT estimated stimulus on the basis of brightness (Meier et al., 2004).
that the affective valence association was able to account for the Individuals were faster to categorize positive words when they
80% of variance in color preference ratings over 32 different appeared in white than when they appeared in black, with an
colors. opposite trend for negative words. Color associations are often
Few controlled studies have investigated psychological and cross-modal (Spence, 2011), and the most important cross-modal
physiological effects of specific color exposure. For example, association is the distinction between cold and warm colors (Ho
Jacobs and Hustmyer (1974) measured the physiological et al., 2014).
activation during a 1-min exposure to four different colors. Most of the literature that we have so far reviewed defined
Considering the galvanic skin response, red was significantly color effects and preferences exposing participants to colors via
more arousing than other colors. Küller et al. (2009) compared computer screens or using colored patches, or asking participants
psychological and physiological effects of a gray, red, and blue to imagine specific colors; furthermore, the exposure time to
room. The results showed that the red room increased the brain colored settings was in general very short (Elliot and Maier,
arousal level (assessed as percentage of alpha waves). This effect 2014). The more realistic setting in an architectural study was that
was particularly significant in introvert persons or persons that reported by Kwallek et al. (1996), but also in this case participants
were in a negative mood. Red was also found to be associated remained in the experimental room only the time to complete
with a higher probability of winning a sport competition (Hill some tests for a total duration of about 45 min.
and Barton, 2005), to performance impairment on achievement This is the first study that examined color preferences and the
tasks due to avoidance motivation (Elliot et al., 2007; Mehta and effects of environmental color on psychological functioning in a
population that lived in mean more than 1 year in an architectural
42

FIGURE 1 | The six buildings of the “I Praticelli” university residence hall with number and color assignment.
setting characterized by a strong monochromatic color interior Participants declared to spend an average of 6.78 h (SD = 3.28)
design. The innovative aspect of our study was the possibility to per day in their room (excluding sleeping time).
examine color preferences and psychological effects of long- This study was carried out in accordance with the
term color exposure in a real residential context. The university recommendations of the Ethics Committee of the University of
residence hall provided a setting with a high ecological validity for Bologna that approved the study protocol. All participants gave
the study of color influence on residential satisfaction, lightness written informed consent in accordance with the Declaration of
self-evaluation, study facilitation, and mood. Helsinki. The data were collected in an anonymous form.
Procedure and Data Analysis

MATERIALS AND METHODS The study was conducted at the university residence hall “I
Praticelli,” located in Pisa (Italy). This setting was chosen for its
Participants architectural properties, since the university residence hall is
Participants were 443 university students living in a university divided into six identical buildings differing only for the interior
residence hall. The sample included 230 males (Mage = 23.91, SD color (walls, floor, and ceiling) (Figure 1). Each building has
= 2.73) and 213 females (Mage = 23.68, SD = 2.60). The common areas (corridors, kitchen, and living rooms) and part
distribution of participants between the six buildings, differing of the students’ rooms uniformly painted with one of these six
for the specific interior color, was: orange N = 74 (16.7%), blue N colors: violet, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red, showed in
= 75 (16.9%), yellow N = 74 (16.7%), red N = 87 (19.6%), Figures 1, 2. The RAL code of each color, along with its CIE Yxy
green N = 85 (19.2%), and violet N = 48 (10.9%). Student coordinates are reported in Table 1. Artificial lighting within the
assignment to the different buildings was performed by the six buildings was uniform with the use of linear fluorescent bulbs
residence hall administration at the time of admission. Mean stay (photometrical data: color rendering index Ra ≥ 80, light color
at the university residence hall at the time of the research was 830, rated color temperature 3000K).
13.33 months (SD = 12.14). Difference between mean stay in the The layout of students’ rooms included a small entrance hall
six buildings was not significant. connected to the bathroom and the main room (Figure 3). The
Participants were accommodated in single (31.8%) and double specific color that characterized each building was applied to: (a)
(68.2%) rooms. The proportion of students in single and double walls and ceiling of all interior common spaces (i.e., corridors,
rooms was homogeneous for the six buildings. Eight participants kitchens, study rooms); (b) walls and ceiling of the entrance hall
were excluded because they declared a deficiency in color vision. inside the student’s room; (c) one wall in the bedroom (the
43

FIGURE 2 | Examples of five corridors (left) and three study rooms (right) of the university residence hall.
remaining walls and the ceiling in the bedroom were painted in data (age, sex, province of residence), and university course
white); (d) walls of the bathroom (the ceiling was white) attended by the student; (b) color vision deficiency; (c) hall of
(Figures 2, 3). Floors, both inside the room and in the common residence color in which the student lived (red, orange, yellow,
spaces, had a color coherent with the building but slightly green, blue, violet); (d) hall of residence color in which the
different in hue from the wall colors. Floor-color coordinates and student would prefer to live; (e) time stayed at the residence hall
RAL codes for the six buildings are reported inTable 1. since admission; (f) room type (single, double); (g) color
Color preferences and the student’s experience with the lightness preference for the building in which the student lived;
university hall design were investigated administering a (h) color preference in general (Figure 4 considering both hue
questionnaire structured in these sections: (a) socio-demographic and lightness); (i) color preference for the residence hall
TABLE 1 | RAL code, color sample, and CIE Yxy coordinates for walls, ceilings, and floors of the six buildings considered in the study.
Building Walls and ceiling Floor
RAL Sample CIE Yxy RAL Sample CIE Yxy
Red 3020 11.531, 0.6157, 0.3373 3016 11.650, 0.5337, 0.3472
Orange 2009 21.731, 0.5771, 0.3771 3012 29.612, 0.4168, 0.3599
Yellow 1023 52.822, 0.4772, 0.4593 1000 49.875, 0.3701, 0.3912
Green 6018 25.640, 0.3359, 0.5034 6021 29.518, 0.3293, 0.3856
Blue 5012 21.269, 0.2020, 0.2470 5024 26.333, 0.2469, 0.2864
Violet 4009 26.294, 0.3260, 0.3103 4009 26.294, 0.3260, 0.3103
44

FIGURE 3 | Example of a green and orange student’s room at the university residence hall.
coordinates, and Y values were considered as a proxy of lightness

level in the range 0–100.
In addition to the questionnaire, the students were
administered the Brief Mood Introspection Scale (Mayer and
Gaschke, 1988) for an assessment of general mood. This scale
assesses mood along these dimensions: happy, loving, calm,
energetic, fearful/anxious, angry, tired, and sad. Each dimension
includes two items for a total of 16 ratings: lively, happy, sad,
tired, caring, content, gloomy, jittery, drowsy, grouchy, peppy,
nervous, calm, loving, fed up, and active.
RESULTS
Interior Color Preference
Blue was the preferred interior color (34.7%), followed by green
(23.1%), violet (14.1%), orange (11.9%), yellow (8.7%), and red
(7.5%). The Chi-square that tested non-equality in frequency
distribution was significant: χ 2 = 116.52, p < 0.001, ϕ = 0.55.
Interior color preference as a function of participant’s sex is
shown in Figure 5. Separate Chi-square analysis with Bonferroni
FIGURE 4 | Color wheel for the assessment of chromatic preference. The correction were performed to test the effect of sex on each
wheel included 24 sectors varying in hue. Each sector included 10 levels interior color preference. The difference was significant for blue
along the radial dimension varying in lightness. (χ 2 = 6.03, p = 0.01), and violet (χ 2 = 18.13, p < 0.001), as shown
in Figure 5.
Color preference as a function of participant’s residence hall
(Figure 4, both hue and lightness); (j) room ceiling preference color is shown in Table 2. The frequency cross-tabulation analysis
(white, colored); (k) room lightness level (−2/+2); (l) room was significant: χ 2 = 364, p < 0.001, ϕ = 0.89. Superimposed to
lightness satisfaction (−2/+2); (m) hours per day spent in the the general preference for the blue and green hall of residences,
room; (n) facilitating effect of the specific building color in the participants showed a preference bias for the color in which they
studying activity (−2/+2); (o) effect of the hall of residence color actually lived (diagonal entries in Table 2). For example, although
scheme for wayfinding and orienting(0–3). red was the least preferred interior color with a mean choice of
When evaluating general color preference and room color 7.5%, 28% of the participants living in the red hall of residence
preference the student had to choose a specific sample from the preferred to stay in that color. Similarly, yellow was preferred only
color wheel shown in Figure 4. The color wheel was divided into by 8.7% of participants, but 31.7% of the students living in the
24 sectors differing in hue. Each sector was divided in 10 levels yellow hall of residence preferred that specific color. The effects
differing in lightness along the radial dimension, for a total of were summed for the most preferred interior colors: 53.6% of
240 color samples. For each sample we considered the CIE Yxy the students living in the blue hall of residence preferred not to
45

FIGURE 5 | Interior color preference for the six buildings in male and female participants. Asterisks show the significance level of the gender difference test.
∗∗p < 0.01, ∗∗∗p < 0.001.
change, and 48.6% of those living in the green rooms preferred to for students of the red hall of residence to 9.60% for students
stay in that specific hall ofresidence. living in the blue hall of residence. The bias was computed with
Interior color preference was not affected by the type of the difference between mean preference for a specific color for
accommodation (i.e., single versus double). all participants and mean preference for a specific color
considering only those that lived in that color. Accommodation
General Chromatic Preference in a single versus double room was not critical for general
Participants had to select the preferred color between the 240 chromatic preference.
samples included in Figure 4. The preference was general and Preference for each of the 24 hues, distinguishing between
not referred to a specific object or context. Hue (wheel sector) male and female participants, is shown in Figure 6. Male and
and lightness (radial axis) were separatelyanalyzed. female preferences were significantly different for hue 15 (χ 2 =
Grouping the 24 hues into six main categories, color 5.58, p = 0.001), hue 22 (χ 2 = 15, p < 0.001), and hue 23
preference in descending order was: blue (39.2%), green (18.8%), (χ 2 = 17, p < 0.001) (Figure6).
red (18.6%), violet (9.3%), orange (8.4%), and yellow (5.7%). Lightness preference was tested with an ANOVA inserting hue
These preferences were significantly affected by the specific color (24 levels) and sex as factors. Main effect for hue was significant
in which the participant lived: t(5) = −4.71, p = 0.005, η 2p= 0.81. F(22,408) = 27,46, p < 0.001, η2p= 0.59. The preferred lightness
The bias was in mean +5.42% (SD = 3.08%) in favor of the level for each hue is shown in Figure 7 (left). Sex and the
color to which the student belonged, and ranged from 1.19% interaction between hue and sex were notsignificant.
TABLE 2 | Residence color preference (%) as a function of the actual residence color in which the student lived.
Desired hall of residence color
Participant’s actual hall of residence color
28 9.3 4 22.7 28 8
1.6 42.2 4.7 12.5 28.1 10.9
0 6.7 31.7 23.3 28.3 10
6.8 5.4 2.7 48.6 28.4 8.1
2.9 2.9 5.8 14.5 53.6 20.3
2.3 7 7 11.6 37.2 34.9

Mean 7.5 11.9 8.7 23.1 34.7 14.1
46

FIGURE 6 | General chromatic preference (%) in females (left bar) and males (right bar) for the 24 hues shown in Figure 4. Lightness level of each bar matches the
mean preferred lightness level (radial axis in Figure 4). Asterisks show the significance level for the male-female comparison (∗∗p < 0.01, ∗∗∗p < 0.001).
The type of accommodation (single versus double) was not

critical.
The distribution of preferences for each of the 24 hues in males
and females is shown in Figure 8. Each bar color in Figure 8
shows also the preferred lightness level for each hue. Chromatic
preference for male and female participants differed significantly
in five hues: hue 15 (χ 2 = 5.90, p = 0.01), hue 17 (χ 2 = 3.84,
p = 0.04), hue 22 (χ 2 = 14.22, p < 0.001), hue 23 (χ 2 = 7.36,
p = 0.006), andhue 24 (χ 2 = 4.45, p = 0.03).
Color lightness preference for the residence hall was tested
with an ANOVA inserting hue (24 levels) and sex as factors.
Main effect for hue was significant F(23,393) = 24.46, p < 0.001,
η2p = 0.59. The preferred color lightness level for each hue is
FIGURE 7 | Preferred lightness level (blue frame), for each of the 24 hues, in
the general condition (left) and in the university residence hall condition shown in Figure 7 (right). Sex and the interaction between hue
(right). and sex were not significant.
Residence Hall Chromatic Preference General Versus Residence Hall Color

Grouping the 24 hues of Figure 4 into six main categories, Lightness Preference
specific color preferences for the university residence hall were: General color lightness preference was compared to the residence
blue (36.4%), green (20.8%), orange (12.5%), yellow hall color lightness preference with a matched t-test including
all the 24 hue sectors. The t-test was significant: t(23) = −2.58,
(11.2%), red (10.5%), and violet (8.6%). These preferences were
significantly influenced by the color in which the participant p = 0.02, η2 = 0.22. Mean preferred chromatic lightness level was
lived: t(5) = −4.99, p = 0.004, η = 0.83.
2 The preference 42.82 (SD = 24.23) in the general evaluation, and 46.76 (SD =
p
bias for the own color was in mean 9.14% (SD = 4.48%), 23.76) when referred specifically to theresidence hall.
and ranged from 3.74% for the students living in the yellow hall
to 13.70% for those living in the blue hall. The bias was Preferred Color Lightness Level
computed subtracting mean preference for a specific color Participants had first to select the hue sector matching their
considering all participants to mean preference for a specific building on the color wheel in Figure 9, then they had to mark
color including only those living in that color. the preferred lightness level on the wheel radius. Lightness level
47

FIGURE 8 | Distribution of the residence hall color preference for males (right bars) and females (left bars) for the 24 hues considered in the study. Lightness level of
each bar matches the average preferred lightness level. Asterisks show the significance level for the male-female comparison (∗p < 0.05, ∗∗p < 0.01,
∗∗∗p < 0.001).
Preferred color lightness was compared to the actual color

lightness of the six interior colors with a paired t-test that was
significant: t(186) = 14.24, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.52. Mean preferred
color lightness was 45.89 (SD = 24.56), significantly higher than
the mean actual interior color lightness of the six buildings: 26.03
(SD = 14.02) (Figure 9). Being the student in a single versus
double room was not critical.
Room-Lightness Level
Self-evaluated room-lightness as a function of the room color
was tested with an ANOVA that was significant: F(5,437) = 4.25,
p = 0.001, η 2p= 0.05. On a − 2/+2 scale mean room-lightness
ratings were: 1.04 (SD = 0.12) in the yellow building, 0.71
(SD = 0.12) in the orange building, 0.65 (SD = 0.11) in the green
building, 0.62 (SD = 0.15) in the violet building, 0.51 (SD = 0.11)
FIGURE 9 | Color lightness preference (blue frame) as a function of the
in the red building, and 0.29 (SD = 0.12) in the blue building.
six-building interior color. The asterisks show the actual color lightness level in Planned comparisons showed these significant contrasts: yellow
the six buildings. rooms were evaluated lighter than blue rooms (p < 0.001), red
rooms (p = 0.007), and green rooms (p = 0.40). Blue rooms were
evaluated darker than orange rooms (p = 0.006), green rooms (p
was operationalized as the Y value of the Yxy CIE coordinates of
= 0.02), and violet rooms (p = 0.002).
the selected patch.
Preferred lightness level differed significantly as a function of
hue: F(5,175) = 34.03, p < 0.001, η2p= 0.49. Framed swatches in Room-Lightness Satisfaction
Figure 9 show the preferred color lightness level as a function Room-lightness satisfaction as a function of the room interior
of the building color. Mean preferred lightness for the six colors color was tested with an ANOVA that was significant:
were: Myellow = 80.59 (SD = 14.11), Mviolet = 46.45 (SD = 17.72), F(5,437) = 4.33, p = 0.001, η =2p 0.05. On a + 2/−2 scale mean
Mgreen = 45.78 (SD = 17.14), Morange = 38.60 (SD = 13.88), room-lightness satisfaction was 0.95 (SD = 0.12) for yellow
Mblu = 32.70 (SD = 21.97), Mred = 29.13 (SD = 20.74). Planned rooms, 0.85 (SD = 0.15) for violet rooms, 0.71 (SD = 0.12) for
comparisons showed that the yellow painting was preferred orange rooms, 0.62 (SD = 0.11) for green rooms, 0.52 (SD = 0.11)
lighter than all other paintings (p < 0.001). Furthermore, violet for red rooms, and 0.25 (SD = 0.12) for blue rooms. Planned
painting was preferred lighter than red painting (p = 0.008). comparisons showed these significant contrasts: orange versus
48

blue (p = 0.01), yellow versus blue (p < 0.001), green versus blue composed by six buildings that differed only for the interior
(p = 0.03), yellow versus red (p = 0.001), yellow versus green (p = color, investigating pleasantness for each specific color; how this
0.02). The correlation between self-evaluated room-lightness pleasantness related to general chromatic preference, the effects
level and room-lightness satisfaction was 0.78 (p < 0.001). of the interior color on lightness level and lightness satisfaction,
Room lightness satisfaction was not affected by the student’s and the effect of the color on the residents’ functioning and
accommodation (single versus double). mood. This is the first study that examined the effects of interior
colors in occupants who “lived in a specific color” for an average
White Versus Colored Ceiling time of more than one year, filling a void in the color preference
A white ceiling (84.93%) was preferred more than a colored literature that has always focused on the effects of brief
ceiling (15.07%): χ 2 = 97.09, p < 0.001, ϕ = 0.44. exposures to specific colors (Palmer et al., 2013). Interior colors,
to the contrary, tend to shape the “domestic landscape” for
Spatial Orientation and Wayfinding long-term intervals, and is therefore important to study color
preferences and color effects on a large-time scale, as in this
The use of specific colors for the six buildings was evaluated to
study.
facilitate spatial orientation and wayfinding within the university
residence hall: M = 2.06 (SD = 0.98) on a 0 -3 scale. The rating The building with blue interior color was the most preferred,
was not significantly affected by buildingcolor. followed by the green, violet, orange, yellow, and red building.
Blue was also the preferred color when performing general
chromatic preferences, consistently with previous literature
Mood and Interior Color (Eysenck, 1941; Granger, 1952; Guilford and Smith, 1959;
The effect of building interior color on the Brief Mood
Hurlbert and Ling, 2007; Palmer and Schloss, 2010). Considering
Introspection Scale was tested with a MANOVA that was not
all the six buildings, cool colors (blue, violet, and green) were
significant.
preferred to warm colors (yellow, orange, and red). This pattern
of preferences could be linked to the ecological valence theory
Mood and Color Preference (Palmer and Schloss, 2010) that posit a causal link between the
The effect of mood on color preference (coded on six levels) was preference for a color and the preference for objects that are
tested with a MANOVA that was significant for the “calm” characterized by that specific color. In this perspective the
scale: F(6,400) = 2.64, p = 0.01, η2 = p0.04. Mean ratings as a preference for blues and cyans could emerge as a consequence
function of the interior color were: green 1.54 (SD = 1.05), blue for the preference of clear sky and clean water, or for the
1.21 (SD = 1.65), violet 1.12 (SD = 2.01), red 1.04 (SD = 1.68), association of blue with serenity and calm (Ou et al., 2004),
yellow 0.89 (SD = 1.53), and orange 0.61 (SD = 1.73). Blue versus qualities that probably are sought by students for their residential
orange (p = 0.02), green versus yellow (p = 0.04), green versus space.
orange (p = 0.001) were the significant pairwise comparisons. Superimposed to the preference for specific colors of the
university residence hall we found an effect of “color attachment”
Building Interior Color and Facilitation of in which a significant part of students expressed a preference for
Studying Activity the specific color in which they lived. Different elements could
An ANOVA tested the interaction between building interior color concur to explain this effect. A mere exposure effect (Bornstein,
and facilitation of the studying activity (−2/+2 scale) of the 1989), due to the familiarity with the actual color, could have
participants. The interaction was significant: F(5,434) = 2.44, contributed to increase its pleasantness. An additional cause
p = 0.03, η2p= 0.03. Mean ratings as a function of the interior could be the residential attachment that the student developed
color were: blue 0.34 (SD = 0.08), violet 0.19 (SD = 0.10), green with the hall of residence in which he/she lived (Tognoli, 2003;
0.17 (SD = 0.07), yellow 0.13 (SD = 0.08), orange 0.01 (SD = 0.08), Rioux et al., 2017).
and red 0.01 (SD = 0.07). Pairwise comparisons showed that the In general we found a considerable overlap between general
significance was explained by the contrasts blue versus orange (p chromatic preferences and interior color preferences, with the
= 0.004) and blue versus red (p = 0.003). only exception of lightness: colors in interiors were preferred
lighter than when expressing general preferences. For each of the
six colors used in the university residence hall the participants
DISCUSSION expressed a preference for a lighter version. The discrepancy was
maximum for yellow, intermediate for red and orange, and small
Whereas color on external façades influences the perception of for green, blue, and violet. Interestingly yellow was preferred at
the overall urban design and has mainly an aesthetic role high levels of lightness, whilst blue was preferred more dark. In
(Mougthtin et al., 1995), color in interior design could general, the interior colors used in the university residence hall
significantly affect residential satisfaction and psychological and were evaluated too dark and saturated, and not fully adequate to
social functioning in addition to having an aesthetic value. Color a residential setting.
in interior design can be more easily personalized, strongly Although blue was the preferred interior color for both males
interacts with the color of other decorating objects, and its and females, the polarization for blue was less pronounced in
pleasantness could affect home attachment. In the specificity of female participants than in males. Females, for example,
our study, we exploited a unique architectural setting expressed a discrete preference for the violet color that most
49

males rejected. Gender differences emerged also in the general rating in the mood scale. These results can be explained
chromatic preferences, with a lower polarization for the blue considering that the color blue is often associated with
color, and a higher preference for red, pink, and violet in openness, peace, and tranquility (Kaya and Epps, 2004), in
females. These results are consistent with the tendency reported contrast with red that is often associated with dangers,
by Hurlbert and Ling (2007) who compared a British and a activation, erotic pleasure (Elliot et al., 2007). Furthermore,
Chinese sample, and by Al-Rasheed (2015) who compared Mehta and Zhu (2009), from a series of six studies,
Arabic and English participants, and recently by Bonnardel et al. demonstrated that blue (versus red), activated an approach
(2018) who compared gender differences in color preference motivation and enhanced performance on creative cognitive
among British and Indian students, finding in females a more tasks. These results were further confirmed by Xia et al. (2016).
distributed pattern of color preference, and a secondary, The interior colors that were evaluated to have the worst
superimposed preference for pink-purple colors. However, effect on studying were red and orange. This effect could be
although these gender differences, it should be emphasized that explained considering that long-wave colors can cause higher
for both males and females blue was the most preferred color. arousal than short-wave colors (Jacobs and Hustmyer, 1974;
The interior color influenced significantly room-lightness Walters et al., 1982). According to the Yerkes-Dodson law
level and room-lightness satisfaction. Interestingly, the colors (Yerkes and Dodson, 1908), this high-arousal state could
associated with high lightness level and satisfaction were negatively affect the performance in difficult tasks, as studying.
complementary to those associated to color preference. For As guidelines for the design of university residence halls and
example, blue interiors were the most preferred but also those interiors in residential settings in general, we could suggest
that had the higher detrimental effect on lightness level and preferring blue and green colors and avoid red, yellow and orange
satisfaction, whereas yellow, which was among the most colors. In case of a residence hall for male students it is better to
undesirable colors at the university residence, led to the highest restrict the color palette to only blue and green hues, whereas in
levels of lightness satisfaction. This connection between interior case of female students the color palette could be more varied,
color and lightness level is important considering that the including also red-purple and violet hues. The blue color is to be
amount of daylight in a residential or working environment is a preferred in study areas. Light colors are to be preferred for
predictor of stress reduction and satisfaction (Alimoglu and preserving an adequate lightness level, and a white ceiling is
Donmez, 2005; Yildirim et al., 2007). preferred over a colored one. In general, when the university hall
In general, there was a strong preference for rooms with a has a complex layout, segregating functional spaces with specific
white ceiling, probably because the perceived room height colors could be helpful for facilitating spatial orientation and
increases with theceiling lightness (Oberfeld et al., 2010). wayfinding.
The assignment of a specific color to each building was Interior color is a ubiquitous component of every architecture
considered to facilitate orientation and wayfinding within the design that strongly characterizes residential, work, educational,
university residence hall, in line with the previous research of commercial environments, and has a significant impact on
Hidayetoglu et al. (2012). Interior color is the primary source psychological functioning and satisfaction on the people living in
for increasing legibility and facilitating spatial navigation within these environments. The development of applied research in this
a complex architecture. Furthermore, we can suggest that the field could contribute to establish an evidence-based knowledge
characterization of each building with a specific color could have that can be used by designers and architects to guide color choice
promoted a higher place attachment to the own building, as in their projects.
suggested also by the preference bias found for the color in which
the student lived.
The blue interior color was considered to promote and
facilitate studying activity more than lighter and warmer colors
(such as orange and red) that probably were perceived as too AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
arousing (Küller et al., 2009). Furthermore, we found an
association between a blue color preference and the “calm” MC and SF designed and devised the study. SF acquired the data.
MC, SF, and IP analyzed the data. MC, SF, MN, and IP wrote the
manuscript.
REFERENCES Bonnardel, V., Beniwal, S., Dubey, N., Pande, M., and Bimler, D. (2018). Gender
difference in color preference across cultures: an archetypal pattern modulated
Alimoglu, M. K., and Donmez, L. (2005). Daylight exposure and the other by a female cultural stereotype. Color Res. Appl. 43, 209–223. doi: 10.1002/col.
predictors of burnout among nurses in a university hospital. Int. J. Nurs. Stud. 22188
42, 549–555. doi: 10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2004.09.001 Bornstein, R. F. (1989). Exposure and affect: overview and meta-analysis of
Al-Rasheed, A. S. (2015). An experimental study of gender and cultural research. Psychol. Bull. 106, 265–289. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.106.2.265
differences in hue preference. Front. Psychol. 6:30. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015. Choungourian, A. (1968). Colour preferences and cultural variation. Percept. Mot.
00030 Skills 26, 1203–1206. doi: 10.2466/pms.1968.26.3c.1203
Bakker, I., van der Voordt, T., Vink, P., de Boon, J., and Bazley, C. (2013). Color Dittmar, M. (2001). Changing colour preferences with ageing: a comparative study
preferences for different topics in connection to personal characteristic. Color on younger and older native Germans aged 19-90 years. Gerontology 47, 219–
Res. Appl. 40, 62–71. doi: 10.1002/col.21845 226. doi: 10.1159/000052802
50

Elliot, A. J., and Maier, M. A. (2014). Color psychology: effects of perceiving color Meier, B. P., Robinson, M. D., and Clore, G. L. (2004). Why good guys wear white:
on psychological functioning in humans. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 65, 95–120. doi: automatic inferences about stimulus valence based on brightness. Psychol. Sci.
10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115035 15, 82–87. doi: 10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.01502002.x
Elliot, A. J., Maier, M. A., Moller, A. C., Friedman, R., and Meinhardt, J. (2007). Mougthtin, C., Oc, T., and Tiesdell, S. (1995). Urban Design: Ornement and
Color and psychological functioning: the effect of red on performance Decoration. Oxford: Butterworth.
attainment. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 136, 154–168. doi: 10.1037/0096-3445. Oberfeld, D., Hecht, H., and Gamer, M. (2010). Surface lightness influences
136.1.154 perceived room height. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 63, 1999–2011. doi: 10.1080/
Eysenck, H. J. (1941). A critical and experimental study of colour preferences. Am. 17470211003646161
J. Psychol. 54, 385–394. doi: 10.2307/1417683 Ou, L.-C., Luo, M. R., Woodcock, A., and Wright, A. (2004). A study of colour
Franklin, A., Bevis, L., Ling, Y., and Hurlbert, A. (2010). Biological components of emotion and colour preference. Part I: colour emotions for single colours. Color
colour preference in infancy. Dev. Sci. 13, 346–354. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687. Res. Appl. 29, 232–240. doi: 10.1002/col.20010
2009.00884.x Ou, L.-C., Ronnier Luo, M., Sun, P. L., Hu, N. C., Chen, H. S., Guan,
Franklin, A., Drivonikou, G. V., Bevis, L., Davies, I. R. L., Kay, P., and Regier, T. S. S., et al. (2012). A cross-cultural comparison of colour emotion for two-
(2008). Categorical perception of color is lateralized to the right hemisphere in colour combinations. Color Res. Appl. 37, 23–43. doi: 10.1002/col. 20648
infants, but to the left hemisphere in adults. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 105, 3221– Palmer, S. E., and Schloss, K. B. (2010). An ecological valence theory of human color
3225. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0712286105 preference. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 107, 8877–8882. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0906172107
Granger, G. W. (1952). Objectivity of colour preferences. Nature 170, 778–780. Palmer, S. E., Schloss, K. B., and Sammartino, J. (2013). Visual aesthetics and
doi: 10.1038/170778a0 human preference. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 64, 77–107. doi: 10.1146/annurev-
Granger, G. W. (1955). An experimental study of colour preferences. J. Gen. psych-120710-100504
Psychol. 52, 3–20. doi: 10.1080/00221309.1955.9918340 Pellegrini, R. J., Schauss, A. G., and Miller, M. E. (1981). Room color and aggression
Guilford, J. P., and Smith, P. C. (1959). A system of color-preferences. Am. J. in a criminal detention holding cell: a test of the “tranquilizing pink” hypothesis.
Psychol. 72, 487–502. doi: 10.2307/1419491 J. Orthomol. Psychiatry 10, 174–181.
Hemphill, M. (1996). A note on adults’ color–emotion associations. J. Gen. Psychol. Rioux, L., Scrima, F., and Werner, C. M. (2017). Space appropriation and place
157, 275–280. doi: 10.1080/00221325.1996.9914865 attachment: university students create places. J. Environ. Psychol. 50, 60–68.
Hidayetoglu, M. L., Yildirim, K., and Akalin, A. (2012). The effects of color and doi: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.02.003
light on indoor wayfinding and the evaluation of the perceived environment. J. Sahgal, A., and Iversen, S. (1975). Color preferences in the pigeon: a behavioral and
Environ. Psychol. 32, 50–58. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2011.09.001 psychopharmacological study. Psychopharmacologia 43, 175–179. doi: 10.1007/
Hill, R. A., and Barton, R. A. (2005). Psychology: red enhances human performance BF00421021
in contests. Nature 435, 293–293. doi: 10.1038/435293a Sahgal, A., Roderick Pratt, S., and Iversen, S. (1975). Response preferences of
Ho, H.-N., Van Doorn, G. H., Kawabe, T., Watanabe, J., and Spence, C. (2014). monkey (Macaca mulatta) within wavelength and line-tilt dimensions. J. Exp.
Colour-temperature correspondences: when reactions to thermal stimuli are Anal. Behav. 24, 377–381. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1975.24-377
influenced by colour. PLoS One 9:e91854. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.00 91854 Saito, M. (1994). A cross-cultural study on color preference in three Asian cities.
Humphrey, N. K. (1972). “Interest” and “pleasure”: two determinants of a monkey’s Jpn. Psychol. Res. 36, 219–232. doi: 10.4992/psycholres1954. 36.219
visual preferences. Perception 1, 395–416. doi: 10.1068/p010395 Saito, M. (1996). Comparative studies on color preference in Japan and other Asian
Hunt, R. W. G., and Pointer, M. R. (2011). Measuring Colour, 4th Edn. Chichester: regions, with special emphasis on the preference for white. Color Res. Appl. 21,
Wiley. doi: 10.1002/9781119975595 35–49. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1520-6378(199602)21:1<35::AID-COL4>3.0. CO;2-6
Hurlbert, A. C., and Ling, Y. (2007). Biological components of sex differences in Schloss, K. B., Strauss, E. D., and Palmer, S. E. (2013). Object color preferences.
color preference. Curr. Biol. 17, 623–625. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2007. 06.022 Color Res. Appl. 38, 393–411. doi: 10.1002/col.21756
Jacobs, K. W., and Hustmyer, F. E. (1974). Effects of four psychological primary Sorokowski, P., Sorokowska, A., and Witzel, C. (2014). Sex differences in color
colors on GSR, heart rate and respiration rate. Percept. Mot. Skills 38, 763–766. preferences transcend extreme differences in culture and ecology. Psychon. Bull.
doi: 10.2466/pms.1974.38.3.763 Rev. 21, 1195–1201. doi: 10.3758/s13423-014-0591-8
Jonauskaite, D., Mohr, C., Antonietti, J. P., Spiers, P. M., Althaus, B., Anil, S., et al. Spence, C. (2011). Crossmodal correspondences: a tutorial review. Atten. Percept.
(2016). Most and least preferred colours differ according to object context: new Psychophys. 73, 971–995. doi: 10.3758/s13414-010-0073-7
insights from an unrestricted colour range. PLoS One 11:e0152194. doi: Sutton, T. M., and Altarriba, J. (2016). Color associations to emotion and
10.1371/journal.pone.0152194 emotion-laden words: a collection of norms for stimulus construction and
Kaya, N., and Epps, H. H. (2004). Relationship between color and emotion: a study selection. Behav. Res. Methods 48, 686–728. doi: 10.3758/s13428-015- 0598-8
of college students. Coll. Stud. J. 38, 396–405. Taft, C. (1997). Color meaning and context: comparisons of semantic ratings of
Küller, R., Ballal, S., Laike, T., Mikellides, B., and Tonello, G. (2006). The impact colors on samples and objects. Color Res. Appl. 22, 40–50. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)
of light and colour on psychological mood: a cross-cultural study of indoor 1520-6378(199702)22:1<40::AID-COL7>3.0.CO;2-4
work environments. Ergonomics 49, 1496–1507. doi: 10.1080/00140130600 Taylor, C., Clifford, A., and Franklin, A. (2013a). Color preferences are not
858142 universal. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 142, 1015–1027. doi: 10.1037/a00 30273
Küller, R., Mikellides, B., and Janssens, J. (2009). Color, arousal, and performance - Taylor, C., Schloss, K., Palmer, S. E., and Franklin, A. (2013b). Color preferences in
A comparison of three experiments. Color Res. Appl. 34, 141–152. doi: 10.1002/ infants and adults are different. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 20, 916–922. doi: 10.3758/
col.20476 s13423-013-0411-6
Kunishima, M., and Yanase, T. (1985). Visual effects of wall colours in living rooms. Teller, D. Y., Civan, A., and Bronson-Castain, K. (2004). Infants’ spontaneous color
Ergonomics 28, 869–882. doi: 10.1080/00140138508963208 preferences are not due to adult-like brightness variations. Vis. Neurosci. 21,
Kwallek, N., Lewis, C. M., Lin-Hsiao, J. W. D., and Woodson, H. (1996). Effects of 397–401. doi: 10.1017/S0952523804213360
nine monochromatic office interior colors on clerical tasks and worker mood. Tognoli, J. (2003). Leaving home: homesickness, place attachment, and transition
Color Res. Appl. 21, 448–458. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1520-6378(199612)21:6<448:: among residential college students. J. Coll. Stud. Psychother. 18, 35–48. doi:
AID-COL7>3.0.CO;2-W 10.1300/J035v18n01_04
Mayer, J. D., and Gaschke, Y. N. (1988). The experience and meta-experience of Walters, J., Apter, M. J., and Svebak, S. (1982). Color preference, arousal, and the
mood. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 55, 102–111. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.55. 1.102 theory of psychological reversals. Mot. Emot. 6, 193–215. doi: 10.1007/
Mehta, R., and Zhu, R. J. (2009). Blue or red? Exploring the effect of color on BF00992245
cognitive task performances. Science 323, 1226–1229. doi: 10.1126/science.
1169144
51

Xia, T., Song, L., Wang, T. T., Tan, L., and Mo, L. (2016). Exploring the effect of Conflict of Interest Statement: The authors declare that the research was
red and blue on cognitive task performances. Front. Psychol. 7:784. doi: conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could
10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00784 be construed as a potential conflict ofinterest.
Yerkes, R. M., and Dodson, J. D. (1908). The relation of strength of stimulus to
rapidity of habit formation. J. Comp. Psychol. 18, 459–482. doi: 10.1002/cne. Copyright © 2018 Costa, Frumento, Nese and Predieri. This is an open- access
920180503 article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
Yildirim, K., Akalin-Baskaya, A., and Celebi, M. (2007). The effects of window (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted,
proximity, partition height, and gender on perceptions of open-plan offices. J. provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that
Environ. Psychol. 27, 154–165. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2007.01.004 the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted
Zemach, I., Chang, S., and Teller, D. Y. (2007). Infant color vision: prediction of academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not
infants’ spontaneous color preferences. Vis. Res. 47, 1368–1381. doi: 10.1016/j. comply with these terms.
visres.2006.09.024
View publicationstats
52

AUTHOR
1. Kristi S. Gaines
2. Zane D. Curry
YEAR Summer 2011
TITLE The Inclusive Classroom: The Effects of Color on Learning and
Behavior
AIM
To reviews and analyzes existing literature and empirical
evidence related to use of color in the classroom for students
of all abilities.
METHODS
• Search for literature was made through searching key words
• databases used were Pubmed, EBSCO Host, Google Scholar,
Medline, PsycInfo, PsycArticles, Psychology and Behavioral
Sciences Collection, Education Research Complete, Health
Source, and Texas Tech University Libraries. Potential
studies were identified from the review of articles and
books.
• Literature were collected and studied and then reviewed.
SAMPLE distinguished literature related to Effects of Color on Learning and

Behavior
CONCLUSION
• The present analysis is perhaps the first to investigate the
appropriate use of color for inclusive classroom design.
• Color has the ability to impact student attention, behavior,
and achievement.
• The proper application of color in the classroom has
become more important due to the move toward inclusion
in the public schools of the United States.
RESEARCH -
GAP
Reference : Journal of Family & Consumer Sciences Education

Journal of Family & Consumer Sciences Education, 29(1), Spring/Summer 2011
The Inclusive Classroom:

The Effects of Color on Learning and Behavior
Kristi S. Gaines
Zane D. Curry
Texas Tech University
Color impacts student behavior within the physical learning environment.

Due to the move toward including students with disabilities in the general
education classroom, functional color applications are critical. This article
reviews and analyzes existing literature and empirical evidence related to use of
color in the classroom for students of all abilities. The three major areas reviewed
were (1) the inclusive classroom for students with disabilities, (2) color theory,
and (3) the physiological and psychological aspects of color. The results show
that color is important in designing functional learning spaces. The results of this
analysis may benefit educators, parents, and design professionals in designing
beneficial learning environments for all students.
Color is a powerful design element that produces profound psychological and

physiological reactions. Studies have shown a relationship between color preferences, emotions,
and academic performance in students (Boyatzis & Varghese, 1993; Imhof, 2004; Karp & Karp,
2001; O’Connor, Sofo, Kendall, & Olson, 1990; Terwogt & Hoeksma, 2001; Wilkins, 2003).
The inclusion of learners with disabilities in the general education classroom creates additional
challenges for learning and behavior.
Federal law requires that children be educated in the least restrictive environment (LRE).
The LRE is the requirement that special education students be educated with children without
disabilities in the regular educational environment to the maximum extent appropriate to serve
their needs. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 2004 addresses the legal
rights of students with disabilities.
Some students (such as those with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Autism
Spectrum Disorders) may be more sensitive to color in the learning environment due to
heightened sensory responses and strong visual processing abilities (Freed & Parsons, 1997).
In the United States, every general education classroom is potentially inclusive. Teachers
and school administrators need to understand the ways that color affects student behavior. A
thoughtfully planned physical environment will enhance the psychological comfort of the most
sensitive students by identifying and eliminating detrimental sensory impact. Careful planning
during construction, selection of materials and finishes, and spatial organization can play a major
role in behavior and learning in the classroom. The impact of the built environment on
individuals with autism is a complex issue that has not been studied. Therefore, information must
be gleaned from many areas to form conclusions. The purpose of this paper is to identify the
impact of color on student behavior and achievement and make recommendations for appropriate
use.
Method
An initial literature review was conducted using keywords to define interrelated
categories. This method assisted in the identification of more specific keywords that related to
54

inclusion, color theory, and physiological and psychological reactions to color. The keywords
were physical learning environment, color, learning disabilities, autism, attention deficit
disorder, inclusion, integrated classroom, exceptional children, and special education.
The databases used were Pubmed, EBSCO Host, Google Scholar, Medline, PsycInfo,
PsycArticles, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection, Education Research Complete,
Health Source, and Texas Tech University Libraries. Potential studies were identified from the
review of articles and books. The studies were included if they were written in English and
provided empirical validation on the impact of color in the classroom, the effects of color on
mood and behavior, the effects of color on individuals with disabilities, or psychological and
physiological responses to color.
Although a number of issues were discovered about color and students with disabilities,
only pertinent findings relating to color application in classroom settings were included.
Additionally, potential articles and books were identified by a systematic review of literature into
the four categories of inclusion, color theory, physiological reactions to color, and psychological
reactions to color. Finally, the reference lists for the included articles were inspected. Five books
and eleven refereed articles were identified as meeting the criteria.
Literature Review
The Inclusive Classroom
Inclusion is a controversial concept in education whereby each student is integrated to the
fullest extent possible in a general education classroom (Burke & Sutherland, 2004). The support
services may be brought to the child instead of moving the child for services. Proponents of
inclusion believe that the student should begin in general education classrooms and should only
be removed if the necessary interventions cannot be provided in a regular classroom (Baker,
Wang, & Walberg, 1995; Banerji & Dailey, 1995; Rea, McLaughlin, & Walther-Thomas, 2002).
Those opposed believe that many students with disabilities are better served in special education
classrooms or that inclusive classrooms provide no benefit (Fore, Hagan-Burke, Burke, Boon, &
Smith, 2008; Holloway, 2001; McDonnell et al., 2003).
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) enables millions of children with
disabilities to receive special services designed to meet their unique needs. Children and youth
between the ages of three and twenty-one may be eligible for services under thirteen different
disability categories. The categories include autism, deaf-blindness, emotional disturbance,
hearing impairment (including deafness), mental retardation, multiple disabilities, orthopedic
impairment, other health impairment, specific learning disability, speech or language
impairment, traumatic brain injury, or visual impairment (National Dissemination Center for
Children with Disabilities, 2009).
In a July, 2007 report by the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education
Programs, 6,693,279 children with disabilities (ages 3-21) received special education under the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Full inclusion is not required by law and is not
beneficial for all students with learning differences. A continuum of placements should be made
available from full inclusion to self-contained special education classroom. According to the
report (U.S. Department of Education, 2007), seventy-seven percent of students with disabilities
spent at least forty percent of their day in general education classrooms. Over fifty-three percent
spent at least eighty percent of the day in general education classrooms. The estimated 2.5
million children with Attention Deficit/Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADD/ADHD)
are not served under IDEA and are not included in the statistics.
55

Great challenges may come with the inclusion of students with disabilities in general
education classrooms. The physical learning environment must meet the needs of all students as
the special and regular education systems merge. Color within the physical learning environment
must be considered because of its profound effect on learning and behavior.
Color Perception and Theory

A brief explanation of color perception and theory are necessary to formulate a better
understanding of the physiological and psychological responses to color. Color originates in
sunlight and is perceived through subtractive color theory. The various wavelengths of light
shine on an object and the surface absorbs or subtracts all the colored light rays except for the
ones reflected from the object. This color is reflected received through the cells of retinal wall of
the eye (Morton, 1995). Visible colors are defined by the cones of the eye. Humans have three
kinds of cones: red, blue and green. These three wavelengths decipher millions of colors.
Approximately 2-3 percent of women and some animals have at least four types of cones which
increase color differentiation (Morton, 1995). These receptor cells absorb the hues and send a
message to the brain where the colors are deciphered. Brain impulses are also sent to the major
endocrine regulating glands that cause emotional and psychological responses (Nielson &
Taylor, 2007). These receptors constitute two distinct pathways; a red-green system and a blue-
yellow system (Banaschewski et al., 2006).
The Standard Color-Wheel theory (Morton, 1995) is based on a conventional color
wheel. Red, yellow, and blue are primary colors meaning that they cannot be mixed by the
combination of other colors. Secondary colors are formed by mixing the primary colors and
tertiary colors emerge from mixing the secondary colors. These twelve colors compose the
conventional color wheel. An unlimited number of colors may be obtained by mixing the twelve
colors of the wheel along with black and white.
Color has three basic attributes: hue, value, and saturation (Morton, 1995). Hue is another
word for color such as blue, red, or yellow. Value is the relative lightness or darkness of a color.
A hue may be lightened by adding white or darkened by adding black. Intensity (also saturation
or chroma) is the purity of a hue. A decrease in purity causes the hue to be muted or dull
(Morton, 1995).
Color is also classified according to temperature. Half of the color wheel is classified as
warm and the other half as cool. Colors associated with red and yellow are considered warm.
Warm colors advance in a space. Cool colors are associated with blue and tend to recede. Visual
temperature may also be affected by intensity (Nielson & Taylor, 2007). Overall, preschool and
elementary age children prefer warm colors, and secondary students prefer cool colors
(Engelbrecht, 2003).
Color perception and temperature are also influenced by lighting. Placing a blue painting
under a bluish light (such as a cool fluorescent) will heighten the blueness of the painting.
However, a red painting under a blue light will become dull and grayish because no red color
waves are being made by the light. A study by Styne (1990) showed that a space painted with
cool colors under cool fluorescent lighting resulted in spaces that seemed larger, quieter, and
cooler. A space with warm colors under warm incandescent lighting resulted in a more active
space that seemed smaller, warmer, and louder. Fast food restaurants use warm bright colors to
stimulate appetite and the perception of noise. As a result, sales increase due to the fast turnover.
Such information provides useful insight when designing environments beneficial for learning.
56

A study conducted in Germany (Banaschewski et al., 2006) determined that students with
ADHD experienced distorted color discrimination abilities. This distortion occurred along the
blue-yellow system. No distortion was found involving the red-green pathways. The blue-yellow
color vision problems were also found with Tourette’s syndrome, Parkinson’s disease,
Huntington’s disease, cocaine-withdrawal, normal aging, and exposure to environmental
pollutants (as cited in Banaschewski et al., 2006). Based on the review of literature, this is the
first and only study of color perception in students with ADHD. The implications of these
findings are unknown through empirical evidence; however, conclusions have been drawn on the
physiological and psychological reactions to color in the general population. This color vision
impairment warrants further investigation in individuals with color distortion to determine if the
reactions are the same or different.
Physiological and Psychological Responses to Color

Responses to color are both scientific (physiological) and emotional (psychological).
Studies (Engelbrecht, 2003; Morton, 1998) related to physiological effects have shown changes
in blood pressure, eye strain, and brain development. For example, exposure to red causes the
heart to beat faster, an increase in blood pressure, and a heightened sense of smell. In contrast,
blue causes a slower pulse rate, lower body temperature, and reduced appetite (Engelbrecht,
2003).
Psychological responses to color include changes in mood and attention (Engelbrecht
2003; Shabha, 2006). The brain releases a hormone which affects moods, mental clarity, and
energy level when color is transmitted through the eyes (Engelbrecht, 2003). For example, pink
may suppress aggressive behavior in prisoners (Walker, 1991). Interestingly, color’s impact is
not limited to visual aspects since color wavelengths are absorbed by the skin (Torice &
Logrippo, 1989). Wohlforth and Sam (1982) also supported this claim in their study. Findings
showed that changes in the color of the environment resulted in a drop in blood pressure and
reduction in aggressive behavior in blind children as well as sighted.
Some color responses are temporary and others may last for a long period of time. Many
reactions are immediate (Morton, 1998). A number of studies have explored the impact of color
in the classroom (Engelbrecht, 2003; Grangaard, 1995; Imhof, 2004; O’Connor et al., 1990;
Wilkins, 2003). Findings are inconsistent in determining the optimal color choices in learning
environments. Therefore, the following information serves to provide functional guidelines and
explain the importance of color in the classroom.
The research conducted by Torice and Logrippo (1989) has shown that active children
prefer cool colors and passive children are more comfortable surrounded by warm colors.
Morton, 1995 contend that the purity and contrast with other colors is more important than color
temperature. In other words, a strong green may stimulate an individual as much as a strong red
(Morton, 1998).
Additionally, quantity of color should be considered in the design of the physical learning
environment. Large amounts of color overstimulate individuals no matter the color temperature
or preference. Verghese (2001) discusses the process of visual search and attention in regard to
signal detection theory. This theory states that the human mind continuously strives to organize
visual information. Too much color, motion, or pattern functions as distracters making visual
search more difficult. A stressful learning environment will result from excessive use of color.
Table 1 outlines findings, issues, and associations related to specific colors.
57

Table 1
Categories, Issues, and Findings Related to Color
Category Findings Source
Red Concerned with the base of the spine and Torrice & Logrippo,
motor skills 1989 Morton, 1998
Raises blood
pressure
Increases
respiration
Heart beats faster Engelbrecht, 2003
Heightened sense of smell
Associated with excitement and happiness Boyatzis & Varghese, 1993
Positive reaction - girls more positive than
boys
High preference for 7-year-olds Terwogt, & Hoeksma 2001
Associated with anger, pain, happiness, and Karp & Karp, 2001
love in 4th grade students
Blue Favorite color for 7 and 11-year-olds Terwogt, & Hoeksma 2001
Correlates to eyes, ears, and nose – seeing, Torrice & Logrippo, 1989
hearing, smelling
Sight and hearing impaired children favor Torrice & Logrippo, 1989
prefer blue
Calming effect on heart rate and respiratory Engelbrecht, 2003
system Torrice & Logrippo, 1989
Lower body temperature Morton, 1998
Reduced appetite Walker, 1991
Morton, 1998
Positive reaction - girls more positive than Boyatzis & Varghese, 1993
boys
Associated with sadness in 4th grade students. Karp & Karp, 2001
Yellow Responds to chest, heart, lungs Torrice & Logrippo, 1989

Children with asthma and other breathing
problems react favorably to yellow.
High preference for 7-year-olds Terwogt, & Hoeksma, 2001
Associated with honesty in 4th gradestudents. Karp & Karp, 2001
Most luminous and visible of all colors. Large Morton, 1998
quantities may irritate the eye
Green Relates to the throat and vocal cords. Torrice & Logrippo, 1989
Affects developing speech skills.
The most restful for the eye.
Associated with life in 4th grade females. Karp & Karp, 2001
Orange Corresponds to circulation and Torrice & Logrippo, 1989

nervous systems.
Tremendous tonic effect
58

Violet Corresponds to the top of the head and Torrice & Logrippo, 1989
cerebral activity. Supports non-verbal
activity.
Symbolizes high levels of wisdom and

authority. In children: a mind deep in
thought, concerned, or afraid.
Pink Positive reaction - females more positive Boyatzis & Varghese, 1993
than males
Tranquilizing effect Morton, 1998
Reduces aggression in prisoners.
Brown Negative emotions - males more positive Boyatzis & Varghese, 1993
than females.
Associated with strength in 4th grade males. Karp & Karp, 2001
Black Negative emotions - Males more positive Boyatzis & Varghese, 1993
than females.
Associated with school and fear in 4th Karp & Karp, 2001
grade males.
Gray Negative emotions - males more positive Boyatzis & Varghese, 1993
than females.
Cool Colors Recede Nielson & Taylor, 2007
Preferred by active children Torrice & Logrippo, 1989
Recommended for secondary Engelbrecht, 2003
classrooms
Warm Colors Advance Nielson & Taylor, 2007
Preferred by passive children Torrice & Logrippo, 1989
Preferred by preschool and elementary Engelbrecht,
students 2003
Studies by Shabha (2006) and Gaines (2008) explored the impact of visual environmental
stimuli for students in a special needs and general education schools. Teachers were surveyed
and determined that visual triggers (including lighting and color) in classrooms have an adverse
effect on the behavior of students with disabilities. Some of the behaviors observed included
staring at light sources, repetitive blinking, moving fingers in front of the eyes, and hand
flapping. The outcome of these behaviors may lead to poor concentration, communication, and
social interaction.
59

Grangaard (1995) explored the effects of color and light on learning for 6-year old
students. Off-task behaviors and blood pressure were measured in two environmental conditions.
The first classroom had white walls and cool-white fluorescent lights. A second classroom was
modified with light blue walls and full-spectrum lights. Findings showed that off-task behaviors
decreased by 22 percent in the modified room. Additionally, blood pressure readings showed a
nine percent reduction in the second classroom.
There is evidence that color may impact learning outcomes of students with ADD/ADHD
and ASD (Imhof, 2004; Zentall & Dwyer, 1989). Findings in the area of color preferences for
learners with ASD and ADD/ADHD are varied. Some children with ASD and ADD/ADHD are
attracted to bright colors, while others are overwhelmed by the stimulation. Imhof (2004),
Zentall & Dwyer (1989), and Kennedy (2005) contend that color stimulation in the learning
environment improves attention and motor processes, resulting in better academic performance.
A study conducted by the United States Navy, showed a 28 percent drop in accidents with the
introduction of color (Engelbrecht, 2003). However, white and off-white business environments
resulted in a 25 percent drop in human efficiency. Monotone environments create restlessness,
excessive emotional response, difficulty in concentration, and irritation (Engelbrecht, 2003).
Clay (2004), Stokes (2003), and Myler, Fantacone, and Merritt (2003) found that a
subdued color scheme in warm neutral colors is necessary to prevent overstimulation. They
encourage low contrast in wall and flooring. Clay (2004) found that a subdued and neutral color
scheme is necessary as most children with ASD and ADD/ADHD have negative responses to
primary colors. As a compromise, Engelbrecht (2003) suggests that color can relieve eyestrain
by painting the wall students focus on when looking up from their work a medium hue.
According to Engelbrecht (2003), the other walls should be a warm beige or tan.
A study at the University of Texas in Austin (Kwallek, Lewis, Lin-Hsiao, & Woodson,
1996) was conducted using 675 college students. Test offices were painted 9 colors (four walls
and the door), including red, white, green, orange, yellow, blue, beige, gray, and purple. Students
were evaluated on task performance, mood, and color preference. Findings showed gender
differences in color preferences. Men preferred white, green, blue, and gray work environments
and did not like yellow, orange, and purple spaces. The women preferred green, red, and beige
offices and did not like the gray and orange spaces. Overall, white, blue and green offices
received the highest scores. Purple and orange work environments were the least preferred.
Gender differences regarding mood in different colored environments were also
observed. More depression, confusion, and anger were experienced by females in spaces with
low-saturated colors of white, gray, and beige. Males experienced the negative emotions in high-
saturated environments of green, blue, purple, red, yellow, and orange (Kwallek, et al., 1996).
Most participants stated they prefer to work in beige or white offices. However, more errors
occurred on task performance in the white office than in blue and red offices.
Additionally, studies have shown that personal applications of color can improve
academic performance (Imhof, 2004; O’Connor et al., 1990; Wilkins, 2003). A study by Imhof
(2004) found that students with ADHD showed improved control of attention and motor
processes when using colored paper. A control group of students without ADHD did not exhibit
a significant improvement when using colored paper.
The uses of colored lenses and colored overlays have shown a dramatic improvement in
reading for those with reading disabilities (O’Connor et al., 1990; Wilkins, 1996). Scientific
foundation for the improvement is poorly understood. Distortions in spatial perception may be
manifested in letters that appear to move on the page. The use of colored lenses showed
60

improvement in reading and a reduction in headaches. Table 2 summarizes physiological and
psychological reactions to color.
Table 2
Categories, Issues, and Findings Related to Physiological and Psychological Reactions to Color
Physiologic Color discrimination Banaschewsk et al., 2006
al distorted along blue-yellow system
Differences with ADHD
Physiologic Relieves eye fatigue Engelbrecht, 2003
al Changes in blood pressure and
Reactions brain development
Eyes and skin detect color rays Morton, 1998
Bright, warm colors stimulate
autonomic nervous system
Soft, cool colors retard autonomic
nervous system
Psychologic Color can have an adverse affect on Shabha, 2006
al Reactions the behavior of students with ASD. Gaines, 2008
Monotone environments create
restlessness Warm, neutral colors Engelbrecht, 2003
prevent overstimulation Clay, 2004
Blind and sighted children react to Myler et al., 2003
color Color preferences change with Engelbrecht, 2003
age Terwogt &
Hoeksma, 2001
Mood Subjects unable to screen environmental Morton, 1998
stimuli were more angry in an office
painted white and depressed in the office
painted red
Attention Improvement with colored Imhof, 2004
paper Use of color improves Zentall & Dwyer,
attention 1989 Engelbrecht,
Workers in offices with saturated colors 2003
reported more vigor – blue and green Morton, 1998
highest scores
Easily distracted subjects scored lower
in proofreading in a red office
Subjects not easily distracted scored lower
in a blue office
Productivity Improved academic performance Engelbrecht, 2003
White and off-white environments Engelbrecht, 2003
less efficient Morton, 1998
61

Accuracy Improved academic performance Engelbrecht, 2003
Improvement in reading with colored O’Connor, 1990
lenses and overlays Imhof, 2004
Wilkins, 1996
Drop in accidents with introduction of Englelbrecht,
color Conclusion 2003
The present analysis is perhaps the first to investigate the appropriate use of color for
inclusive classroom design. Color has the ability to impact student attention, behavior, and
achievement. The proper application of color in the classroom has become more important due to
the move toward inclusion in the public schools of the United States. New demands are placed
on academic spaces because of increase in the prevalence of students with learning disabilities.
Many students with disabilities are more sensitive to color within the classroom.
When choosing colors in educational environments, the functional aspects rather than
aesthetics of color should be emphasized. Over-stimulation through color creates sensory
overload. In contrast, colorless interior spaces can be stressful and nonproductive. In other
words, an under-stimulating environment may be as harmful as one that is over-stimulating. In
addition, empirical studies support the existence of individual and gender differences in choosing
appropriate colors for learning environments. Initially, the studies appear to be in opposition to
one another with regard to the proper use of color in learning environments.
However, when the empirical evidence is reviewed as a whole, it reveals that in order to
facilitate learning, balance is needed in color applications for classrooms. Through the analysis
of literature, six recommendations can be made for incorporating color in learning spaces. These
recommendations apply to every classroom, whether or not students with disabilities are present.
(1)Teachers may have little control over wall, floor, and ceiling colors in the classroom;
however, a warm neutral color scheme of tan or sand would be a desirable foundation for
classroom design and should be applied to those surfaces. (2) The wall that students focus on
when looking up from their work should be a medium hue in the same color range. (3) Strong or
primary colors should be avoided; however, soft colors such as green or blue may be used in
other areas within the classroom. (4) Discovering a child’s color preferences and using those
colors may be beneficial. (5) Personal applications of color may be easily added through study
carrels, colored reading lenses, and colored paper. (6) Using different colored tape for boundaries
or to serve as a means to locate charts (e.g. a teacher might direct students to look at the green
poster) will benefit students with or without disabilities.
A walk through the halls of many United States public schools will reveal that signal
detection theory is being ignored. Teachers need to be aware that color within the classroom has
an effect on student mood, behavior, and performance. The impact of color on students with and
without disabilities warrants further investigation.
References
Baker, E.T., Wang, M.C., & Walberg, H.J. (1995). The effects of inclusion on learning.
Educational Leadership, 52, 33-35.
62

Banaschewski, T., Tuppert, S., Tannock, R., Albrecht, B, Becker, A. Uebel, H., Sergeant, J.A., &
Rothenberger, A. (2006). Colour perception in ADHD. Journal of Child Psychology and
Psychiatry, 47(6), 568-572.
Banerji, M. & Dailey, R.A. (1995). A study of the effects of an inclusion model on students with
specific learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 28, 511-523.
Boyatzis, C.J. & Varghese, R. (1993). Children’s emotional associates with colors. The Journal
of Genetic Psychology. 155(1), 77-85.
Burke, K & Sutherland, C. (2004). Attitudes toward inclusion: knowledge vs. experience.
Education,125(2), 163-172.
Carbo, M., & Hodges, H. (1988). Learning style strategies can help students at risk. Teaching
Exceptional Children, 20, 55-58.
Clay, R.A. (2004). No more Mickey Mouse design: Child’s environments require unique
considerations. ASID ICON, 43-47.
Dunn, R. & Dunn, K. (1993). Teaching secondary students through their individual learning
styles: Practical approaches for grades 7-12. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Engelbrecht, K. (2003). The impact of color on learning. Chicago, IL: Perkins & Will.
Fore, C., Hagan-Burke, S, Burke, M., Boon, R., & Smith, S. (2008). Academic achievement and
class placement in high school: Do students with learning disabilities achieve more in one
class placement than another? Education and Treatment of Children. 31(1), 55-72
Freed, J & Parsons, L. (1997). Right-Brained Children in a Left-Brained World. New York, New
York: Fireside.
Gaines, K. (2008). Brain compatible learning environments for students with autism spectrum
disorders. Doctoral dissertation.etd-10092008-142401. Texas Tech University.
Grangaard, E. M. (1995, April). Color and Light Effects on Learning. Paper presented at the
Association for Childhood Education International Study Conference and Exhibition.
Holloway, J.H. (2001). Inclusion and students with learning disabilities. Educational Leadership,
58, 86-87.
Imhof, M. (2004). Effects of color stimulation on handwriting performance of children with
ADHD without and with additional learning disabilities. European Child and Adolescent
Psychiatry, 13, 191-198.
Karp, E.M. & Karp, H.B. (2001). Color associations of male and female fourth-grade school
children. The Journal of Psychology, 122(4), 383-388.
Kennedy, M. (2005). Classroom Colors. American School & University. May.
Kwallek, N., Lewis, C.M., Lin-Hsiao, J.D. & Woodson, H. (1996). Effects of nine
monochromatic office interior colors on clerical tasks and worker mood. Color Research
and Application, 21(6) Wiley.
McDonnell, J., Thorson, N., Disher, S., Mathot-Buckner, C., Menel, J., & Ray, L. (2003). The
achievement of students with developmental disabilities and their peers without
63

disabilities in inclusive settings: An exploratory study. Education and Treatment of
Children, 26, 224-236.
Morton, J. (1995). Color Matters. Retrieved from http://www.colormatters.com.
Morton, J. (1998). Color voodoo for the office. Retrieved from Colorcom.com.
Myler, P.A., Fantacone, T.A., Merritt, E.T. (2003). Eliminating distractions: the educational
needs of autistic children challenge ordinary approaches to school design. American
School & University. November, 313-317.
National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (2009). Available from
http://nichcy.org/disability/categories.
Nielson, K.J & Taylor, D.A (2007). Interiors: an introduction. 4th Edition. McGraw-Hill. New
York.
O’Connor, P.D., Sofo, F., Kendall, L. Olsen, G. (1990). Reading disabilities and the effects of
colored filters. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23(10), 597-603.
Rea, P.J., McLaughlin, V.L. & Walther-Thomas, C. (2002). Outcomes for students with learning
disabilities in inclusive and pullout programs. Exceptional Children, 68, 203-223.
Shabha, G. (2006). An assessment of the impact of the sensory environment on individuals’
behavior in special needs schools. Facilities, 24(1/2), 31-42.
Stokes, S (under contract with CESA 7 and funded by a discretionary grant from the Wisconsin
Department of Public Instruction). (2003). Structured Teaching: Strategies for supporting
students with autism? Retrieved from
http://www.cesa7.k12.wi.us/sped/autism/structured/str10.htm.
Styne, A. (1990). The Physiological effects of color of color and light. Illuminating Engineering
Conference, Honolulu, HI.
Terwogt, M.M. & Hoeksma, J.B. (2001). Colors and emotions: preferences and combinations.
The Journal of General Psychology, 122(1), 5-17.
Torrice, A F., Logrippo, R. (1989). In my Room: Designing for and with Children. New York:
Ballantine Books.
U.S. Department of Education (2007). Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Data.
Available from https://www.ideadata.org/arc_toc8.asp#partbCC
Verghese, P. (2001). Visual search and attention: a signal detection theory approach. Neuron, 31,
523–535.
Walker, Morton (1991). The Power of Color. New York: Avery Publishing Group.Wilkins,
Arnold. (2003). Reading through Colour. Chichester: Wiley.
Wohlfarth, H. and Sam, C (1982). The effects of Color Psychodynamic Environment
Modification Upon Psycho-physiological and Behavioral Reactions of Several
Handicapped Children. lnt J. Biosocial Res., 3(1): 30-38.
Zentall, S.S. & Dwyer, A.M. (1989). Color effects on the impulsivity and activity of hyperactive
children. Journal of School Psychology, 27(2), 165-17.
64

About the Authors
Kristi Gaines is an Assistant Professor at Texas Tech University. Her research focuses on
the impact of the built environment on the behavior of individuals with Autism Spectrum
Disorders.
Zane Curry is an Associate Professor at Texas Tech University. His research and
publications focus on assistive devices for individuals with physical limitations.
Citation
Gaines, K. S., & Curry, Z. D. (2011). The inclusive classroom: The effects of color on learning
and behavior. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences Education, 29(1), 46-57.
Available at http://www.natefacs.org/JFCSE/v29no1/v29no1Gaines.pdf
65

1. Prabu Wardono,
AUTHOR 2. Haruo Hibino,
3. Shinichi Koyama
YEAR July/ sep 2017

Effects of Restaurant Interior Elements on Social Dining Behavior
TITLE
This study explores how colors, lighting and décor have effects on
AIM customers’ perceived social, emotional and behavioral intention
on social dining occasions
• Participants were 162 senior students, aged between 19 and 22
METHODS years of age, selected from 395 students according to their
willingness for participation. They were then grouped into eight
groups of 20 and 22.
• In return for their participation, a voucher of beverage at a café was
given as a compliment.
• Three factors of restaurant interior environment including colors,
lighting and décors were examined, through quetionare
SAMPLE 162 samples
• The results show that the restaurant with monochromatic color

CONCLUSION scheme, dim lighting and plain décors yield a statistically significant
difference on the entire dependent variables with almost any other
interior conditions observed on romantic dining, as opposed to that
in the case of casual dining.
• . Further research on subtler and diverse dimensions of interior
element is suggested to enrich previous findings.
RESEARCH -
GAP
Reference :prabu@graduate.chiba-u.jp

Effects of Restaurant Interior
Elements on Social Dining
Behavior
Prabu Wardono, Haruo Hibino, Shinichi Koyama

Graduate School of Engineering., Chiba
University , Japan
prabu@graduate.chiba-u.jp
Abstract
Today’s customers tend to select eating-places to satisfy pleasures through
experiential socialization. This study explores how colors, lighting and décor have
effects on customers’ perceived social, emotional and behavioral intention on
social dining occasions. The experimental method is used and 162 senior students
are involved. The results show that the restaurant with monochromatic color
scheme, dim lighting and plain décors yield a statistically significant difference on
the entire dependent variables with almost any other interior conditions observed on
romantic dining, as opposed to that in the case of casual dining. Further research
on subtler and diverse dimensions of interior element is suggested to enrich
previous findings.
Keywords: Interior elements, perceived sociability, emotion, social dining behaviour.
eISSN 2514-751X © 2017 The Authors. Published for AMER ABRA by e-

International Publishing House, Ltd., UK.. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc- nd/4.0/). Peer–
review under responsibility of AMER (Association of Malaysian Environment-
Behaviour Researchers), ABRA (Association of Behavioural Researchers on
Asians) and cE-Bs (Centre for Environment- Behaviour Studies), Faculty of
Architecture, Planning & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia.
https://doi.org/10.21834/aje-bs.v2i4.209

Wardono, P., et.al., / Asian Journal of Environmen-Behaviour Studies, ajE-Bs, 2(4) Jul /Sep 2017
(p.43-53)
1.0 Introduction
Foods and drinks were abundantly and ubiquitously offered after the post-
industrialization era. Since then, consumer motives of consumption had shifted from
meeting our basic nutritional needs to a more pleasurable experience (Macht,
Meininger, & Roth, 2005).
The development of atmospheric eating-places has gained more interests among
restaurant owners to attract customers who seek exceptional and extraordinary
places for leisure (Scott, Laws, & Boksberger, 2009). In such economic situation,
retail business investors are focusing their attention on innovating their goods and
services to try to transform them into experienced products that are memorable to
customers (Pine II & Gilmore, 1998). These authors found five key experience
design principles for designing memorable experience including: “1. Theme the
experience, 2. Harmonize impressions with positive cues, 3. Eliminate negative
cues, 4. Mix in memorabilia, 5. Engage all five senses”. Among eating activities,
hedonic eating may represent the need for memorable eating experience, where
stimuli consisting of foods, physical environment and social factors as human
external factors play a role in satisfying customers (Macht et al., 2005). These
authors elaborate that environmental condition including temperature, lighting, and
acoustic should be set up appropriately to support pleasurable eating. In addition,
the presence of familiar eating partners such as the family, friends or special friends
will increase appetite and pleasure identified through psychological manifestations
like eating behavior and subjective experiences, besides other more physical
responses. Supporting this, Wansink (2006) said that pleasurable moments can be
attained when we share foods with the family or friends. Various kinds of eating-
places like cafés, or bistros and the like termed as third place (Oldenburg, 1997)
might be developed for casual gathering. The way people socialize depends on their
innate characteristic and learning ability since childhood (Flanagan, 1999), therefore
the place suitable for their socialization may differ. Unfortunately, research on
consumer social behavior related to eating-places is very scarce. Therefore, how
eating- places can satisfy and cultivate customer social life may not easily be
answered.
Colors, lighting and décor as some of common major elements of
servicescape are
explored and this leads to questions on how these elements support people’s dining
intention with a friend/s and with a special friend? Which of these elements play the
most significant role to encourage sociability? We assume that participants would be
more satisfied if their positive responses are higher. Based on this assumption, we
propose two hypotheses as follows:
Hypothesis 1:
The change of variable of interior elements will have a significant effect on the
subjects’ psychological responses on dining with a friend/s.
Hypothesis 2:
The change of variable of interior elements will have a significant effect on the
subjects’ psychological responses on dining with a special friend.

(p.43-53)
2.0 Literature Review

Sociability is part of five basic inborn personality attributes along with “activity level,
irritability or emotionality, soothability and fearfulness” Goldsmith et al. (1987) said as
Flanagan (1999) quoted, the human complexity of which might be even more when
people are incidentally placed with unexpected environmental influences. For
example, environmental stress such as severe temperature, humidity, ventilation,
vibration, noise and glare may all become irritating for a couple to talk (Wheldall,
1975).
In terms of how environmental settings support orientation of people when
talking, Gifford and Gallagher (1985) theorized that besides person-based variables
and social context, physical settings were important factors, which influenced how
people socialized. They regulate how furniture arrangement supports conversation
effectively. Besides, people also need to judge an environment according to their
perception and emotional response before, during and after they experience it. In
response to this, a research done by Lin (2004) found that servicescapes offered a
subsequent impression to the customers before being served. But, this does not
explain how customers react cognitively or emotionally to servicescape. Ryu and
Jang (2007) using structural equation modeling analysis found that facility aesthetics,
involving visual cues like: furniture, color, lighting and décor, ambience (non visual
cues) and employees influenced significantly on the level of customer pleasure, and
particularly ambience and employees gave impact significantly to arousal. Liu and
Jang (2009) using an extended model of Mehrabian and Russel model proved that
all the environmental features of a restaurant, tangible or intangible one gave
significant impact to those psychological responses of customers. They concluded
that it was vital to consider the effect of restaurant atmosphere to enhance
customers’ perceived value to ensure their return patronage. However, these studies
did not cover a particular dining motive to determine the success of restaurant. The
existence of a restaurant is now a spatial representation of social formation where
people, a couple of friends, relatives or lovers meet (Diane, 2005). Good company
either as customer’s eating companion/s or other guests is considered the most
important factor to predict dining experience for the latter can become an important
reference of how customers expect from the restaurant in terms of financial value,
said Anderson and Mossberg (2004) as quoted by Azizi (2010).
From the above reviews it is obvious that perception, emotion and behaviour of
customers as well as the presence of their eating companions are important socio-
psychological factors that determine their eating experience satisfaction. But there is
no detailed explanation how service environment should be prepared to achieve that
goal in the context of social eating intention.
1. Methodology
2. Participants and design of experiment

(p.43-53)
Participants were 162 senior students, aged between 19 and 22 years of age,
selected from 395 students according to their willingness for participation. They
were then grouped into eight groups of 20 and 22. In return for their participation, a
voucher of beverage at a café was given as a compliment.
To answer the research questions, an experimental method specifically stimulus
response experiment was applied. Three factors of restaurant interior environment
including colors, lighting and décors were examined, and in order to study more
detail on them, each of these factors was developed into two levels making up
all these factors into eight different conditions, as independent variables,
described in detail later. The dependent variables were psychological factors
consisting of perceived sociability, emotional response
and behavioral intention, which were prepared in a questionnaire and to be filled in
by the
participants during the experiment. Eight groups of participants of 20 and 22 were
independently assigned to value eight different pictures (between subject design)
according to the psychological responses described above.Each group carried out
two trials; first, evaluate one picture in the context of dining with a friend/s and the
second, in the context of dining with a special friend.
3.2 Stimulus, questionnaire and facility

In this experiment, we used a digital simulation using 3D-Max computer software to
create eight different pictures of restaurant interior atmosphere based on one model
of restaurant and combination of two levels of color scheme: monochromatic colors
and complementary colors, lighting: bright lighting and dim lighting, and décor:
elaborate décor and plain décor respectively as the experimental stimuli, see Figure
1-8. This model shows a corner of casual restaurant interior with slightly low ceiling.
Some sets of chairs and tables with tablecloth were fixed arranged and individually
illuminated using pendant lamp and all this made the room look accessible, simple
and informal (Oldenburg,1997).
Each picture differs from one another only in one type of variable. The color
schemes
applied in these pictures were defined according to some principles of Munsell color
harmony. The color specifications adopted Adobe RGB (1998) standard colors were
also applied by some researchers like, Cheng, Lee and Lee (2007) and Junko,
Masashi, and Minoru (2006), and this can also refer to chromaticity coordinates.(see
Appendix) Besides the color variable specified above, the lighting element applied a
different lamp and light setting in the computer. In the case of bright-lighted
restaurants, the lamps and light setting applied a fluorescent (day light) and 15.000
lm, and in the case of dim lighted restaurants used fluorescent (warm white) and
5.000 lm. The décor (the paintings, plants, lighting armature and table cloth) was
practically differentiated by considering the number and quality of decorative
elements (elaborate and plain) applied.

Wardono, P., et.al., / Asian Journal of Environmen-Behaviour Studies, ajE-Bs, 2(4) Jul
/Sep 2017 (p.43-53)
Figure 1- 8 Experimental stimuli: 1. Monochromatic colors, bright lighting, and

elaborate décor 2. Monochromatic colors, dim lighting, and elaborate décor, 3.
Complementary colors, bright lighting, and elaborate décor 4. Complementary
colors, dim lighting, and elaborate décor 5. Monochromatic colors, bright lighting,
and plain décor 6. Monochromatic colors, dim lighting, and plain décor 7.
Complementary colors, bright lighting, and plain décor, 8. Complementary colors,
dim lighting, and plain décor.
The relevant literature and experts referred to develop how behavioral variables
were measured includes Mehrabian and Russel (1974) and Ryu et al. (2007).
Interviews with two groups of three senior students were conducted to find valuable
clues related to their social dining experiences. As a result, a questionnaire
containing three sets of psychological response were defined including, perceived
sociability, emotional response and behavioral intention, consisting of, first (15
paired adjectival words): “appealing, attractive, welcoming, friendly, warm,
hospitable, cozy, secure, private, convenient, homey, intimate, casual, familiar and
unique”, second (8 paired adjectival words): “happy, satisfied, bored, melancholic,
awake, aroused, excited, and stimulated” and third (3 paired behavioral statements):
“want to revisit several times, linger long and do not mind to wait long”. These
variables were measured using seven point-scale semantic differential methods (+3
to -3).
To accommodate this study, a lighting lab of around 4 x 4 m2, at Human-
Environment
relationship research unit, Faculty of Fine Art and Design, Bandung Institute of
Technology, Indonesia, was used for conducting the experiment. In addition, table
lamps were also provided for the participants to fill in the questionnaires. Four
tables, chairs and equipments were provided for the subjects and researcher. The
equipments used for the experiment were a new 2000 lumen SONY video projector
(VPL-ES7), MacBook laptop (Mac OSX Version 10.5.8, Processor 2.4 GHz Intel
Core 2 Duo, Memory 2 GB, 667 MHz, DDR2
3.3 Experimental Procedure

The picture was projected to the screen at around 2.5 m distance away from where
the subjects sit. Each of the groups was independently assigned and was only
observed and

(p.43-53)
rated one picture (between subject design). The order of presentation per session or
day was not tightly regulated as it depended so much on the students’ time
availability, but since every group was independent, basically the presentation could
be flexibly conducted. The presentation of picture was also not timely limited as we
expected that the participants could observe it very carefully to ensure more
convincing responses they could give.
4.0 Results And Discussions

The mean scores of perceived sociability, emotional response, and behavioral
intention on dining with a friend/s and with a special friend can be seen on Figure 9,
Figure 10 and Figure 11 respectively below.
Figure 9: Mean scores of perceived sociability on dining with a friends/s and

dining with a special friend
Figure 10: Mean scores of emotional response on dining with a friend/s and
48

Wardono, P., et.al., / Asian Journal of Environmen-Behaviour Studies, ajE-Bs, 2(4) Jul
/Sep 2017 (p.43-53)
Figure 11: Mean scores of behavioral intention on dining with a friend/s and
Anova test’s results showed that the change of interior condition in the case of dining
with a friend/s did not show any statistically significant effect in all the variables on
the subjects’ perceived sociability (F=.802, P=.587), emotional response (F=.969,
P=.456 ), and behavioral intention ( F=.571, P=.779) respectively.
In the context of dining with a special friend, the change of interior condition
yielded a very significant effect in the entire variables between some groups:
perceived sociability (F=4.366, P=.000), emotional response (F=5.007, P=.000), and
behavioral intention (F=6.698, P=.000) respectively. The interior condition of group 6
applying monochromatic colors, dim lighting and plain décor resulted in a statistically
significant difference in perceived sociability compared with the entire restaurant
conditions, including with group 1 (Mean diff.: 9.800, P=.009), group 3 (Mean
diff.=11.600, P=.001), group 4 (Mean diff. 11.350, P=.001), group 7 (Mean
diff.=8.850, P=.027), but not with group 2 (Mean diff.=5.650, P=.422), group 5
(Mean diff. =8.250, P=.052) and group 8 (Mean diff.=2.345, P=.987).
With regard to the emotional response, group 6 was also different significantly
compared with group 1 (Mean Diff.=2.850, P=.004), group 3 (Mean diff.=19.450,
P=.001), group 4 (Mean diff.= 16.700, P=.008), group5 (Mean diff.=14.700, P=.031)
and group 7 (Mean diff. 16.650, P=.008), except with group 2 and group 8.
Compared to the previous result, only with group 5 was their result different.
However, since the P value of group 5 is
.052 compared with group 6 , which is only a little larger than the significant score, it
can be said that group 6 was regarded the same as the rest of the groups in
perceived sociability and emotional response.
Similar to the previous variables, group 6 in behavioral intention showed a
significant difference with almost the entire groups including with group 1 (Mean
diff.=4.900, P=.001),

(p.43-53)
group 2 (Mean diff.=3.900, P=.024), group 3 (Mean diff.= 5.650, P=.000), group 4
(Mean diff.=5.700, P=.000), and group 7 (Mean diff. =5.050, P=.001), except with
group 5 and group 8 (Mean diff.= 3.250, P=.110 and Mean diff.=1.141, P=.974
respectively).
Two tailed t-tests were also run to find out how the subjects valued of the
restaurants on dining with a friend/s in comparison with that on dining with a special
friend. In the case of perceived sociability, group 1 (t = 4.498, df=19, Sig.=.000),
group 3 (t=2.944, df=19, Sig.=.008), group 4 (t=-2.880, df=19, Sig.=.008), group 6
(t=-2.718, df=19, Sig.=.010) and group 7 (t=14.812, df=19, Sig.=.030) showed a
statistical difference between the two dining occasions. In the case of emotional
response, the significant differences only occurred on group 4 (t=2.658, df=19,
Sig.=.016) and group 6 (t=-4.379, df=19, Sig.=.000). Whereas in behavioral
intention, group 1 (t=3.584, df=19, Sig.=.002) group 4 (t=4.579, df=19, Sig.=.016),
group 6 (t=-1.279, df=19, Sig.=.005) and group 7 (t=2.299, df=19, Sig.=.033) also
showed a significant difference between the two dining events.
From the Anova test results, we noticed that in the case of dining with a friend/s,
it seemed that the subjects were not so sensitive with the manipulation of interior
element as there was no statistical difference between each of the groups. Referring
to one of the behavior-environment relationship theories, stimulation theory (Kopec,
2006), we can also say that none of the groups could benefit more from the
stimulation of its restaurant atmosphere. Such finding could also imply that casual
relationships between customers may not need a specially conditioned interior
environment to support their dining motives. From the perspective of restaurant
design, the insignificant different responses of the subjects toward any of the groups
may also be resulted from the fact that all the conditions were considered acceptable
to dine with a friend/s.
In the case of dining with a special friend, the subjects of group 6 that rate a
restaurant
with monochromatic colors, dim lighting and plain décors performed the highest
positive perceived, emotional and behavioral value compared with almost the rest of
the groups. This means that such environmental condition was effective to stimulate
the subjects in the way they perceive, feel and behave towards the restaurant when
dining on a date. They preferred such atmosphere probably because all the
elements were not visually stimulating as the colors’ energy were peaceful, subtle
because of a lack of contrast of hue, the light level was moderately low, and the
décors were much simpler, which may be desired for a couple to have a relaxing
and romantic chat.
Of all these elements, the lighting characteristic is the most effective one to
stimulate the subjects’ motivation for such dining motive. A moderately low level of
light along with the application of complementary colors or of elaborate décor could
still be effective to support that dining occasion as shown in group 2, group 8, which
are not significantly different from group 6 in most of the variables evaluated, except
in group 5 (using bright light), but since its P value is .052, which is very close to
significance score (.05), this group may be considered different with group 6.
From this Anova test result in some variables, we can prove that atmospheric
quality as created by the three elements used in this experiment has effects on
the subjects’

(p.43-53)
perception of sociability, emotional, and behavioral intention, which are consistent to

Mehrabian and Russell theory.
In addition, the perceived sociability and emotional response towards the
restaurant
interiors seemed to have a strong relationship as indicated by their very similar
results. In the case of behavioral intention the subjects seemed not to be very
strongly influenced by what they perceived and felt as indicated by a slight different
result with that of the previous variables. However, this finding can still be
considered consistent with the previous statements of Woodruff (1997);
Parasuraman and Grewal (2000); Cronin et al. (2000) as quoted by Liu et al. (2009)
stating that perceived values have effects on behavioral intentions.
From the T-test result we could infer that between the two dining motives in
group 1, group 4, group 6, and group 7, the subjects responded significantly
different. However, with the output of the Anova test we can infer more consistently
why the differences occurred. For example, we notice that group 1 was not
preferable for dining with a special friend, as well as group 4 and group 7. Besides
that, these groups were statistically different from group 6 in the Anova test in the
case of dining with a special friend, group 1 probably was too bright, and the
elaborate décor was visually too striking, whereas in group 4 although the lighting
was dim but it seemed that the complementary color and elaborate décor might be
too stimulating. Group 7 was not preferable probably because the complementary
colors and the bright lighting was not suitable for dining on a date. In fact, when
these two elements were used effectively, they may become a strategic element to
stimulate people, otherwise people will easily feel annoyed.
5.0 Conclusions
The study of interior elements and its effect on social behavior is still immature.
Regardless of this study’s weaknesses, such initiative shares one of the lacking
reference that offers evidence on the fact that colors, lighting and décor do influence
social dining behavior. The colors, lighting and décors, as experimental stimuli were
defined by qualitative approach, because this study is still considered exploratory.
Therefore this study contributes imperfect implication to the profession. In the future,
when the similar stimuli are used, a more standardized measure may be suggested
to expect broader practical implication. In addition, a more direct of research
considering this research’s particular result (e.g. lighting) could be suggested, for
instance: some measurable qualities of lighting, for instance illuminance level, types
of luminaires and luminance distribution may be considered for future study. Beside
eating-places observed in this study other commercial places where more specific
sociability may also profoundly occur could also be considered, as this study found
that it influenced differently to the way people select dining atmosphere. The social
relationships we studied as mediator for social dining were common, and there are
still many more complex relationship people may create, whose social dining
mediation-role

(p.43-53)
may lead to a more sophisticated need of restaurant atmosphere. In addition, we may

question how cultural influences (Rozin, Kruzer, & Cohen, 2002; Prescott, Young,
O’Neill, Yau, & Stevens, 2002) or any other personal attributes of the subjects
moderate their relationship and influence the way they choose a restaurant. A similar
question may be raised according to personal differences of age, religion or lifestyles
respectively. All these curiosities are crucial as they are prospective consumers for
service business industries. Design scientists are in need for more clues from them
to create guidelines for designers, who may need a distinctive modus operandi to
explore, as how this study has introduced for studying the effects of environmental
stimuli on human social behavior in a non-dining setting.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Drs. Andriyanto Wibisono, MDs. and Dr. Pribadi Widodo,
MDs. for their support to this study by providing a room and some equipment, at the
Human- Environment relationship research unit, Faculty of Fine Art and Design,
Institute of Technology, Bandung, Indonesia.
References
Azizi, T. (2010). The Dining Experience. Canada. The University of Lethbridge
Cheng, H., Lee, K., & Lee, H. (2007). Color Preference of the Korean Elderly. International
Association of Societies of Design Research, The Hongkong PolytechnicUniversity.
Diane, S. (2005). Environmental distinctions: the discriminating dining environment. Les

Cahiers du CICLas. 6, 55- 7.
Flanagan, C. (1999). Early Socialization: Sociability and attachment. London: Routledge

Modular Psychology Series.
Gifford, R. & Gallagher, M.B. (1985). Sociability: Personality, Social Context, and Physical
Setting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 1015-1023.
Junko, I., Masashi, N., & Minoru, M. (2006). The Influence of colors on the psychological image
of the wooden interior: application of the image analysis in consideration of the accent color.
Zairyo, 55, 373-377.
Kopec, D. (2006). Environmental Psychology for Design. New York: Fairchild Publications, Inc.
Lin, I.Y. (2004). Evaluating servicescape: the effect of cognition and emotion. Hospitality
Management, 23, 163- 178.
Liu, Y. & Jang, S. (2009). The Effects of Dinning Atmospherics; An extended Mehrabian-
Russel model.
International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28, 494-503.

(p.43-53)
Macht, M., Meininger, J., & Roth, J. (2005). The Pleasures of Eating: a Qualitative Analysis.
Journal of Happiness Studies. 6,137-160
Mehrabian, A., and Russel, J.A. (1974). An Approach to Environmental Psychology.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Oldenburg, R. (1997). Great Good Place, Cambridge: Da Capo
Press
Pine, J & Gilmore J.H. (1999). The Experience Economy. Boston: Harvard Business School
Press
Prescott, J., Young, O., O’Neill, L., Yau, N.J.N., & Stevens, R. (2002). Motives for food choice:
a comparison of consumers from Japan, Taiwan, Malaysia and New Zealand. Food Quality
and Preference, 13, 489-495.
Rozin, P., Kruzer, N.C., & Cohen, A. (2002). Free Associations to “food”: the effects of gender,
generation, and culture. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 419-441.
Scott, N., Laws, E., & Boksberger, P. (2009). The marketing of Hospitality and Leisure
Experiences, Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 18, 99-110.
Wansink, B. (2006). Mindless Eating: Why we eat more than we think. New
York: Bantam Books Wheldall, K. (1975). Social Behavior: Key problems and
social relevance. London: Methuen

ASSIGNMENT 13
MONOCHROMATIC COLOR THEME FOR OFFICE INTERIOR

When it comes to redesigning a room, the first decision is usually, “which color?”.
And sometimes, that can be the hardest choice of all., there are thousands of
similar color in different options. Who knew there could be so many shades of
white? And where do one begin with the furniture.
Here’s one way one can bypass having to coordinate colors
designing a room with a monochromatic color palette. It’s an incredibly simple way
to bring elegance to your interiors . And it’s becoming increasingly popular in
interior design
This proposal, aims to study the effects of monochromatic color
and color preferences in simulated interior spaces to make it more simpler to
choose from and to prove some of the hypothesis

RESEARCH PROPOSAL
AIM:
To study the effects of monochromatic color and color preferences in simulated
interior office spaces.
OBJECTIVE:
▪ To study effect of monochromatic color for office interior.

▪ To analyze monochromatic color preferences for office interior for people of
different age group and gender.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS:
▪ Why monochromatic color?
▪ Which color?
▪ Which color extensions are visually appealing for the masses?
SCOPE OF STUDY:
▪ The study will be focusing on effect of monochromatic color in simulated
interior spaces with respect to depth , light, visually cohesive look etc.
▪ This study will analyze monochromatic color preferences and its shades,
tones and tints for office interior for people of different age group and
gender. Which can help architects/designers to use monochromatic color
palates more effectively and in a visually engaging way.
LIMITATION:
▪ Real life model are not used which may lead to lack of natural experience.
▪ All base color and there tints and tones are not used for this study which can
change some of the outcomes
▪ Participants are from the same place ( INDIA ) which can limit the scope of
the research.
HYPOTHESIS:
▪ Rooms having monochromatic color theme seems to be larger than they
actually are and are visually cohesive to look at.
▪ It doesn’t draw attention to itself, but lets your home decor to highlight itself.

METHODOLOGY:
1. For examine the effect of monochromatic colour two simulated image of

same office space will be displayed one in monochromatic colour them and
another in plan white.
2. For monochromatic color preferences six color ( RBG , CMYK) will be used for
rendering six simulated home interior scenes. After the participants choses
the color three options of same color changing the shades, tones ,tints will
be displayed.
Palate example :
•Shades: the base color darkened with black.
•Tones: the base color dulled (or desaturated) with gray.
•Tints: the base color lightened with white.
Both the 1 and 2 will be surveyed by participants through questionnaire(google

form).
REFERANCES:
▪ https://www.decoraid.com/blog/monochromatic-decor-larger-rooms/
▪ https://www.bhg.com/decorating/color/neutrals/monochromatic-looks-that-
work-281474979464631/
▪ https://www.mymove.com/home-inspiration/decoration-design-ideas/go-
monochrome/

Monochromatic Color Literature Study

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Monochromatic Color Literature Study

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

RESERCH IN ARCHITECTURE I

NAME: TEJAS R. KALE

SR. NO Content PAGE NO.

2 Assignment 05: Report writing based on Ar. 4

3 Assignment 06: Review Writing based on Movies, 5

4 Assignment 8: Literature Review 01 6-18

5 Assignment 09: Find out 10 Research Papers 19

6 Assignment 10: Literature Review 02: Read three 20-35

7 Assignment 11: Literature Review 03: Read three 36-75

8 Assignment 13: Research Proposal 76-78

RIA-I TEJAS KALE (26) .

• Olympic stadium, Kiev, Ukraine

RIA-I TEJAS KALE (26) 1

THE ART OF LIVING INTERNATIONAL

IMAGE SOURCES: PINTEREST

RIA-I TEJAS KALE (26) 2

Jawahar Kala Kendra, RAJASTHAN

IMAGE SOURCES: PINTEREST

RIA-I TEJAS KALE (26) 3

An online seminar was organized on the topic

In the seminar he spoke about the challenges faced by students while

In the session we learnt about : thoughts, typologies, transition, translation.

IMAGE SOURCES: PINTEREST

• Movie: Gone Girl.

RIA-I TEJAS KALE (26) 5

YEAR January-March 2014

SAMPLE Courtyards , cafeterias , break points .

The results of this research not only support most of the

RIA-I TEJAS KALE (26) 6

The Effects of Color on the Moods January-March 2014: 1–12

Sevinc Kurt1 and Kelechi Kingsley Osueke2

RIA-I TEJAS KALE (26) 7

RIA-I TEJAS KALE (26) 8

Literature Review Combining Colors

RIA-I TEJAS KALE (26) 9

Yellow. According to Eiseman (2006),

Yellow is thought of as joyful, outgoing, open, and friendly.

Psychologically, yellow is the strongest color, it is about

Green. Green is considered an emotionally calming color. It

RIA-I TEJAS KALE (26) 10

Figure 4. The entrance door of Munch More.

Figure 2. The courtyard.

Figure 5. The Lake View cafeteria.

RIA-I TEJAS KALE (26) 11

Data Collection Procedure

Break Point and Munch More

1. The colors and patterns used on the interior walls

RIA-I TEJAS KALE (26) 12

3. The finishing and combining of colors is very c1assy

Findingsand Analysisof Data

Respondent’s gender. From the graph, it is deduced that the

Respondent’s age. The highest respondents of this

RIA-I TEJAS KALE (26) 13

Figure 14. Statistical information about respondents.

RIA-I TEJAS KALE (26) 14

Table 1. Analysis of the Data.

Strongly Strongly Do not

RIA-I TEJAS KALE (26) 15

Figure 15. Graphs showing respondents’ perception on space and color.

RIA-I TEJAS KALE (26) 16

courtyard. And according to most respondents’ opinions and

Conclusion and Recommendations

1. The need to balance complexity and unity is a major