What is the Aufbau Principle?

The Aufbau principle dictates the manner in which electrons are filled in the atomic orbitals of an
atom in its ground state. It states that electrons are filled into atomic orbitals in the increasing
order of orbital energy level. According to the Aufbau principle, the available atomic orbitals with
the lowest energy levels are occupied before those with higher energy levels.
The word ‘Aufbau’ has German roots and can be roughly translated as ‘construct’ or ‘build up’. A
diagram illustrating the order in which atomic orbitals are filled is provided below. Here, ‘n’ refers
to the principal quantum number and ‘l’ is the azimuthal quantum number.
The Aufbau principle can be used to understand the location of electrons in an atom and their
corresponding energy levels. For example, carbon has 6 electrons and its electronic
configuration is 1s22s22p2.
It is important to note that each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons (as per the Pauli
exclusion principle). Also, the manner in which electrons are filled into orbitals in a single
subshell must follow Hund’s rule, i.e. every orbital in a given subshell must be singly occupied by
electrons before any two electrons pair up in an orbital.

Salient Features of the Aufbau Principle

 According to the Aufbau principle, electrons first occupy those orbitals whose energy is the
lowest. This implies that the electrons enter the orbitals having higher energies only when
orbitals with lower energies have been completely filled.
 The order in which the energy of orbitals increases can be determined with the help of the
(n+l) rule, where the sum of the principal and azimuthal quantum numbers determines the
energy level of the orbital.
 Lower (n+l) values correspond to lower orbital energies. If two orbitals share equal (n+l)
values, the orbital with the lower n value is said to have lower energy associated with it.
 The order in which the orbitals are filled with electrons is: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s,
4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p, and so on.

Exceptions
The electron configuration of chromium is [Ar]3d54s1 and not [Ar]3d44s2 (as suggested by the
Aufbau principle). This exception is attributed to several factors such as the increased stability
provided by half-filled subshells and the relatively low energy gap between the 3d and the 4s
subshells.
The energy gap between the different subshells is illustrated below.
Half filled subshells feature lower electron-electron repulsions in the orbitals, thereby increasing
the stability. Similarly, completely filled subshells also increase the stability of the atom.
Therefore, the electron configurations of some atoms disobey the Aufbau principle (depending on
the energy gap between the orbitals).
For example, copper is another exception to this principle with an electronic configuration
corresponding to [Ar]3d104s1. This can be explained by the stability provided by a completely filled
3d subshell.
Electronic Configuration using the Aufbau
Principle
Writing the Electron Configuration of Sulphur
 The atomic number of sulphur is 16, implying that it holds a total of 16 electrons.
 As per the Aufbau principle, two of these electrons are present in the 1s subshell, eight of
them are present in the 2s and 2p subshell, and the remaining are distributed into the 3s
and 3p subshells.
 Therefore, the electron configuration of sulphur can be written as 1s22s22p63s23p4.

Writing the Electron Configuration of Nitrogen

 The element nitrogen has 7 electrons (since its atomic number is 7).
 The electrons are filled into the 1s, 2s, and 2p orbitals.
 The electron configuration of nitrogen can be written as 1s22s22p3

To learn more about the Aufbau principle and other related concepts (such as the octet rule),
register with BYJU’S and download the mobile application on your smartphone.

What are Electron Configurations?

The electron configuration of an element describes how electrons are distributed in its atomic orbitals.
Electron configurations of atoms follow a standard notation in which all electron-containing atomic
subshells (with the number of electrons they hold written in superscript) are placed in a sequence. For
example, the electron configuration of sodium is 1s22s22p63s1.

Table of Content
 Writing Electron Configurations
 Filling of Atomic Orbitals
 Representation of electronic Configuration of Atom
 FAQs
However, the standard notation often yields lengthy electron configurations (especially for elements
having a relatively large atomic number). In such cases, an abbreviated or condensed notation may be used
instead of the standard notation. In the abbreviated notation, the sequence of completely filled subshells
that correspond to the electronic configuration of a noble gas is replaced with the symbol of that noble gas
in square brackets. Therefore, the abbreviated electron configuration of sodium is [Ne]3s1 (the electron
configuration of neon is 1s22s22p6, which can be abbreviated to [He]2s22p6).

Electron Configurations are useful for:

 Determining the valency of an element.

 Predicting the properties of a group of elements (elements with similar electron configurations tend
to exhibit similar properties).
 Interpreting atomic spectra.

This notation for the distribution of electrons in the atomic orbitals of atoms came into practice shortly
after the Bohr model of the atom was presented by Ernest Rutherford and Niels Bohr in the year 1913.
Writing Electron Configurations
Shells
The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in a shell is based on the principal quantum
number (n). It is represented by the formula 2n2, where ‘n’ is the shell number. The shells, values of n, and
the total number of electrons that can be accommodated are tabulated below.
Shell and ‘n’ value Max. Electrons in the Electron Configuration

K shell, n=1 2*12 = 2

L shell, n=2 2*22 = 8

M shell, n=3 2*32 = 18

N shell, n=4 2*42 = 32

Subshells
 The subshells into which electrons are distributed are based on the azimuthal quantum number
(denoted by ‘l’).
 This quantum number is dependent on the value of the principal quantum number, n. Therefore,
when n has a value of 4, four different subshells are possible.
 When n=4. The subshells correspond to l=0, l=1, l=2, and l=3 and are named the s, p, d, and f
subshells, respectively.
 The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated by a subshell is given by the formula
2*(2l + 1).
 Therefore, the s, p, d, and f subshells can accommodate a maximum of 2, 6, 10, and 14 electrons,
respectively.

All the possible subshells for values of n up to 4 are tabulated below.

Principle Quantum Number Value of Azimuthal Quantum Resulting Subshell in the Electron
Value Number Configuration

n=1 l=0 1s

l=0 2s
n=2
l=1 2p

n=3 l=0 3s
 l=1 3p

l=2 3d

l=0 4s

l=1 4p
n=4
l=2 4d

l=3 4f

Thus, it can be understood that the 1p, 2d, and 3f orbitals do not exist because the value of the azimuthal
quantum number is always less than that of the principal quantum number.

Notation
 The electron configuration of an atom is written with the help of subshell labels.
 These labels contain the shell number (given by the principal quantum number), the subshell name
(given by the azimuthal quantum number) and the total number of electrons in the subshell in
superscript.
 For example, if two electrons are filled in the ‘s’ subshell of the first shell, the resulting notation is
‘1s2’.
 With the help of these subshell labels, the electron configuration of magnesium (atomic number 12)
can be written as 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2.

Filling of Atomic Orbitals

Aufbau Principle
 This principle is named after the German word ‘Aufbeen’ which means ‘build up’.
 The Aufbau principle dictates that electrons will occupy the orbitals having lower energies before
occupying higher energy orbitals.
 The energy of an orbital is calculated by the sum of the principal and the azimuthal quantum
numbers.
 According to this principle, electrons are filled in the following order: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p,
5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p…

The order in which electrons are filled in atomic orbitals as per the Aufbau principle is illustrated below.
It is important to note that there exist many exceptions to the Aufbau principle such as chromium and
copper. These exceptions can sometimes be explained by the stability provided by half-filled or completely
filled subshells.

Pauli Exclusion Principle

 The Pauli exclusion principle states that a maximum of two electrons, each having opposite spins,
can fit in an orbital.
 This principle can also be stated as “no two electrons in the same atom have the same values for all
four quantum numbers”.
 Therefore, if the principal, azimuthal, and magnetic numbers are the same for two electrons, they
must have opposite spins.
Hund’s Rule
 This rule describes the order in which electrons are filled in all the orbitals belonging to a subshell.
 It states that every orbital in a given subshell is singly occupied by electrons before a second electron
is filled in an orbital.
 In order to maximize the total spin, the electrons in the orbitals that only contain one electron all
have the same spin (or the same values of the spin quantum number).

An illustration detailing the manner in which electrons are filled in compliance with Hund’s rule of
maximum multiplicity is provided above.

Representation of electronic Configuration of

Atom
The electron configurations of a few elements are provided with illustrations in this subsection.

Electron Configuration of Hydrogen

The atomic number of hydrogen is 1. Therefore, a hydrogen atom contains 1 electron, which will be placed
in the s subshell of the first shell/orbit. The electron configuration of hydrogen is 1s1, as illustrated below.
 Electron Configuration of Hydrogen

Electron Configuration of Oxygen

The atomic number of oxygen is 8, implying that an oxygen atom holds 8 electrons. Its electrons are filled
in the following order:
K shell – 2 electrons
L shell – 6 electrons
Therefore, the electron configuration of oxygen is 1s2 2s2 2p4, as shown in the illustration provided below.

Electron Configuration of Oxygen

Chlorine Electronic Configuration

Chlorine has an atomic number of 17. Therefore, its 17 electrons are distributed in the following manner:
K shell – 2 electrons
L shell – 8 electrons
M shell – 7 electrons
The electron configuration of chlorine is illustrated below. It can be written as 1s22s22p63s23p5 or as
[Ne]3s23p5

Electron Configuration of Chlorine

Thus, a brief introduction to electron configurations is provided in this article. To learn more about this
topic and other related topics, such as Lewis dot structures, register with BYJU’S and download the mobile
application on your smartphone.

Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

What is meant by the electronic configuration of an element?
The electronic configuration of an element is a symbolic notation of the manner in which the electrons of
its atoms are distributed over different atomic orbitals. While writing electron configurations, a
standardized notation is followed in which the energy level and the type of orbital are written first,
followed by the number of electrons present in the orbital written in superscript. For example, the
electronic configuration of carbon (atomic number: 6) is 1s22s22p2.

What are the three rules that must be followed while writing
the electronic configuration of elements?
The three rules that dictate the manner in which electrons are filled in atomic orbitals are:

 The Aufbau principle: electrons must completely fill the atomic orbitals of a given energy level
before occupying an orbital associated with a higher energy level. Electrons occupy orbitals in the
increasing order of orbital energy level.
 Pauli’s exclusion principle: states that no two electrons can have equal values for all four
quantum numbers. Consequently, each subshell of an orbital can accommodate a maximum of
2 electrons and both these electrons MUST have opposite spins.
 Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity: All the subshells in an orbital must be singly occupied before
any subshell is doubly occupied. Furthermore, the spin of all the electrons in the singly occupied
subshells must be the same (in order to maximize the overall spin).

Why are electronic configurations important?

Electron configurations provide insight into the chemical behaviour of elements by helping determine the
valence electrons of an atom. It also helps classify elements into different blocks (such as the s-block
elements, the p-block elements, the d-block elements, and the f-block elements). This makes it easier to
collectively study the properties of the elements.

List the electron configurations of all the noble gases.

The electronic configurations of the noble gases are listed below.

 Helium (He) – 1s2

 Neon (Ne) – [He]2s22p6
 Argon (Ar) – [Ne]3s23p6
 Krypton (Kr) – [Ar]3d104s24p6
 Xenon (Xe) – [Kr]4d105s25p6
 Radon (Rn) – [Xe]4f145d106s26p6

What is the electronic configuration of copper?

The electronic configuration of copper is [Ar]3d104s1. This configuration disobeys the aufbau principle due
to the relatively small energy gap between the 3d and the 4s orbitals. The completely filled d-orbital offers
more stability than the partially filled configuration.

Valence Bond Theory (VB)

Many approaches have been put forth to explain the nature of bonding in coordination compounds. One of
them is the Valence Bond (VB) Theory. The Valence Bond Theory was developed in order to explain
chemical bonding using the method of quantum mechanics. This theory primarily focuses on the formation
of individual bonds from the atomic orbitals of the participating atoms during the formation of a molecule.

What is Valance Bond (VB) Theory?

According to the valence bond theory,

Electrons in a molecule occupy atomic orbitals rather than molecular orbitals. The
atomic orbitals overlap on the bond formation and the larger the overlap the stronger
the bond.
The metal bonding is essentially covalent in origin and metallic structure involves resonance of electron-
pair bonds between each atom and its neighbors.

Table of Contents
 History of Valence Bond Theory
 Postulates of Valence Bond Theory
 Number of Orbitals and Types of Hybridization
 Applications of Valence Bond Theory
 Limitations of Valence Bond Theory
 Solved Example

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 Valence Bond Theory

History of Valence Bond Theory

The Lewis approach to chemical bonding failed to shed light on the formation of chemical bonds. Also,
valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (or VSEPR theory) had limited applications (and also failed in
predicting the geometry corresponding to complex molecules).
In order to address these issues, the valence bond theory was put forth by the German physicists Walter
Heinrich Heitler and Fritz Wolfgang London. The Schrodinger wave equation was also used to explain the
formation of a covalent bond between two hydrogen atoms. The chemical bonding of two hydrogen atoms
as per the valence bond theory is illustrated below.

This theory focuses on the concepts of electronic configuration, atomic orbitals (and their overlapping) and
the hybridization of these atomic orbitals. Chemical bonds are formed from the overlapping of atomic
orbitals wherein the electrons are localized in the corresponding bond region.
The valence bond theory also goes on to explain the electronic structure of the molecules formed by this
overlapping of atomic orbitals. It also emphasizes that the nucleus of one atom in a molecule is attracted to
the electrons of the other atoms.

Postulates of Valence Bond Theory

The important postulates of the valence bond theory are listed below.

1. Covalent bonds are formed when two valence orbitals (half-filled) belonging to two different atoms
overlap on each other. The electron density in the area between the two bonding atoms increases as a
result of this overlapping, thereby increasing the stability of the resulting molecule.
2. The presence of many unpaired electrons in the valence shell of an atom enables it to form multiple
bonds with other atoms. The paired electrons present in the valence shell do not take participate in
the formation of chemical bonds as per the valence bond theory.
3. Covalent chemical bonds are directional and are also parallel to the region corresponding to the
atomic orbitals that are overlapping.
4. Sigma bonds and pi bonds differ in the pattern that the atomic orbitals overlap in, i.e. pi bonds are
formed from sidewise overlapping whereas the overlapping along the axis containing the nuclei of
the two atoms leads to the formation of sigma bonds.

The formation of sigma and pi bonds is illustrated below.

 Formation of Sigma and Pi Bonds – Valence Bond Theory (VBT)
It can be noted that sigma bonds involve the head-to-head overlapping of atomic orbitals whereas pi bonds
involve parallel overlapping.

Number of Orbitals and Types of Hybridization

According to VBT theory the metal atom or ion under the influence of ligands can use its (n-1)d, ns, np, or
ns, np, nd orbitals for hybridization to yield a set of equivalent orbitals of definite geometry such as
octahedral, tetrahedral, square planar and so on. These hybrid orbitals are allowed to overlap with ligand
orbitals that can donate electron pairs for bonding.
Distribution of
Coordination Type of
Hybrid Orbitals in
Number Hybridisation
Space
4 sp3 Tetrahedral
4 dsp2 Square planar
5 sp3d Trigonal bipyramidal
6 sp3d2 Octahedral
6 d2sp3 Octahedral

Applications of Valence Bond Theory

 The maximum overlap condition which is described by the valence bond theory can explain the
formation of covalent bonds in several molecules.
 This is one of its most important applications. For example, the difference in the length and strength
of the chemical bonds in H2 and F2 molecules can be explained by the difference in the overlapping
orbitals in these molecules.
 The covalent bond in an HF molecule is formed from the overlap of the 1s orbital of the hydrogen
atom and a 2p orbital belonging to the fluorine atom, which is explained by the valence bond theory.

Limitations of Valence Bond Theory

The shortcomings of the valence bond theory include
  Failure to explain the tetravalency exhibited by carbon.
 No insight offered on the energies of the electrons.
 The theory assumes that electrons are localized in specific areas.
 It does not give a quantitative interpretation of the thermodynamic or kinetic stabilities of
coordination compounds.
 No distinction between weak and strong ligands.
 No explanation for the colour exhibited by coordination compounds.

Also, Check ⇒ Crystal Field Theory

Solved Example
Question:
The spin only magnetic moment of [MnBr4]2- is 5.9BM. Predict the geometry of the complex ion.
Solution:
Since the coordination number of Mn2+ ion in the complex ion is 4. It will be either tetrahedral or square
planar. But the fact that the magnetic moment of the complex ion is 5.9BM. It should be tetrahedral in
shape rather than square planar because of the presence of five unpaired electrons in the d orbitals.

Frequently Asked Questions on Valence Bond

Theory
What is the valence bond theory?
It is a theory which describes chemical bonding. VBT states that the overlap of incompletely filled atomic
orbitals leads to the formation of a chemical bond between two atoms. The unpaired electrons are shared
and a hybrid orbital is formed.

What are the shortcomings of VBT?

The valence bond theory fails to explain the tetravalency of carbon and also fails to provide insight into the
energies corresponding to the electrons. The theory also assumes that the electrons are localized in certain
areas.

What are the merits of the valence bond theory?

The condition of maximum overlap described by the VBT can be used to explain how covalent bonds are
formed in many molecules. The theory can also offer insight into the ionic character of chemical bonds.

How are sigma and pi bonds formed?

Sigma bonds are formed from the head-to-head overlapping of the atomic orbitals participating in the
bond. Pi bonds, on the other hand, involve a parallel overlapping of the atomic orbitals.
To learn more about the valence bond theory and other theories that explain chemical bonding, download
the BYJU’S app from the Google Play Store.
 Dipole Moment
What is Dipole Moment?
A dipole moment arises in any system in which there is a separation of charge. They can, therefore, arise in
ionic bonds as well as in covalent bonds. Dipole moments occur due to the difference in electronegativity
between two chemically bonded atoms.
A bond dipole moment is a measure of the polarity of a chemical bond between two atoms in a molecule. It
involves the concept of electric dipole moment, which is a measure of the separation of negative and
positive charges in a system.
The bond dipole moment is a vector quantity since it has both magnitude and direction. An illustration
describing the dipole moment that arises in an HCl (hydrochloric acid) molecule is provided below.

It can be noted that the symbols 𝛿+ and 𝛿– represent the two electric charges that arise in a molecule which
are equal in magnitude but are of opposite signs. They are separated by a set distance, which is commonly
denoted by ‘d’.

Important Points
 The dipole moment of a single bond in a polyatomic molecule is known as the bond dipole moment
and it is different from the dipole moment of the molecule as a whole.
 It is a vector quantity, i.e. it has magnitude as well as definite directions.
 Being a vector quantity, it can also be zero as the two oppositely acting bond dipoles can cancel each
other.
 By convention, it is denoted by a small arrow with its tail on the negative center and its head on the
positive center.
 In chemistry, the dipole moment is represented by a slight variation of the arrow symbol. It is
denoted by a cross on the positive center and arrowhead on the negative center. This arrow
symbolizes the shift of electron density in the molecule.
 In the case of a polyatomic molecule, the dipole moment of the molecule is the vector sum of the all
present bond dipoles in the molecule.

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Dipole Moment Formula
A dipole moment is the product of the magnitude of the charge and the distance between the centers of the
positive and negative charges. It is denoted by the Greek letter ‘µ’.
Mathematically,
Dipole Moment (µ) = Charge (Q) * distance of separation (r)
It is measured in Debye units denoted by ‘D’. 1 D = 3.33564 × 10-30 C.m, where C is Coulomb and m
denotes a meter.
The bond dipole moment that arises in a chemical bond between two atoms of different electronegativities
can be expressed as follows:
μ = 𝛿.d
Where: μ is the bond dipole moment,
𝛿 is the magnitude of the partial charges 𝛿+ and 𝛿–,
And d is the distance between 𝛿+ and 𝛿–.
The bond dipole moment (μ) is also a vector quantity, whose direction is parallel to the bond axis. In
chemistry, the arrows that are drawn in order to represent dipole moments begin at the positive charge and
end at the negative charge.
When two atoms of varying electronegativities interact, the electrons tend to move from their initial
positions to come closer to the more electronegative atom. This movement of electrons can be represented
via the bond dipole moment.

Examples
Dipole moment of BeF2
In a beryllium fluoride molecule, the bond angle between the two beryllium-fluorine bonds is 180o.
Fluorine, being the more electronegative atom, shifts the electron density towards itself. The individual
bond dipole moments in a BeF2 molecule are illustrated below.
From the illustration provided above, it can be understood that the two individual bond dipole moments
cancel each other out in a BeF2 molecule because they are equal in magnitude but are opposite in direction.
Therefore, the net dipole moment of a BeF2 molecule is zero.

Dipole moment of H2O (Water)

In a water molecule, the electrons are localized around the oxygen atom since it is much more
electronegative than the hydrogen atom. However, the presence of a lone pair of electrons in the oxygen
atom causes the water molecule to have a bent shape (as per the VSEPR theory). Therefore, the individual
bond dipole moments do not cancel each other out as is the case in the BeF2 molecule. An illustration
describing the dipole moment in a water molecule is provided below.
The bond angle in a water molecule is 104.5o. The individual bond moment of an oxygen-hydrogen bond is
1.5 D. The net dipole moment in a water molecule is found to be 1.84D.

Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

Why is it called a dipole moment?
If an object is balanced, the theory of moments is that the sum of the clockwise moments around a pivot is
equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments around the same pivot. To explain this, I assumed it was
called a dipole moment, since it defines the molecule’s range of motion.

What is meant by dipole moment and dipole moment?

An electric dipole is considered an arrangement of two equal and opposite charges divided by a finite
distance. An electric dipole’s electric dipole moment is defined as the result of each of its charges and the
dipole’s length. It is the sum of a vector and is defined by p.

How do you find the largest dipole moment?

When there is a difference in the electronegativity of two atoms involved in a bond, a dipole moment
happens. The larger the electronegativity difference between the two atoms, the larger the bond’s dipole
moment and polarity.

How do you find the dipole moment of co2?

Carbon dioxide has a linear geometry at the core with carbon and oxygen on both sides while oxygen is
more electronegative than carbon electron cloud is pushed to oxygen and both oxygen pull the electron
cloud from both sides with the same tendency, so the net effect is zero.

What is the symbol of dipole moment?

The dipole moment (μ) is the calculation of the net molecular polarity at either end of the molecular dipole,
which is the magnitude of the charge Q times the distance r between the charges. Dipolar moments tell us
of the division of charges in a molecule.
Thus, the definition and formula of dipole moments are briefly discussed in this article. To learn more
about this concept and other related concepts, such as polarity, register with BYJU’S and download the
mobile application on your smartphone.