REVIEWER:

Atomic Structure:
Atom:
“ The word ‘atom’ has been derived from the Greek word ‘a-tomio’ which means ‘uncuttable’ or ‘non-
divisible’”
The models of an atom are:
1. John Dalton’s atomic model: Dalton’s Billiard Ball (Solid Sphere) Model
Dalton’s atomic theory was able to explain the law of conservation of mass, law of constant composition, and
law of multiple proportions very successfully."

2. J.J. Thomson’s model: Plum Pudding model

“J. J. Thomson, in 1898, proposed that an atom possesses a spherical shape in which the positive charge is
uniformly distributed.”

3. Ernest Rutherford’s model: Nuclear model

“Rutherford and his students (Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden) bombarded very thin gold foil with α–
particles. Rutherford’s famous α–particle scattering experiment.”

4. Niels Bohr’s model: Planetary model

"He worked on the dual character of electromagnetic radiation."
5. Erwin Schrodinger’s model: Electron Cloud Model/Quantum Model
“Quantum mechanics was developed independently in 1926 by Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger.”

6. Wave mechanical model

“The wave mechanical model proposed that the electrons act like particles as well as waves of energy.”

Niels Bohr explained that each atomic spectra of elements indicates the transformation of
energy within the atom. He concluded that the electrons as particle that are moving around
the nucleus with fixed energy where he called as energy level. But in a more sensitive
spectroscope finer lines are seen within each line of color. It means that each main energy
level in an atom consists of sublevels. When the electron is on its ground state there is
an absorption of energy, the electron jumps to a higher energy level. Then, as the
electron goes back to its original energy level, it will release energy.

Released
Absorbed Energy
Energy

Ground State Excited Electron Ground State

Main Energy levels in the Atom and their Sublevels.

Main Energy Sublevel

Level s
 1 or K s
2 or L s,p
3 or M s. p, d
4 or N s.p.d.f
5 or O s.p.d.f
6 or P s. p, d
7 or Q s,p

The main energy level is made up of sublevels of energy in which the energy
level is made up of one or more sublevels. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle states
that it is not possible to determine the exact location and velocity of an electron
in an orbital at the same time. But there is a probability that the electron will be in a
certain region in an atom which is called as the electron cloud. It is also
described as the region composed of negatives surrounding the nucleus associated
with the atomic orbital.
The Quantum Mechanical Model was introduced by Schrodinger. This model
shows how likely an electron can be found around the nucleus. It looks like a
cloud of negative charges having a certain geometrical figure. The Quantum
Mechanical Model also gives the information about the energy of the electron. It
also describes region of space around the nucleus as consisting of shells it is also
called the principal or main energy levels.
 Principal Energy Levels and Sublevels of Electrons

Principal Number Type of Sublevels and Maximum

Energy of number of orbitals number of
Level
(n) Sublevel electrons
s
1 1 1s (1 orbital) 2
2 2 2s (1 orbital). 2p (3 orbitals) 8
3 3 3s (1 orbital), 3p (3 orbitals), 18
3d
(5 orbitals)
4 4 4s (1 orbital), 4p (3 orbitals), 32
4d (5 orbitals), 4f (7
orbitals)
5 5 5s (1 orbital), 5p (3 orbitals) 50
5d (5 orbitals). 5f (7
orbitals)

There are different kinds of Quantum Numbers:

1. Principal quantum number (n) describes the energy level of an electron in
an atom. It can be expressed using the letters of an alphabet like K, L,
M, N, O, P and Q energy level.
2. Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l) it describes the way on how the
electrons move around the nucleus. It determines the shape of an orbital.

Examples:

S orbital (l =0) P orbital (l = 1) d orbital (l = 2) f orbital (l = 3)

3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml) it refers to the possible behavior of the

electrons in a magnetic field. The m values are as follows:

ml 0 (no effect on the magnetic field

p orbital ml +1, 0, -1
d orbital ml +2, +1, 0, -1, -2
f orbital ml +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3

4. Spin Quantum Number (ms) describes the rotations or the spins on how the
electrons move on their own axis as they move around the nucleus. The
spinning charge create the magnetic field that make the electron
comparable to a magnet. The electron spinning clockwise has the - ½ values.
The electrons that are spinning counter - clockwise have the + ½ values. You
may use the table below as your guide or reference.
 Quantum Number Number of
n l m Possible
Electrons
1 1 s 2
2 2 s 2
p 6
3 3 s 2
p 6
d 10
4 4 s 2
p 6
d 10
f 14

Examples:
The possible set of quantum numbers for the electrons in 3s and
2p. 3s n=3 l=0 ml = 0 ms = ½, - ½
2p n=3 l=1 ml = -1 ms = ½, - ½
=0 ms = ½, - ½
=1 ms = ½, - ½
Notes: S means sharp, P means principal, D means diffuse, F means

fundamental Rules Governing Electronic Configuration

1. The Aufbau Principle requires that the electrons occupy the lowest possible
energy level before filling up the next.
2. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle states that no two electrons can have the same set of
four quantum number; the spin quantum number limits the number of
electrons in an orbital to a maximum of two.
3. Hund’s Rule requires that the electrons fill the orbitals in a sub level, one by
one, before pairing the electrons in an orbitals spin in opposite direction.
 Arrangement of Electrons in the atoms of the First 10 Elements

O R BI T A
L
Chemical
Symbol 1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz Electron Configuration

1 H 1s1

2 He 1s2
3 Li 1s2 2s1

4 Be 1s2 2s2

5 B 1s2 2s2 2px1

6 C 1s2 2s2 2px1

7 N 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1

8 O 1s2 2s2 2px2 2py1 2pz1

9 F 1s2 2s2 2px2 2py2 2pz1

10 Ne 1s2 2s2 2px2 2py2 2pz2

You can also use the electron configuration to identify some of the
information about the elements in terms of the following like the group number, the
period number, the number of paired and unpaired electrons and also the valence
electrons.
Example: Sodium (Na)

Electron configuration: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1

Group Number: 1
Valence Electron: 1
Period: 3
Energy Level: 1

FORMATION OF IONIC AND COVALENT BONDING:

A chemical bond is formed between two atoms by the complete transfer of one or more electrons from one
atom to the other as a result of which the atoms attain their nearest inert gas configuration.

There are primarily three ways in which two atoms combine to lose energy and to become stable. One of the
ways is by donating or accepting electrons to complete their octet configuration. The bond formed by this kind
of combination is known as an ionic bond or electrovalent bond. This kind of bond is formed when one atom
gains electrons while the other atom loses electrons from its outermost level or orbit.

Ionic Bond Vs Covalent Bond

Ionic Bond Covalent Bond

The covalent bond is a bond formed when two atoms

The ionic bond is the attraction between positive and
share one or more electron pairs. Each atom contributes
negative ions in a crystal and compounds held together
an equal number of electrons towards the bond
by ionic bonds are called ionic compounds.
formation.

Atoms with higher ionization potential are unable to lose

If the difference of ionization potential between the two
their valence electrons and hence prefer to form covalent
atoms is more ionic compounds are formed.
bonds by sharing of electrons.

If the electronegativities of the combining atoms do not

Atoms with greater electronegativity difference lead to
differ much then the bond formed between them is likely
the formation of an ionic bond.
to be covalent.

Example: NaCl Example: HCl

PROPERTIES OF IONIC AND COVALENT BONDING:

 At normal atmospheric pressure and temperature, covalent compounds may exist in solid, liquid, or a
gas, while ionic compounds exist only as crystalline solids.
 Ionic compounds generally have higher melting and boiling points while covalent compounds have
lower melting and boiling points.
 Ionic compounds are hard and brittle, while covalent compounds are soft and flexible.
 Ionic compounds have high polarity, while covalent compounds have low polarity.
  Ionic compounds are usually soluble in water, while covalent compounds tend to be less soluble in
water.
 Ionic compounds tend to be less flammable than covalent compounds.
 Ionic compounds conduct heat and electricity compared to covalent compounds.

NAMING AND WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULA:

 Name of ionic compounds is composed of the name of the positive ion (from the metal) and the
name of the negative ion.
Examples: NaBr Sodium bromide MgCl2
Magnesium chloride

(NH4)2SO4 Ammonium sulfate

 It is important that we learn how to name monoatomic positive ions. These are some examples:

Na+ sodium Zn2+ zinc

Ca2+ calcium H+ hydrogen
K+ potassium Sr2+ strontium

 When there are positive ions that have more than one oxidation state (number), as in the case
of transition metals, we would have to indicate the charge of the ion in Roman numeral in
parentheses (I,II,III,IV,V,VI,VI) after the name of the specific element.
Examples:

Fe2+ iron(II) Fe3+ iron (III)

Sn2+ tin(II) Sn4+ tin(IV)
Cu+ copper(I) Cu2+ copper(II)

 This is the list of the most common polyatomic negative ions:

-1 ions
-
hydrogen sulfate
HCO bicarbonate HSO -
3 4 (bisulfate)
CH3CO2- acetate ClO4- perchlorate
NO3- nitrate ClO3- chlorate
NO2- nitrite ClO2- chlorite
MnO4- permanganate ClO- hypochlorite
CN- cyanide OH- hydroxide
-2 ions
 CO32- carbonate O22- peroxide
SO42- sulfate CrO42- chromate
SO32- sulfite Cr2O72- dichromate
S2O32- thiosulfate HPO42- hydrogen phosphate
-3 ions
3-
PO4 phosphate AsO43- arsenate

 The name of polyatomic ions ends in either –ite or –ate. If –ite is seen, it means a low
oxidation state (also a lower number of oxygen atoms present – example Nitrite as NO2-‐ , in
this case Nitrogen has an oxidation number of +3)

 If –ate is seen, it means a higher oxidation state (higher amount of oxygen atoms present –
example Nitrate as NO3-‐ In this case Nitrogen has an oxidation number of +5)
 Prefix hypo-‐ indicates lowest oxidation state. BrO-‐ ion is called hypobromite ion.
 Prefix per-‐ indicates highest oxidation state. IO4-‐ ion is called periodate ion
 Some ions such as hydroxide (OH-‐), cyanide (CN-‐) and peroxide (O22-‐) ions are exception to the
aforementioned rule.

NON-‐METAL + NON-‐METAL
Covalent compounds:
RULES:

 When naming covalent compounds, oxidation states play a key role. The name of the atom that
has the positive oxidation state is named first. Then, the suffix –ide is added to the stem of the
name of the atom with the negative oxidation state-‐number.
Examples:

HI hydrogen iodide
NO nitrogen oxide
BrFl bromine flouride

 In simple covalent compounds, the amount of atoms of an element is indicated by Greek

prefixes added to the name of the element:

1 mono- 6 hexa-
2 di- 7 hepta-
3 tri- 8 octa-
4 tetra- 9 nona-
5 penta- 10 deca-

 The prefix mono-‐ is usually not necessary because of its redundancy. An exception to this
would be carbon monoxide (CO)
  Do not use mono-‐ for the first element in the name.

Writing Formulas of Ionic Compounds

1. The cation is written first, followed by the monatomic or polyatomic anion.

2. The subscripts in the formula must produce an electrically neutral formula unit. (That is, the total
amount of positive charge must equal the total amount of negative charge.)
3. The subscripts should be the smallest set of whole numbers possible.
4. If there is only one of a polyatomic ion in the formula, do not place parentheses around it; e.g.,
NaNO3, not Na(NO3). If there is more than one of a polyatomic ion in the formula, put the ion in
parentheses, and place the subscript after the parentheses; e.g., Ca(OH)2, Ba3(PO4)2, etc.

Remember the Prime Directive in writing formulas:

Ca(OH)2 ¹ CaOH2 !

Examples
Cation Anion Formula
Na+ Cl- NaCl
Ca2+ Br- CaBr2
Na+ S2- Na2S
Mg2+ O2- MgO
Fe3+ O2- Fe2O3
Na+ SO42- Na2SO4
Mg2+ NO3- Mg(NO3)2
NH4+ SO42- (NH4)2SO4

CARBON ATOMS:

The structure of a carbon atom plays a crucial role in determining the type of bonds it can form.
Carbon has an atomic number of 6, meaning it has six electrons. The electron configuration of
carbon is 1s² 2s² 2p², with four valence electrons in the outermost shell (2s² 2p²). Carbon readily
forms bonds by sharing its valence electrons with other atoms.

The most common types of bonds that carbon forms are covalent bonds. Carbon can form single,
double, or triple covalent bonds by sharing its valence electrons with other nonmetal atoms. The
number of bonds formed depends on the number of available electrons and the desire to achieve a
stable electron configuration, typically having eight electrons in its outer shell (octet rule).
 1. Single Covalent Bond: In a single covalent bond, carbon shares one pair of electrons with
another atom. This is the most common type of bond for carbon-carbon and carbon-
hydrogen interactions.
2. Double Covalent Bond: Carbon can also form double bonds by sharing two pairs of
electrons with another atom. This often involves one sigma bond (σ) and one pi bond (π), and
it typically results in a planar molecular geometry.
3. Triple Covalent Bond: In certain situations, carbon can form triple bonds by sharing three
pairs of electrons with another atom. This involves one sigma bond (σ) and two pi bonds (π),
and it often leads to a linear molecular geometry.

The ability of carbon to form multiple bonds allows for the creation of diverse organic molecules
with varied structures and properties. The type of bond formed influences the strength and
characteristics of the chemical interactions between atoms, impacting the overall properties of the
molecules involved. Additionally, carbon can also form polar or nonpolar covalent bonds, depending
on the electronegativity difference between the atoms involved in the bond formation.
MOLAR MASS AND PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION:
Let us differentiate molecular mass from formula mass. The formula mass
and molecular mass are two values that express the size of a molecule. The formula
mass of a molecule is the sum average of the atomic weights of the atoms in its
empirical formula.

However, the molecular mass of a molecule is its average mass as calculated

by adding the atomic weights of the atoms in the molecular formula.

The table shows the difference between formula and molecular mass:
Formula mass Molecular mass

Use amu (atomic mass unit) as units. Use g/mol (gram per mole) as units.

Mass of molecules may not be exact. Always give the exact mass of a mole
of molecules

Calculated through empirical Calculated through molecular

formula formula

Sum of the masses of atoms present Mass of a mole of a given molecule.

in the empirical formula.

Used for ionic compounds

Used for covalent bond compounds
 Let us analyze the given samples using the following steps to calculate molecular
mass of a substance.
Steps in Calculating Molecular Mass
1st step: Determine the number of atoms of the elements present in the molecule.

2nd step: Find the atomic mass of each atom using the periodic table of elements.
Multiply the atomic mass to the number of atoms of the elements present
in the molecule.

3rd step: Get the sum of all the product.

Sample 1: Mefenamic acid consist of C13H18O2, a common compound that is mostly

used in pain medication. What is the molecular mass for this compound?
Element Quantity Average atomic mass Subtotal
(amu)

C 13 X 12.01 = 156.13
H 18 X 1.01 = 18.18
O 2 X 16.00 = 32.00

Molecular Mass 206.31

The molecular mass of mefenamic acid (C13H18O2) is 206.31 amu

Steps in Calculating Formula Mass

1st step: Determine the number of atoms of the elements present in the molecule.

2nd step: Find the atomic mass of each atom using the periodic table of elements.
Multiply the atomic mass to the number of atoms of the elements present
in the molecule.

3rd step: Get the sum of all the product.

Sample 2: Compute the formula mass of limewater, Ca(OH)2

Element Quantity Average atomic mass Subtotal

(amu)

Ca 1 X 40.08 = 40.08
H 2 X 1.01 = 2.02
O 2 X 16.00 = 32.00

Formula Mass 74.10

The formula mass of limewater, Ca(OH)2 74.10 amu.

What is Mole?
We use counting units to easily represent the quantity of materials. Just as
we denote 1 dozen for 12 eggs, it can be 1 dozen for 12 bananas or 12 candies. Similarly,
a mole is used to count entities on a microscopic level like atoms, molecules, ions,
particles etc.

In Chemistry, mole (mol) is simply defined as the quantity of a substance

which contains the same number of particles. Look at the illustration below to
understand how the mole expresses quantity and unit based on number.

1 mole of table salt (NaCl) 1 mole of Gold (Au)

= 6.02 x 1023 NaCl ion pair = 6.02 x 1023 Au atoms

1 mole of sugar (C12H22 O11) 1 mole of water (H2O)

= 6.02 x 1023 sugar (C12H22 O11) = 6.02 x 1023 H2O molecules

In counting the number of atoms, we use a constant number called
Avogadro’s number which is equivalent to a MOLE. Understanding the basic concept
of a mole is the key in relating mass, mole, and number of particles in elements,
compounds and chemical reactions. This chemical calculation used in chemistry is
known as stoichiometry.

One mole is the amount of substance that contains as many particles as there
are present in 12 grams of Carbon-12 atom. The actual number of atoms in 12 g of
Carbon-12 isotope is equal to 6.02x1023 particles called Avogadro’s number, in
honor of the Italian scientist Amadeo Avogadro.

1 mole 12C = 12.00g 12C = 6.02 x 1023 12C atoms

Calculating Number of Mole Given the Mass or Vice Versa

Operationally, the number of moles is determined using the formula.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑖𝑛 𝑔)
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 =
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Mole-Mass Relationship and Calculation
Chemists generally use the mole as the unit for the numbers of atoms or
molecules of a substance. In the previous discussion, molecular mass of any
element can be determined by finding the atomic weight of the element on the
periodic table.
 By recognizing the relationship between the molecular mass, moles, and
particles, scientists can use dimensional analyses to easily convert mass, number of
moles of atoms or vice versa.

For simple mole to mass conversion, here is the general pattern:

Cases General Pattern

Case 1: No. of moles is given; mass Mass = given number of moles x molar mass
is unknown 𝑔
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑥
𝑚𝑜𝑙

Case 2: Mass is given; no. of moles Number of moles = given mass X molar mass
is unknown
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥
𝑔

The percentage composition of each element of a compound can be obtained

by calculating using this formula:

Where is “x” in the formula?

Use sodium nitrate (NaNO3) as an example.

Step 1: Find the molar mass of sodium nitrate (NaNO3).

Na = 1 x 22.99 amu = 22.99 g NA

N = 1 x 14.01 amu = 14.01 g N

O = 3 x 16.00 amu = 48.00 g O

=85.00 g/mol NaNO3
The molar mass of sodium nitrate (NaNO3) is 85.00 grams.

85.00 g/mol NaNO3

Step 2: Determine the percent composition of each element in the total compound.
22.99 𝑔
% Na =( ) x 100 = 27.05% Na
85.00 𝑔
14.01 𝑔
%N =( ) x 100 = 16.48%
85.00 𝑔

85.00 𝑔
%O = 3 (16.00
𝑔
[
] x 100 = 56.47%
Check your answer by adding up the percentage of all elements. The sum
should be close to 100.
27.05 % Na + 16.48% N + 56.47% O = 100.00% NaNO3

Here’s an example of computing for the percentage composition of a compound

known to us all—water (H 2O). The computation below shows the molar mass of
water:
H = 2 x 1.01 g = 2.02 g H

O = 1 x 16.00 g = 16.00 g O

= 18.02 g H2O
 The molar mass of water (H2O) is 18.02 grams.

18.02 g/mol H2O

We will then compute for the percentage of oxygen and hydrogen in water:
2.02 𝑔
% H =( )x 100 = 11.21% H
18.02 𝑔
16.00 𝑔
% O =( ) x 100 = 88.79% O
18.02 𝑔

Thus, Hydrogen is 11.21% H and water is 88.79% O.

Empirical and Molecular Formulas

An empirical formula shows the simplest formula of acompound. Empirical
formulas show the number of atoms of each element in a compound in the most
simplified form using whole numbers.It does not indicate the actual number of atoms
in the molecule of the compound.

Example:

Empirical Formula of Glucose: CH2O

A molecular formula of a compound gives the relative or exact number of
atoms and the type of atoms present in a molecule of a compound.

Example:
Molecular Formula of Glucose: C6H12O6

Empirical and Molecular Formula of a Compound given its Percentage Composition

The bacterial fermentation of grain to produce ethanol forms a gas with a percent
composition of 27.29% C and 72.71% O. What is the empirical formula for this gas?

Since the mass of a given element in grams is numerically equivalent to the element’s
mass percentage, it is most convenient to calculate the mass of elements present in a sample
weighing 100 g.

Divide each element’s mass by its molar mass:

 Divide each molar amount by the smaller calculated molar amount:

The resulting ratio is one carbon to two oxygen atoms, thus the empirical
formula is CO2.

Sample Problem:

Chemical analyses show that a complex carbohydrate contains 40.0% C,

6.71% H, and 53.3% O by mass. Determine the empirical and molecular formulas of
its carbohydrate if its molar mass is 870 g/mol.

Answer:

Step 1: Express mass percentage of each element as grams. That is,

Step 2: Find the number of moles of each element.

Step 3: Determine the mole ratio of the elements by dividing each
number of moles by the smallest number of moles. In this case,
oxygen or carbon has the smallest number of moles (3.33mol).

Step 4: Express the mole ratio as an empirical formula. The empirical formula
of the complex carbohydrate is CH2O.
Step 5: Determine the molar mass of the empirical formula.

Step 6: Determine the factor that relates the empirical and molecular
formulas. That is,

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 =n

The given molar mass of the complex carbohydrate, 870 g/mol, and
its molecular mass are expressed as

Step 7: Multiply the subscripts of the empirical formula by n.

Therefore, the molecular formula of the complex carbohydrate is

C29H58O29.