Unites of Mappina in Soil Classification

Unlike plants and animals which occur as distinct, easily separable entities, soils form a continuum that
grades in properties and behavior from one position on the landscape to the next. Such changes are
usually related to variation in one or more of the five soil forming factors. The most common cause of
variation among soils, either on a world-wide or a local basis, is variation in the effective climate
(particularly moisture and temperature) for soil formation. Because of the gradational nature of soil,
arbitrary limits must be placed on the extent of soil bodies for purposes of describing and classifying
them. For descriptive purposes, the pedon is used (Gr. pedon, ground), that refers to the smallest
volume that can be called a soil. The dimensions are large enough to show the nature of the soil profile.
By identification, it is restricted to an area between, 1 aod 10 sq. mu. the actual size depending on Zhe
character of the profile under consideration. Pedons are much too small to serve as practical units for
classification. Therefore, the concept of a polypedon is introduced. A polypedon is a collection of pedons
sufficiently alike to be classed as the same soil. Thus, any of the pedons present are representative of
the soil making 14, the polypedon. Having no upper limit in size, polypedons can occupy large enough
areas to permit their separate identification and classification.

The Series
Within an area identified by a single topographic pattern, slopes of similar character occur repeatedly
over the landscape. Where other factors of soil formation remain relatively unchanged, the recurrence
of similar slop conditions rosults in the development of scattered bodies (polypedons) of soil displaying
aprroximately the same kind and range of profile characteristics,. All such occurrence of like soil may be
considered together and treated as a single unit for classification purposes. In concept, a collection of
soil individuals of a given soil family having small differences In the nature of arrangement of horizons or
in the nature of the control section is known as a soil series.
All members of a soil series will have formed from the same kind of parent material and have the same
kinds and sequence of horizons. Variation is allowed in the degree of expression of horizon
characteristics within the series, although the range of variability is limited. Thus, members of the same
series may differ slightly in color, horizon thickness, ph, and other features. Subsoil texture must be very
nearly the same in all members of a series, but the surface soil may vary among two or three different
textural classes, provided they do not represent large differences in particle-size analyses.
Different soil series can result from independent variation in any one of the soil forming factors.
Sometimes, simultaneous variation in two or more factors can take place without causing significant
change in the soil-forming environment. For instance, different combinations of slope and external
climate change can result in similar conditions for soil development, as can variation in other factors
that tend to compensate for each other. For this reason the occurrence of some kind•of soil in widely
scattered locations and different topographic position is not unusual.
Tentatively, new series are described during the conduct of a soil survey. As the survey progresses, the
soils being examined are compared with those of previously surveyed areas. When a soil unlike any
other is discovered and found to be a sufficient extent to warrant separate recognition, it is studied,
described in detail, and assigned a series name. the name is taken from some local landmark, often that
of a town or village. Examples are the Lips series in Laguna and Batangas and the Maahas series in Los
Ballos, Laauna. About 300 series are currently recognized in the Philippines, and many more will be
discovered as soil surveys are
Profile Characterization -The identification of soils is based upon important morphological and chemical
characteristics of the profile. The morphology of a soil is best evaluated from the examination of the
profile under field conditions.
Soil Horizon Designations - After the morphological characteristics have been described, the horizons are
classified and named to promote communication among soil scientists anti other users of soil
information. Horizon names are not mutually exclusi•e, and a great deal of interpretation on the part of
the soil scientist is involved in naming a horizon. Master or major horizons are designated by capital
letters; subdivisions are designated by Arabic numeral. The following definitions are quoted in part from
the Soil Survey Manual (Soil Survey Staff, 19621. Organic (0) horizons of mineral soils include horizons
(1) formed or forming above the Mineral part of the nuilerai soli profiles; (2) dominated by fresh or
partly decomposed organic material; and (3) containing more than 30% organic matter if the mineral
fraction is more than 50%, clay, or more than 20% organic matter if the fraction has no clay. The
horizons are designated as 01 and 02. Mineral horizons (A) contain less than 20% organic matter if the
mineral fraction contains no clay; or less than 30% orgy ic matter if the mineral fraction contains 50% or
more clay.
A horizon are mineral horizon consisting of (1) horizons of organic matter accumulation formed or
forming at or adjacent to the surface; (2) horizons that have lost clay, iron or aluminum, with resultant
concentrations of. quarts or other resistant minerals (sand-ur silt-siz,); or horizons dominated by (1) or
(s2) above but transitional to an underlying B or C. horizons given these designations are Al, A2, and A3.
AB- A horizon transitional between A and B, having an upper part dominated by properties of A and a
lower part dominated by properties of B, and the two parts cannot conveniently be separated into A3
and B1, Used only for thin soils.
AC - A horizon transitional between A and C, having subordinate properties of both A. and C, but not
dominated by properties characteriStic of either A or C. 01 - Organic horizon in which essentially the
original form of most vegetative matter is visible to the naked eye. 02 - Organic horizon in which the
original form of the most plant or animal matter cannot be recognized with the naked eye.

A1- Mineral horizon, formed or forming at or adjacent to the surface, in which an accumulation of
humified organic matter is intimately associated with the mineral fraction.
A2 - Mineral horizon in which IOS'S of clay, Iron or aluminum occurs and accumulation of quartz or
ether resistant minerals occurs in sand silt fractions
A3 -- A transitional horizon between A :aid 0, and dominated by properties of an overlying Al or A2 but
having some subordinate properties of an underlying
B.
B1 - A transitional horizon between B and Al or between B and A2 in which the horizon is dominated by
properties of an underlying but has some subordinated properties of an overlying Al or A2.
B2 - That part of the hi horizon where the properties of B are without clearly expressed subordinate
characteristics indicating that the horizon is transitional to an adjacent overlying A or an adjacent
underlying C or R.

B3 - A transitional horizon between B and C or R in which the properties of an overlying B2 are clearly
expressed but are associated with clearly expressed properties of C or R. designated only if there is an
overlying B2 horizon. C - A mineral horizon or layer excluding bedrock, that is either like or unlike the
material from which the solum is presumed to have formed, relatively little affected by pedogenic
processes, and lacking properties of A and B horizons.
R - Underlying consolidated bedrock, such as granite, sandstones, or limestone. If presumed to be like
the parent rock from which the adjacent overlying layer or horizon was formed, the symbol R is used
alone. If presumed to be unlike the overlying material, the R is preceded by a Roman numeral denoting
lithologic discontinuity (i.e., IIR). The horizons have dominant features of one or more of the following:
(1) an Illuvial concentration of silicate clay, iron, aluminum, or humus, alone or in combination; (2) a
residua! concentration of sesquioxides or silicate clays, alone or mixed, that has formed by means other
than solution and removal of carbonated or more soluble valid; coating of sesquioxides adequate to give
conspicuously darker, stronger, or redder colors than overlying and underlying horizons in the same
sequum, but without apparent illuviation of iron and not genetically relate to B horizons that meet
requirements of (1) or (2) in the same sequum; or (3) an alteration of material from its original condition
in sequum defined in (1), (2), and (3) that obliterates original rock structure, that forms silicate clay,
liberates oxides, or both, and that forms a granular, blocky, or prismatic structure if textures are such
that changes accompany changes in moisture. The C horizon includes materials modified b (1)
weathering outside the zone of biological activity; (2)• reversible cementation, development of
brittleness, development of high bulk density, and other characteristic properties of fragipans; (3)
gleying; (4) accumulation of calcium or magnesium carbonate or more soluble salts; or (5) cementation
by alkali-soluble siliceous material or by iron and silica. Many types of alterations are permitted in
material designated as C horizon. Alterations by chemical weathering deep in the soil are commonly
accepted in C horizon; however, biologically influenced alteration is usually excluded. The solum has
often been called parent material for the solum. It is more correct to say that it is like the material from
which the A and B horizons are presumed to have formed ( Buol et al., 1973). The present usage of C
does not make even this interpretation completely correct because of lithological discontinuities.
Subhorizons symbols
To facilitate more complete expression of the horizon characteristics than is possible with master
horizon designations, the following symbols are used
b - Buried horizon
ca - An accumulation of carbonates of alkaline earth metals, commonly calcium. This symbol Is used
with A, B, or C horizon
cs- - An accumulation of calcium sulfate used in the some manner as ca. cs - An accumulation of calcium
used in the same manner as ca
g - Strong gleying. The suffix g is used with a horizon designation to indicate intense reduction of Iron
during soil development. The symbol may be applied to any of the major symbols for mineral horizons.
h - Illuvial humus. This is used only as a subdivision of the B horizon
ir- Illuvial iron. Often used with h as for example B2hir to Indicate both humus and iron accumulation.
m - strong cementation, induration
P - Plowing or other disturbance. The symbol p is used with A to designate cultivation or pasturing; thus
the plowed layer is designates as Ap.
sa - An accumulation of salts more soluble than calcium sulfate.
si - Cementation by siliceous material, soluble in alkali. Used only with C horizon.
t - illuvial clay. Used with B at Bt. Fragipan character. Horizons may this be designated Ax, Bx or Cx.
Physical and Chemical Properties -The experienced soil scientist (pedologist) by making a morphological
study of the soil can make interpretations about its characteristics. However, quantitative data on the
physical and chemical composition of soils are also needed. In order to make precise differentiation
among soil groups, laboratory determinations of selected soil properties are necessary. For example, to
make a distinction between the state of weathering of different soils, it is necessary to determine the
chemical properties of these kinds of soils. Thus, a premium is placed on information about the physical
and chemical composition of soils.Cert8in soil properties are selected for use in the classification
process, based on their assumed Importance in understanding the genesis of the soil and on the number
of other important properties which are related to the property under consideration.
Physical Determinations
(a) Textural analysis - measurement of the percentages of the primary particles: sand, silt and clay.
(b) Bulk density
(c) Soil moisture parameters i. Fifteen-atmosphere percentage (approximate permanent wilting point).
ii. One-third atmosphere percentage approximate field capacity)
(d) Shrink- swell capacity- certain soils have the capacity to swell significantly when moist and crack
when dry relative to high content of montmorillonite.
Chemical Determinations
(a) Mineralogical composition of the horizons; clay mineral fraction, roosphous clays, and primary
minerals in the silt and sand fractions.
(b) Cation exchange capacity, kind and amount of exchangeable cations, percent base saturation, pH,
free (extractable) Iron, saturation extract conductivity, organic matter or carbon content.
Diagnostic horizons
The following are brief definitions of some of the terms now being used in soil classification.
Epipedons. Epipedons are simply the uppermost soil horizons. Epipedon is not synonymous with A
horizon and may be thinner than the A horizon or include sonte of the S horizon.
Subsurface Diagnostic horizons. Soil horizons or properties found below the surface of virgin soils are
used In classification to avoid changes in classification that might result from erosion, tillage, etc. of their
surficial horizons.

Nomenclature in Soil Taxonomy

Soil taxonomy provides for the classification of soils at six different levels of generalization, with each
level being called a category of classification. these categories from highest to lowest are: order,
suborder, grest group, subgroup, family, and series. The classes In each category are differentiated on
the basis of many characteristics (Table 9.3). Series are combined to make up soil classes within each of
the higher categories, which explains why these are termed the fundamental units of the classifications
system.
The level of generalization In soil taxonomy relates to the range in properties allowed within the
different classes making up a category. The most highly generalized classes, the soil orders, vary widely
in properties

Diagnostics Surface Horizons Epipedon

Mollic Epipedon- a thick, dark surface horizon with a high percent base saturation (>50%) and good
structure and not hard when dry. The horizon contains at least 1% OM. The soil Is not exceptionally high
in phosphorous.
Anthropic Epipedon- meets, all the requirements of citric acid soluble phosphorous mollic epipedon,
except that it is either high in citric acid soluble phosphorous, due to long use with application of
phosphorous, commonly in bones and household refuse, is higher in OM than in other soils of the region
due to irrigation.
Umbric Epipedon- comparable to mollic epipedon in color, organic carbon content, and thickness, but it
has low percentage base saturation (<50), or is hard and massive when dry.
Histic Epipedon- a surface horizon very high in OM which is at some season of the year saturated with
water (unless artificially drained). As clay content increases, OM requirement increases from 20 to 30%
Ochric Epipedon- surface horizon which are too light in color, too low in OM„ or too thin to be one of
the horizons describe below Plaggen Epipedon- a man-made surface horizon which is more than 50 c.
thick. It is produced by long continued manuring practices common in Western Europe.
Diagnostic Subsurface (Subsoil) Horizons
Argillic Horizon- an illuvial horizon in which layer-lattice silicate clays have accumulated by illuviation to
a significant extent. The clay content of this horizon must be at least 3% more or 1.2 times greater than
the clay content in the eluvial horizon.
' Agric Horizon- layer "immediately underlying a plow layer in which clay and humus have accumulated
as thick, dark lamellae or as coating on ped surfaces and in worm-holes, and occupy at least 15 percent
of the horizon by volume. In other words, a layer of clay and humus accumulation formed under
cultivation beneath the plow layer.
Natric Horizon- an argillic horizon that has more than 15% saturated with exchangeable sodium, or has
more exchangeable magnesium plus sodium than calcium plus exchange acidity. It commonly has a
prismatic or columnar structure. 7.*
Spodic Horizon- an illuvial horizon containing an accumulation of active amorphous materials of humus
and aluminum with or without iron.
Cambic Horizon-a changed or altered (either color or structure or both)horlzon; a horizon that contains
leiclar,rnica, or other weatherable minerals, but ws a little of the original rock structure. Soil forming
processes an weatilerin-g—have resulted Sn structure formation, formation of clay, loss of structural
silicate iron to free iron forms, or redistribution of carbonates.
Oxic Horizon- an intensively weathered horizon. It has little or none of the original rock structure, and
contains at least 1 5 Wo clay, having CEC less than 16 m.e. per 100 g of clay. There must be less than 1%
weatherable primary minerals In the sand and silt and no more than traces of 2:1 lattice clay minerals .
Pan Horizons
Duripans- an indurated horizon that is cemented in part by an agent soluble in concentrated alkali-
usually silica or an aluminum silicate, with or without iron. It Is destroyed by concentrated bases with or
without alternating treatment with acid,
Fragipan- ("brittle pan")- a loamy subsurface horizon that is very hard when dry, slowly permeable and
brittle when wet. It is very low in OM and has a very high bulk
Soil families and soil series are differentiated on the basis of Properties chosen specifically to make taxa
at the two levels successively more homogenous for practical uses of sod
. • Families-subdivisions of subgroups on the basis of properties that are important to plant growth such
as soil-air, soil-water, plant root nutrient supply relationships, soil temperature, and soil minerals.
• . Series- subdivisions of families on the basis of properties chosen to give the greatest homogeneity of
internal properties within the genetic soil or the rooting zone, whichever is deeper, consistent with the
occurrence of mappable areas at scales of detailed soil survey.
Because they are made up of many different soil series. These series must be alike in only those few
properties that define the order. Down through the system, classes are defined by an Increasing number
of properties. This limits the number of series assigned to a class as well as the range In overall
properties of the class. Thus, the lower the level of classification the greater the amount of Information
to classify a soil. There are 10 soil orders with different sets of diagnostic horizons representing
differences both in kind and degree of horizon development of horizons. Vertisols, Arldosols, Mollisols,
Spodosols, Allis°Is, Ultisols, and Histosols represent differences in the dominant kinds of genetic
horizons. Oxisols represent a combination of both the kind and degree of weathering and soil formation.
Aridisols and Spodosols do not occur in the Philippines; Oxisols have yet to be discovered.

Each order is divided into suboyfers primarily on the basis of the characteristics that seemed to produce
classes with greatest genetic homogeneity. Differentiating characteristics in the suborder category
reflect degree of wetness as indicated by colors, genetic differences due to climate and vegetation,
mineralogical differences, such as the high sand content of Psamments or high calcium carbonate
content of parent materials of Rendolls, etc. There are 47 suborders from a maximum of 7 in the
Mollisols to only 2 in the Andosols.
Each great group is defined, within its perspective suborder, largely on the presence or absence of
diagnostic horizons and the arrangement of those horizons. Horizons used as differentiate include those
horizons that

Table
Table

Containing illuviall clay, iron and humus; thick, dark-colored surface horizons; pans that interfere woth
root development, water movement, or both and anthropic horizons that formed under cultivation.
Some 227 great groups have been defined.
Subgroups are subdivisions of great groups and are used to indicate (a) the central concept of each
great group, (b) intergrades to other orders, suborders, or great groups, and (c) subgroups with aberrant
properties not indicate of any other order, suborder, or great group. More than 1000 subgroups have
been established.
Families - are differentiated within a subgroup primarily on the basis of properties important to the
growth of plants (Soil Survey Staff, 1960) . Properties used to differentiate families are texture,
mineralogy, reaction, depth of soil over contrasting material (bedrock or unconsolidated material),
thickness of sola, permeability, bulk density, consistence, and the presence of a cambic horizon.
Differentiate vary from one subgroup to another.
The soil series- is a collection of individuals essentially uniform In differentiating characteristics and in
arrangement of horizons; or, if genetic horizons are thin or absent, are uniform In all soil properties
diagnostic for series. Difference. significant to soil behavior but not to soil genesis are designated by
separating two or more types or phases with a series. Soil series are conceptual. The soil bodies
delineated on detailed soils maps are real things and they are given the name of the series that is
predominant In terms of area. For example, soil series name, such as Lipa used to indicate (a) a pedon
which has characteristics properties of Lipa, (b) a taxonomic,class that includes all individuals within
defined limits of the Lipa series, and (c) soil map area within which the Lipa series can be Identified in 85
percent or more of the area.
Names of the ten soil orders are given in Table 9.4. The names are formed from suitable roots (usually
Greek or
presence of compacted layers favorable structure Is considered a principal factor toward high
productivity of fine-textured soils. ch can be achieved through aggregation of fine particles so that Lan
appropriate distribution of large, medium, and small pores can be achieved and adequate air capacity In
the soil obtained.
Void Ratio
To most engineers, the volume of soil pores spaces (Vp) Is known as voids. The ratio of the total void
volume to the volume of the solids alone (Vs) defines the term void ratio, e. the relation Is given
e= vp
vs
The relationship between porosity N and void ratio can be developed from the basic relationship among
the various components of soil volume. In terms of void ratio, total porosity is obtained as :
N= e
1t e

Whereas the void ratio can be expressed directly from a known porosity as :
e= 1-N
Pore-Size Distribution
Frequently, knowledge of total porosity or void ratio is not sufficient to explain the behavior of a
number of phenomena and processes related to movement and retention of fluids In soils.
Understanding often requires the Information of pore size distribution. Given the existence of particle
size distribution In the soil, the presence of pores of varying sizes is possible to conceive. Thus, pore
space can be bought of as having a size distribution in which case the effective width of pore defined an
equivalent diameter of a capillary tube that can withstand the same suction or energy of retention
without draining the water It contains at the specified pore suction. Such equivalence become necessary
to alloy: a representation of this concept because of the very complex nature of the Interstices resulting
from random arrangement of the many sizes of particles. It Is possible to associate a given moisture
content in the soil with the energy that holds the water (suction), taken over the soil moisture range.
The curve is referred tows the moisture suction curve of moisture characteristics of the medium. Under
certain conditions, each pores has water and air separate by a concave interfaces where the surface
tension relation holds. This is written
as :
/S= T. (1/ri + 1/r2)
(12)
Where S is suction of the water or pressure drop across the Interface. Is is surface tension, r1 and r2 are
minor and major curvature of the Interface. Substituting the 2 radii by a mean radius of curvature,r, arid
assuming that angle is very low, the mean radius of curvature Is also the radius of the pore so that this
pore radius is :
r= 0.149= d
S 2
(13)
Where d is the pore diameter.
The moisture content of the soil which corresponds to a given moisture suction is also the pore volume
fraction which is occupied by pores with a radius equal to or smaller than that obtained from relation
(12). Application of suction Si to a water- saturated soil would cause all pores In the soil whose effective
radii are larger than ri to drain water , whereas those pores whose effective radii are not larger than r1
remain water-filled despite the presence of Suction Si. If the suction applied is increased to S2 pores
wider than r2 will drain water (r2<1.1).

The volume of water that drains from saturation to the suction S1 represents the volume of soil pores
whose radii are larger than r1, while the water that drains between Si and S2 represents the (mount of
soil pores whose radii range in size from r2 to ri. Hence, f a moisture suction curve is available, a
cumulative pore-size distribution in relation to suction can be derived. 6me Classification of Soil
Classifications of Soil Pore Spaces
The total pore space may be divided into several classes or categories of pores. Classifications includes
the drainage, aeration and water-retaining pores. The relation with suction or width of pore is given
below:
Quickly draining pores - 30pm Slowly draining pores
Water retaining pores- 10 pm
Useful water retaining pores- 0.2 pm
Non-useful water retaining pores- < 0.2pm

Another classification divides the entire pore space into three groups of pores namely coarse or large
pores, medium pores, fine or small pores. Coarse pores accommodate gases in the soil, allow passage of
excess water in drainage and gaseous exchange with the atmosphere (soil aeration), and provide space
in which plant roots can grow and develop. From the above classification, coarse pores are those width
are larger than 10pm. Medium. pores are those pores that retain water with an energy of retention low
enough for plants to take up the retained water. These pores act as storage for the " available water"
which becomes comparable to the water-retaining pores of the early classification (pore width from 0.2
pm to 10 pm). Fine pores retain water very strongly but the energy is high for plants to be able to make
use of the retained water. They are equivalent to the non-useful water-retaining pores in the former
scheme (pore width smaller than 0.2 pm). A desirable pore size distribution in soil is one where the total
pore volume Is approximately divided equally between the coarse pore and the medium and fine pores
combined with the medium pores comprising at least 40 percent of the latter group.
Soil Densities
One feature of the most substances is their characteristic density. Be definition density is the ratio of the
weight of an object to its volume. This relation is expressed as :
P=M
V
(14)
Where P is density , M Is mass and V is volume of the object. In soils, the weight used in calculation of
density is the oven dry weight which Is the weight of the soil where most if not all of the water has been
removed. The weight of the gas at this condition is very negligible so that the oven-dry weight is, in
actuality the weight of the solids or particles alone (WO. The volume used is either the bulk volume of
total volume (VT) which combines the volume of every soil component, or the volume of the solid or
particle component alone (Vs).
Two types of densities are obtained depending on which volume of the soil is used in the calculation. If
the bulk or total volume is used, the density obtained Is referred to as bulk density or apparent density.
On the other hand, if the volume of the solids alone or particles alone is used, the density obtained is
the particle density or true density. These densities are expressed as
Pb= Ws
Vt
Ps= Ws
 Vs

Where P and P, are respectively, bulk density and particle density. it is noted that since weight used is
the same for PB and Ps, the
former will always be lower in magnitude than the latter because Vs th ways smaller than VT. An
increase in bulk density is obtained at e expense of pore spaces. The limiting value of bulk density will be
the particle density of the soil which is more or less constant under ordinary conditions of temperature
and pressure. For a given mineral soil due to varying mineralogical composition, Soils high in Iron
minerals tend to give slightly higher particle densities. Soils high In Iron minerals tend to five slightly
tend to give slightly higher particle densities.
Some Factors Affecting Bulk Densities is one index of structural arrangement or packing soil particles.
The value is sensitive to changes in porosity which alters the total volume of the soil. Any condition that
brings about change in the pattern of arrangement of soil particles will cause a change In the volume of
pores and thus, the total volume also. Lower bulk density values are associated with well-aggregated
soils because aggregation usually leads to an increase in the overall volume of pore space through an
increase in number of large pores. Organic matter because of its low weight per unit volume directly
affects bulk density but the indirect effect of organic matter is more important in terms of promoting the
process of aggregation of soil particles. Deterioration of soil cultivation of soil which leads to unease in
bulk density. Thus, cultivated soft generally have higher bulk density than their virgin soil counterparts.
Compacting a soil reduces the volume of pores and increase the SOW density. Less apparent is the
relation between bulk density and texture. Certain observations shows that bulk density values tends to
be lower as texture becomes finer and vice-versa. The relationship is more the result of the irregular and
highly complex pattern of arrangement of soil particles from one sample to another rather than as a
result of varying particles size or texture. Plate-like clay particles tend to have a larger amount of pore
space than spherical, coarse particles when randomly arranged. Furthermore, clay content is positively
correlated to improve aggregation. Low bulk density values are associated with fine textured soils
compared to coarse textured materials.

Table

Incomplete paragraph
on the observed increase in volume after immersion of the soil sampie. There are many way in
determining bulk density. These are the excavation, the core and the clod methods. In the excavation
method, a hole is dug in the field at the spot of interest. All of the excavated soli material is recovered
for oven drying. The bottom r and sides of the hole are lined with impermeable flexible sheet. Water is
added to completely N! the hole. Bulk density is then obtained from measured oven dry weight and
volume of the hole. (volume of water used to fill up the hole). A soil core sampler is used to collect
undisturbed soil sample in the case of the core-method. The sampler has a known volume so that only
the oven dry weight of the soil core is needed. With both of these quantities known, a straight forward
calculation of bulk density can be made.
For soils that form clods, the clod method can be adapted to determine bulk density. A natural soil clod
is obtained for oven drying after which, the clod is coated by a. thin layer of material impermeable to
water. Commonly used coating material is paraffin or saran resin. Properly coated clods are weighted
and immersed in 5 water known initial volume. An increase in volume of water is due to the volume of
the coated clod. The volume of the coating alone is subtracted to account for the volume of the whole
soil only. With known weight of solids and volume of solids, bulk density is easily determined.
Description of Soil Structure - Under the qualitative decomposition of the past soils posses a structure
because they satisfy at least two conditions namely (1) there is aggregation (2) aggregates are arranged
in a definite pattern. If either condition is not satisfied, the soil is structureless. In sandy soils for
instance, aggregation seldom occurs so that particles exists as separate entities. This is referred to as "
single-grained" type of strutureless category. Another type under this structureless category is the
massive" in which particles are held together equally in the soil mass. When broken, the mass shatters
into various sizes and shapes. The massive type is common in compacted soils and in most dried paddy
soil.
For soils, with structure, field operations normally includes the following sequence of information:

1. Grade -distinctness or durability of peds

2. Size of structureless units- class
3. Shape of peds- type
A description may refer to soils with a strong (grade), medium (class) sub-angular blocky structure
(shape).
In an attempt to provide descriptive scheme for soil pores as well as to characteristics non-aggregated
soil materials where the terms massive and single grain have proven inadequate, and to allow for a
comprehensive approach to the study of soil structure, Brewer (1964) proposed a system of soil
structure description which has been used and appreciated in soil science. In this system, structure
includes the size, shape and arrangement of primary particles and voids. This also defines natural
aggregation in terms of pedality which is the physical constitution of a soil material expressed by the
size, shape and arrangement of peds.
Structure is described at different magnifications starting with primary particles that form peds which in
turn may be part of a compound themselves. The element of structure which deals with arrangement is
termed as fabric.
Elements of the Brewer Soil Structure Description
The elements used are the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral particles and void constituting the
soil material.
Size distribution includes that of the primary soil particles (soil texture), the large coherent aggregates of
beds and Dore size distribution. Texture is determined by sedimentation, aggregate size distribution by
sieving and pore size distribution by a number of methods including the use of thin sections.

Latin), a connecting vowel ( 0 or 1), and a common ending, (L, soiurn, soil).
Suborder names contain two formative elements. The first is a formative element for the suborder taken
form the list in Table 9.5. The second. element refers to the order. These names thus say more about
the properties of a soil than does the name of the order alone. For example, the name identifies an
Ultisol with a udic moisture regime. Similarly the name Aquent connotes an Entisol with an aquic
moisture regime.
Great groups names consist of the suborder names plus a prefix of one, sometimes two, formative
elements taken from the list in fable 9.6. The additional formative elements imply more about the soils
than is indicated by the suborder names. Some examples of great groups name Tropudais which are
Alfisols of the humid tropics and Fragiudals, which are Udalfs with a fragipan. Subgroup names consist of
a great group name preceded by one or more adjectives. Some of the adjectives are formed by
modifying a formative element, as in the cases of Entic (from ent) which implies limited development.
Others, such as Histic of Vertic refer to standard diagnostic properties.
Tableeeee 9.5

Subgroup names are used primarily to denote whether or not a soil typifies a great group. Those that do
are classed as Typic, as in Typic Tropudalfs. If they are not typical, it is because they deviate toward
some other kind of soil or unusual condition. •
Classification within the taxonomic system is sometimes based on the temperature or moisture regime
of the soil. Soil temperature regimes are defined ranges in mean annual soil temperature, as modified in
some instances by magnitude of the difference between winter and summer mean soil temperatures.
Soil moisture regimes refer to defined moisture levels of wet, moist, or dry in relation to the periods of
the. year when these levels are maintained in the soil. Highly generalized descriptions of soil
temperature and moisture regimes are given in tables 9,7 and 9.8.
A possible device to remember forms of names is to use "Z-sot". If such a memory device is useful and
the symbol "Y" is used for the first syllable f suborders, "X" for formative element prefixes of great
groups, and "Adj" for subgroup adjectives, the symbolized, "XYZ" for great groups, and 'Adj" "XYZ" for
subgroups. Let us from the name for "ult" -4- sol. The order name would be "Z-sol" or Ultisol since "Z"
stands for Ulti, The suborder name is then derived as follows. Suppose that the soil has been described
in the humid tropics under udic moisture regime. The soil belongs to the order ultisol. Now we
substitute "Ult for z and Ud for Y. Therefore "YZ" would read Udult which is the suborder name. Next we
derive the great group name. the soil being classified, let us say, occurs in the tropics and the formative
element is "Trop" which we shall substitute for "X" in "X-udult."

Table 9.6
8
Shape of mineral grains, or peds, is Integrated into the description of voids by characterizing different
types of voids with characteristic shape such as channels, packing voids, vughs, etc. The aspect of
arrangement is complicated but Is directly referring to soil fabric which involves arrangement of primary
and secondary particles ignoring shape and sizes which are part of a broader soil structure description.
Arrangement includes (1) arrangement of constituents (plasma, skeleton, grains, and voids), (2)speciflc
feature. Two separate aspects of arrangement apply to all the individuals In a soli material at all levels
which are distribution and orientation patterns.

1. Plasmic Structure.- the size and shape of plasma grains

(that part that has been or capable of being moved,
reorganized and/ or concetrated by soil formation) and
their arrangement. As far as fluid fiow Is concerned,
plasmic pores are very smatl and flow will be very low.

2. Basic Structure - the size, shape, and arrangement of

plasma, skeleton grains (individual grains, relatively stable
but not readily transloacted, concentrated or reorganized -
by soil formation) and associated voids. The aspect of
arrangement of interest is the distribution patterns relating
to the arrangement of constituents (plasma, skeleton
grains and voids). Soil materials with only skeleton grains
and very little plasma have granules basic structure

3. Matric structure- size, shape and arrangement of

plasma, skeleton grains, and associated voids and of voids
larger than packing volds (voids due to random packing of
single grain) occurring in primary peds or in apodal soil
materials. The primary structure relates to the occurrence
of pedolofical features

4. Secondary structure: this refer to size, shape and

arrangement of peds and interpedal voids and interpedal
pedological features. These features are units within soil
material distinguished by origin (deposition as an entity),
differences in concentration of some fractions of the |
plasma or differences in arrangement of constituents.
Types of Soil Structure

1) Spheroidal (granularj- this includes rounded peds or

aggregates whose diamter ig not more than 1 cm, Thesee
rounded complexes lie loosely and are readily shaken-
apart. Ordinarily, the aggregates are called granules and
the pattern of arrangement as granular. However, when
the granules are especially porous , the rermcrumb is
applied. Granular and crurnb structures are characteristics
of many surface soils, especially those high in OM and are
especially prominent in grassland soils. They are the only
types of aggregation that are commonly influenced by
practical methods of soil:management.

2) Platelike (platy)- In-this typeof soil structure , c

aggregates or groups. are arranged in relatively thin
horizonta! plates , leaflets or-lenses. Platy structure is most
noticeable in the. surface layer of virgin solls but may
characterized the: subsoll horizons as well, Although most
structural features. are usually a product of soil-forming
forces, thie platy type Is often inherited from the parents
materials, ‘especially those laid down by water or ice.

3) Prismlike(prismatic and columnar subtype)- this type

4s characterized by vertically oriented aggregates or pillars
which vary in fength with different soils and may reach a
diameter of 6 or more inches. When the tops are rounded,
the term columnar is used. This may occur when the
préfile is changing and certain horizons are degrading.
When the tops of the prisms are still plane level and clean
cut, the structural patterns designated as prismatic.

4) Blocklike( blocky and sub-anqular blocky subtypes)-

in this case, the original aggregates have been reduced to
blocks, irregularly six-faced , with their three dimensions
more or less equal in size. In size, these fragments range
from a fraction of an inch to 3 to 4 inches in thickness. In
general, the design is so individualistic that identification is
easy. When the edges of the cubes are sharp and the
rectangular face distinct, the sub-type is designated
blocky. When some rounding has occurred, the aggregates
are refereed to as sub-angular blocky. When some ,
rounding has occurred, the aggregates are referred to as
sub-angular blocky. These types usually are confined to

the subsoils, commonly of the humid regions, and their stage of development and other characteristics
have much to Ce with soil drainage, aeration and root respiration.
In general properties that directly or indirectly affect the pore space status have been used to reflect the
structural condition of the sod. Some examples are degree of aggregation , porosity, pore-size
distribution, bulk density, permeability, size distribution and stability of aggregates. Thus, soli structure
condition Is evaluated not only by the type, grade and class of structure, but also by these parameters. A
favorable structure Implies that the soli has (1) relatively high porosity, its pore spaces dominated by
medium and large pores, (2) high hydraulic Conductivity and air permeability with aggregates of medium
and large sizes and (3) that the above conditions persists or are stable after the action of water and/ or
manipulation of the soil.
Formation of soil structure
Soil particles may be present either as single individual grains or as aggregate i.e. group of particles
bound together Into granules or compound particles. These granules or compound particles are known
as secondary particles. A majority of particles in a sandy or silty soil are present as single individual
grains while in clayey soil they are present In granulated condition. The Individual particles are usually
solid, while the aggregates are not solid but they possess a Porous or spongy character. Most soils are
mixture of single grain and compound particle, Solis, which predominate with single grains are said to be
structure less, while those possess majority of secondary particles are said to be aggregate, granulated
or crumb structure.
Mechanism of Aggregrate Formation
The bonding of the soil particles into structural unit Is the genesis of soil structure. The bonding between
Individual particles in the structural units Is generally considered to be stronger than the structural units
themselves. In aggregate formation, a number of primary particles such as sand, silt and clay are
brought together by the cementing or binding effect of soil colloids. The cementing materials taking part
in aggregate formation are colloidal clay, Iron and aluminium hydroxides and decomposing organic
matter. Whatever may be the cementing material. It Is ultimately the dehydration of colloidal matter
accompanied with pressure that completes the process of aggregation.

Colllodial Clay
By virtue of high surface area and surface charge, clay particles play a key role In the formation of soil
aggregates. Sand and silt particles can not form aggregates as they do not possess the power of
adhesion and cohesion. These particles carry a coating of clay particles. they are enmeshed in the
aggregrates formed by the adhering clay particles. Colloidal particles form aggregates only When they
are flocculated. There is vast difference between flocculation and aggregation. Flocculation Is brought
about by coalescence of colloidal particles and Is the first step in aggregation. Aggregation is some thing
more than flocculation involving a combination of different factors such as hydration, pressure,
dehydration etc. and required cementation of flocculated particles. The cementation may be caused by
cations, oxides of Fe and Al, humus substances and products of microbial excretion and synthesis. the
are wetted by a liquid like water whose molecules posses an appreciable dipole moment.

The aggregation also depends upon the nature of clay particles, size and amount of clay particles,
dehydration of clay particles, cations like calcium and anions like phosphate.
/Fe and Al oxides: The colloidal Fe oxictes act as cementing agentt in a aggregation. Al oxides bind the
sand and silt particles. These act

8
Table

The great group name therefore will be Tropudolt. The subgroup name is arrived at by placing a modifier
"Adj" before Tropudult. Suppose the soil Is a typical Tropudult, then the subgroup name for the soil is
Typic Troggdu_t• Now let us the nomenclature for the soil family. As Indicated In Table 9.3, three kinds
of criteria are used in naming a soil family: broad textural classes, mineralogy classes, and soil
temperature classes. The appropriate class name for each of the three types of criteria Is used as an
adjective following the subgroup binomia( name, set off by commas. For example, assume we are
considering a Typic Tropudult which is rich In kaolinItC clay and found in the Philippines In the
isohyperthermic soil temperature belt. We then place this soil under the family: Ivolc Tropudult, clayey,
kaolinitic. isohyperthermic. A key to. the separation of soils into orders is summarized In Table 9.9.an
example of naming a soil according to soil taxonomy.

Tableee

There are 10 soil orders, with different sets of diagnostic horizons (Table 9.9) representing differences
both n kind and degree of 0011 development. Seven soil orders are found in the Philippines. )
Entisols- are soils of recent origin. They are characterized by youthfulness and are without natural
genetic horizons or have only the beginnings of horizons. The central concept of Entisols is a son In deep
regolith or earth with no horizons except perhaps a plow layer. SoMe Entlsols, however, have plaggen,
&ark, or albic horizons, and some have hard rock close to the surface. Alluvial soils are Entisols formed
from alluvium of recent origin and have very weakly developed profiles. In many of them the color
change from A to C horizon is hard to see or is non-existent. They are soils In which most of the
properties have been Inherited. They are usually characterized by stratification. Because the materials
are deposited at different rates in water, they tend to be coarse textured near the stream and finer
textured near the outer the outer edges of the flood plain. MIneralogically, they are related to the that
served as a source 'or the alluvium. Periodic flooding adds fresh minerals to the soils and they tend to
remail. fertile. The soil remains yound because It is buried before maturity is reached. Alluvial soils
played an Important role in the development of early agriculture before the development of fertilizers
and manuring systems. Many of our productive soils In the Philippines are Entisols which we find In the
Central Plain of Luzon, the Cagayan Valley, and the Allah Valley in Cotabato.

INCEPTISOLS-
INCEPTICOLS is derived from the Latin inceptum, meaning beginning. Development of genetic horizons Is
just beginning In Inceptisol, but they are considered to be older than Entisols. Typically, Inceptisols have
ochric epipedon and may have other diagnostic horizons, but show little evidence of eluviation or
illuviation. Evidence of extreme weathering is lacking, They lack sufficient diagnostic features such that
they cannot be placed In any of the remaining eight soil orders.
Inceptisols occur In all climatic zones where there is some leaching In most years. Many Inceptisols are
volcanic ash soils and represent a stage in the development of Oltisols and Oxisols In the humid tropics.
They have amorphous clays and are usually very acid. Many are intensively used for production of sugar
cane, coffee, pineapple, coconut, and other crops.
•ARIDOSOLS have an aridlc soil moisture regime and are dominant soils of desert regions. They
comprise nearly one-fifthe of the soils of the world. The soil-forming processes In the arid regions are
similar to those of the humid regions, but the rate of soil formation is much slower In arid regions. The
lesser amount of plant growth and the high rate of organic matter decomposition produce soils with low
organic matter contents.

Page 9

• Water is less effective in leaching oeflt,shrittraarnnsoloucnattolnfg colloidal material in arid because

precipitation. Another factor is the torrential nature of much of the rainfall, which results in
considerable run-off. A striking feature of most Aridosols is a zone a varying distance below the surface
where calcium carbonate has been deposited by percolating water (calcic horizon). Many Aridosols have
well • developed argillic (Bt) horizons, which Is evidence of considerable clay movement. The
widespread occurrence of argillic horizons in many Aridosols suggests. that a more humid climate than
what now exists may have occurred in the past.
Mollisols- have developed under sufficient rainfall (OP and the grass vegetation tends to cover the
ground completely and produces an abundance of organic matter that decomposes within the soil. The
rainfall, however, is sufficiently limited to prevent excessive leaching and base saturation remains high.
Decomposition of abundant organic matter within the soils In the presence of calcium leads to the
formation of mollIc epipedons. The well-aggregated soil structure gives rise to the ''softness" of the soil
which Is neither massive nor very hard when dry. As a group, mollisols combine high soil fertility and
fair•t0- adequate rainfall thereby making them the most productive agricultural soils.
Spodosols- are soils with a spodic horizon. Spodi horizons are illuvial subsurface horizons where
amorphous materials composed of organic matter, aluminum and iron have accumulated and are about
comparable to Bhir horizons. All spodosols form in a humid climate and mostly from sandy (siliceous)
parent material. They are found from the tropics to aril the boreal regions, the major areas in the world
are just of the tundras in North America and Europe-Asia.
Spodosols have sola that are very acid throughout, and they have low cation exchange capacity (except
where humus has accumulated). The base saturation of some horizons Is frequently less than 10
percent. Spodosols have limited capacity to store water and are naturally infertile for most crops but
modern soil technology has resulted in the successful use of these soils for vegetable and cattle
production in North America.

Alfisols have argillic horizons and occur in the regions where the soils is moist at least part of the year.
The requirement for over 35 percent base saturation In the argillic horizon of Alfisols means that bases
are being released In the soils by weathering about as fast as bases are being leached out. Favorable
climate and soils with fairly good fertility and physical properties 'make Alfisols one of the 1st productive
soils for agriculture.
ULTISOLS-Utlisols are old soils which show the last stages of weathering, and the ultimate effects of
leaching. Ultisols have argillic horizons with low base saturation, being less than 35 percent. High
amounts of exchangeable aluminum are usually present. They occur in the warmer parts of the world
where the mean annual soils temperature is 8C or more and have a Period each year when rainfall
considerately in excess of evapotranspiration. Few weatherable minerals usually exist In the soil to
release bases and trees play a major role in transporting nutrients form the lower part of the soil to the
upper part of the solum. Generally, Ultisols have a very low fertility level for food crops, but respond
well to fertilization because of their desirable physical properties.
OXISOLS-Sods with oxic horizons are classified under the order Oxisols. Oxic horizons are subsurface
horizons consisting of a mixture of hydrated oxides of iron and/or aluminum and variable amount of 1,1
lattie clays. Few other minerals exist in oxic horizons except some that are highly insoluble. More
specifically, the Oxic horizon as (1) a thickness of 30 cm or more, (2) a cation exchange capacity of less
than 16 me /100 g clay, (3) none or only a trace of minerals that can weather to release bases, (4) little if
an water dispersible lay, and (5) diffuse boundaries with adjacent horizons. Oxisols are found on ancient
land surface In the humid tropics and contain no resrve bases beyond those on the exchange sites.
Agriculture on Oxisols utilize shifting cultivation similar to that on Ultisols. Ultisols and oxisols commonly
occur in the same landscape and probably owe at least part of their differences to the tendency for
Oxisols to develop from more basic rocks in which the minerals are more weatherable and with less
tendency for silicate clays to form. As a result, Oxisols are richer in iron and have fewer weatherable
minerals still remaining in the soli. The soil aggregates are very stable and the soils are resistant to
erosion. Liming, fertilizers, irrigation, and other management practices have made some Oxisols some of
the world's most productive soils.
VERTISOLS- ertisols are mineral soils tha (1) are over 50 cm thick, (2) have 30 percent or more clay in all
horizons, and (3) have cracks at least 1 cm. wide (unless irrigated) at some time in the most years.
Conditions that give rise to the development of Vertisols are parent materials high In, or that weather to
form, large amounts of mointmorrilonitic day and a climate with a wet and dry season. Vertisols are
often referred to as self-swallowing clay soils.
Vertisols have great potential for agriculture where tillage machinery, fertilizers, and irrigation are
available. The natural fertility level is considered quite high, although the use of nitrogen and phosphoru
is required to obtain high yields. Cultivation of the soil Is difficult with primitive tillage implements unless
the moisture content is Just "right". Vertisols are used mainly for growing cotton, wheat, corn, sorghum,
rice, sugar cane and pasture.
HISTOSOLS- organic soils are classified as Histosols. Most Histosols are recognized by a histic epipedon
that is over 30 cm thick, saturated with water at least 30 consecutive days a year, and contains at least
20 percent organic matter. Histosols are found In Dolongon,co at Samar and aroun Laket Buluan in
Cotabato. Histosols develop where the soil is saturated t least one month each year or is under
saturation throughout the year. The properties of Histosols depend primarily on the nature of the
vegetation that was deposited in the water and the degree of decomposition. When organic soils are
drained, they may be used for very Intensive types of crop production. Special methods of tillage,
coupled with careful application of fertilizer, are required to bring these soils to a high state of
productivity. Intensive cultivation, however, results in subsidence because the organic matter undergoes
more rapid decomposition. Subsidence not only results In the eventual loss of the Histosol for crop
production, but also creates engineering (soil stability) problems.
Soil survey are conducted by the soil survey staff of the Bureau of Soils In the Ministry of Agriculture.
The actual process of mapping or surveying-consists of walking over the land at a regular intervals and
taking notes of soil differences and all related feature such as slope gradients, evidence of erosion, land
use, vegetative cover, and cultivation practices. Boundaries are drawn directly on base maps or aerial
photographs representing in most places changes from one soil type to another. The soil survey report
consists of a map that show the distribution of soils In the area, descriptions of the soils, some
recommendations as to their use and management, and general Information about the area. Reports
are usually prepared for each province.
Soil surveys are expensive to make and to publish, and they must serve a useful purpose. Soil maps
contain many types of information but perhaps the class with great value Is the phase of a family (similar
to soil type as used earlier), with slope and degree of erosion that Is recorded for each area, delineated
on the map. These maps serve as the basis for preparing maps for a wide variety of uses. The areas can
be grouped In land capability classes. A land capability map produced from the soils map can they be
used by the soil conservation personnel or the Bureau of Soils to develop conservation plans for farms.

-
In two ways. A part of the hydroxides acts as a flocculating agent and the rest as a cementing agent.
ORGANIC MATTER• It also plays an Important role in forming soil aggregates.
- During decomposition, cellulose substances produce a sticky material very much resembling mucus or
mucilage. The sticky properly may be due to the presence of humic or humic acid or related compounds
produced.
-Certain polysaccharides formed during decomposition.
- Some fungi and bacteria have cementing effect probably due to the presence of slimes and gums on
the surface of the living organisms produced as a result of the microbial activity
PROPERTIES OF SOIL STRUCTURE ON OTHER PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. Porosity: Porosity of a soil is candy changed. In plate like structure, pore spaces are less where as in
crumby structure pore spaces are more.
2. Temperature: Crumby structure provides good aeration and percolation of water in the soil. Thus
these characteristics help in keeping optimum temperature in comparison to plate like structure.
3. Density: Bulk density varies with the total pore space present in the soil. Structure chiefly influences
pore spaces Platy structure with less total pore spaces has high bulk density where as crumby structure
with more total pore spaces has low bulk density.
4. Consistency: Consistency of soil also depends on structure. Plate-like structure exhibits strong
plasticity.
5. Colour: Bluish and greenish colors of soil are generally due to poor drainage of sot. Platy structure
normally hinders free drainage.
Importance of Structure Soil structure Influences rather Indirectly by the formation"of an array of pores
of various shapes and sizes. These pores-are controlling factors governing water, air and temperature in
soil.
ROLE OF SO L STRUCTURE IN RELATION TO PLANT GROWTH
1. Soil structure influences the amount and nature of porosity.
2. Structure controls the amount of water and air present In the soil. Not only the amount of water and
alr dependent on soil structure, but their movement and circulation are also controlled by soil
structure..
3. It affects tillage practices.
4. Structure controls runoff and erosion.
5. Platy structure normally hinders free drainage whereas sphere like structure (granular and crumby)
helps in drainage,
6. Crumby and granular structure provides optimum infiltration water fielding capacity, aeration and
drainage. It also provides good habitat for microorganisms and supply of nutrients.

GRADES OF SOIL STRUCTURE

Sod structure grades refers to groupings or classification of soil structure on the basis of inter and intra
aggregate adhesion, cohesion and stability with profile
Four grades of soli structure, designated from 0 to 3 are recognized.
0- structureless; no aggregation or orderly arrangement 1- weak, poorly formed, non-durable, indistinct
peds breaking Into a mixture of a few entire and many broken peds and much aggregated materials
2- moderate; well formed, indistinct peds, breaking into a mixture of a ft entire, and many broken but
little unaggregated materials.
3-strong; durable distinct peds, weakly attached to each other that breaks almost completely Into entire
peds.

Soil Aggregation
Under upland or better drained conditions, soil aggregation is important to growing plants since
increasing aggregation affects an overall Increase in pore space. Interaggregate or intrapedal Pores not
only contribute to an increase In large pores but also maintain the relatively small pores within the
aggregate or interpedal pores. If large pores are produced due to an Increase in aggregation, the soil
would contain more spaces for root growth and development and this would promote aeration and
drainage while at the same time maintaining a high capacity for water retention. When the above soil
conditions exists, aggregation is expected to facilitate renewal of oxygen and removal of water and CO2
in the root zone of the plant. Furthermore, soil aggregation would Improve water storage through an
Increase In infiltration, decrease mechanical impendence to root penetration and seedling emergence,
and reduce surface runoff of water. Because of these influences understanding of the various conditions
as well as the cause of development of structure Is important to consider. -
Aggregiation and Crop Production
A desirable type of Structure favored by crops is the crumb Structure. The individual aggregates are-
porous In addition to the condition that pore space will exist between aggregates under any kind of
arrangement. Crumb structure tends to lead to a desirable distribution of sizes of ores so that enough
water is mot within the aggregate and adequate pore space for aeration and growth between
aggregates. This desirable size range of the aggregates is 0,25-5, mm which must be stable to the slaking
effects of rain, IrrigatiOn and 'manipulation for cultivation purposes. Unstable aggregation tend towards
crust formation after a rain or application of irrigation water. The raindrop impact as well as the slacking
action of irrigation water may cause aggregates to disperse into fine-particle that accumulate on the soil
surface to form a thin but dense and hard layer when dried. This is the crust formed which can restrict
aeration, Increase mechanical Impendence to seedling mergence and increase susceptibility to runoff.
"Factors and Mechanisms in Soil Aggreation
Aggregates are formed due to mechanism and factors that promote grouping of individual particles into
clusters or units and conditions of these units. The colloidal fraction has been shown by a number of
worker as an active component of aggregation. Three groups of soil colloids can serve as cementing
agents
1. Clay minerals
2. Colloidal oxides of iron and aluminum
3. Colloidal organic matter including microbial gums
The various processes In soil structure formation 1
. Processes including cation effects
2. Clay particle Interaction involving cohesion between clay particles
3. Cementation process by iron and aluminum colloids
4. Alternate wetting and drying
5. Microbial activity
In the presence of decomposable organic matter, microorganisms become active, replicating cells and
secreting substances as by-products of metabolism. These substances have the capacity to cement
individual particles. fungi and streptomycetes contributes to aggregation by the production of
miccilagenous substances that act to bind small particles. Differential shrinkage and swelling due to
unequal distribution of stresses allow fragmentation of the soil mass to occur on planes of weaknesses.
The process of dehydration brings particles closer which can increase attractive forces between particles
and increases strength of bonding. Structural regeneration of puddle soils as s indicated by an increase
in percent aggregate stability by the process of alternate wetting and drying treatment. Regeneration of
structural units stabilized by the alternate wetting and drying holds one of the keys to pursue multiple
cropping involving soils planted to lowland rice In the Philippines. The action of iron and aluminum
colloids is their dehydration which irreversibly cements particles which is important
10
Banks and other money-lending agencies use soils surveys In determining security of loans. Real estate
companies and individuals interested in buying or selling land make use of soil surveys. Assessment of
real estate taxes should require the uses of soil surveys. Soils survey reports are also used by highway
and drainage engineers, by irrigation engineers, land developers and people human settlements to find
suitable locations for various infrastructures: Thus, soil surveys can be interpreted in many ways.
Agencies of government all over the world are making more use of soil surveys for a variety of
purposetigenerally grouped under the heading, resource-use planning. Planning agencies have learned
that soil surveys of low intensity will provide a large part of earth-resource information they require for
making a national or regional allocation of resources for new development projects. Then, when areas
proposed for Irrigated farming or for urban and recreation developnient have been delineated with the
aid of soil survey, more intensive surveys can provide the detailed information needed for design
construction, and management of the projects.
Interpretative Soil Groupings
Interpretation of the soil classifications and accompanying maps is the proof of the utility of the
classification system. It is through this process that the assumed knowledge about soils as expressed in
the taxonomic system and graphically displayed In the soil maps are put to the test through applied,
practical uses (Buol et at, 1973). A comprehensive set of discussions and examples is presented by
Bartellie et al. (1966).
Land Classification
Capability grouping are made primarily for agricultural purposes, i.e., classification of land according to
the most suitable uses while providing protection from erosion and deterioration. The three major
factors to consider in land Capability classification are (i) soil type, (ii) slope, and (Ill) degree of erosion.
Within each capability class, except Class A, subclasses are established according to the following four
dominant kinds of limitations: (e) runoff and risks of erosion, (w) wetness and need for drainage, (s)
root'zone and tillage limitations, such as • shallow soil material for plant growth, low water-retaining
capacity, stones or salinity, and (c) climatic limitations.
Lan Classification

Capability grouping are made primarily for agricultural purposes, i.e., classification of and according to
the most suitable uses while providing protection from erosion and deterioration. The three major
factors to consider in land capability classification are (i) soil type, (ii) slope, and (iii) degree of erosion.
Within each capability class, except Class A, subclasses are established according to the following four
dominant kinds of limitations: (e) runoff and risks of erosion, (w) wetness and need for drainage, (s)
root'zone and tillage limitations, such as shallow soil material for plant growth, low water-retaining
capacity, stones or salinity, and (c) climatic limitations. A capability unit is group of soils, within a class
and subclass, that "have about the same degree of limitation in uses, the same dominant kind of
limitation, responses of growing plants, and needs for management," (Robinson et al. 1955). Nine
capability classes are recognized, ranging from Class A, which includes soils that have few limitations for
uses, to Class Y, in which the soils are not suitable for commercial production of crops, trees, or grazing
plants. The different land capability classes are as follows:
Class A - This is good land that can be cultivated safely and extensively to crops with ordinary good
farming practices. .
• Class B - This is good land that can be cultivated safely using easily applied conservation practices.
Class C- Moderately good land that can be used regularly for cultivated crops In a good rotation but
need intensive conservation treatments.
Class D - This is fairly good land that is best suited for pasture but can be cultivated to crops in a good
rotation but need intensive conservations treatments.
Class L - This land is flat but is too wet or stony and is suited for pasture or forestry. •
Class m - This land is too steep, eroded or shallow for cultivation but Is suited for grazing or forestry.
Class N - Land is very steep, eroded, rough., shallow, or dry. Good only for forestry or grazing If handled
with great care.
Class x - Level land, wet most of the time, cannot be economically drained suited for farm ponds or for
recreation.

Class Y - This land is too steep, eroded, barren, and rugged.

Engineering Groupings of soils with similar properties are useful In designing and installing drainage
system, ponds, and erosions control structure, such as terraces, etc. Since soils differ markedly and the
most common material worked in engineering, Information of soil properties and their interpretation Is
essential in constructing highways, airports, foundations, etc. Data of particle size distribution, kind of
clay, content of organic matter, soil-moisture relationships, etc. are especially important.
Woodland Groupings - In determining the suitability of soils for woodlands, interpretations are made on
potential production, plant competition, hazards and limitations ( seedling mortality, equipment
limitations, water erosion, and windthrow hazard.
Soil Productivity Indices
Crop yield data are regularly collected and studied for specific soil, climatic, management conditions.
Most of these crop yield data are obtained from experimental plots or farm records. Data from these
and other available sources can be combined to indicate response curves and the productive capacity of
different soils under various climatic and management conditions. Estimates of productivity are
commonly expressed as yields of crops or as index numbers. Crop yield data are essential for many
economic analyses of farm production, such as choice of alternative cropping system and levels of
fertilization, evaluation of land, etc.
Suburban and Recreational Land Use Planning
In Suburban development and recreational land use of planning, soil Information is used both for board
planning and for detailed assistance of specific sites. Soil information on specific sites indicates areas
subject to flooding or high water, suitability of different soils as a foundation for structures or for
satisfactory disposal fields, and adaptation of soils for various grasses, shrubs, and trees for landscaping.

TABLEEEEEEE

10

production of stable aggregates in lateritic ( oxisols and ultisols) soils where such soils are known both of
their high degree of aggregation and high iron content. The iron serves a dual purpose in aggregation.
That part In solution can act as a flocculant may exert a cementing action. Dehydration forms a good
cement binding the flocculated particles together. Iron and aluminum oxides coating on quartz bonds.
This Is suspected to be the result of formation of organic mineral compounds by the Interaction of
humic acid and free sesquioxides.
In the matter of cohesion between clay particles, it is expected that the formation of secondary units
would be related to the amount of finer particles. A high correlation exist between the mount f 5-p
fraction (0.005) and the percentage of aggregate larger than 0.05 mm in diameter. The percentage of
clay that is present in the form of aggregates varies with the amount of clay present. The molecular
cohesion forces primarily Van der Waals are the principal causes of physical binding. The addition of clay
particles to quartz and followed by dehydration, causes cementation of these primary particles and
dehydration plays significant roles in secondary particle formation. The intercrystalline forces between
clay particles Is claimed to be sufficient to account for all the binding necessary in aggregate formation.
Russell (1961)explained that aggregate formation is dependent upon an interaction between
exchangeable cation on the clay particles and the dispersion liquid. The negative surface of the clay
attracts water molecules which are oriented on the surface. The exchangeable cations also has water
hulls surrounding each one of them. As the cation becomes more tightly absorbed on the surface, water
molecules from both the surface and the cation are oriented in a joint field. Such orientation is strong
because the negative end of the water dipole Is attracted to the cation and the positive end to the
surface of the particle. This provides a system of linkages of particle oriented water molecule-cation-
oriented water-molecule particle. in the theory of strength of linkage is expected to increase with
divalent cation like calcium.
Irrespective of factors or processes, it is noted that soil aggregatibn drained soils, the larger pore spaces
are filled with air while water is the result of binding forces of clay and organic matter, both force occurs
as films in the surfaces of soil particles and as wedges at the system are complimentary. Other studies
have shown that . places where two or more particles meet. Plants obtain their water aggregation or
aggregate stability does not continue to increase from these films and wedges and must overcome
forces of with each factor such as clay content. A maximum soil aggregate cohesion, adhesion and
osmosis holding the water in the soil.As the stability is associated with moderate clay contents and
moderate to film gets thinner (water content decreasing further) forces of higher amounts of organic
matter in addition to an exchange retention increases very fast so that it becomes more difficult to
complex dominated by calcium.
Soil aggregation and modifiers substantially the known effects If texture on a given property or process.
This holds true for the processes of water and air movement as well as flow of heat in soils. Hence,
properties like water retention, nutrient supplying power and consistence, which may be,affected
directly by soil texture are modified by the accompanying structure of the soil.

When water enters any given soil volume, the fluid either remains in the pores percolates to the Iower
layerss. Water at any condition contained in a porous medium and the related process of movement of
this water are part of.the physical phenomena important to an understanding of the ta0acity of soils in
relation to plant growth. water retention and movement are the two important aspects of soil-moisture
relations.
Structures and Properties of water
Polarity- Helps explain how water molecules relate to until the matrix potential(LP m) is numerally equal
to the pressure each other. Each water molecules does not act completely potential (4) p). The pressure
needed to prevent the entry of water independent but rather is coupled with other neighboring through
the membrane is numerically equal to the pull on the water molecules. The hydrogen or positive end of
one molecule on the opposite end to prevent it from entering. The pull on the attracts the oxygen of
another molecule and resulting in a water is termed as soil moisture tension or soil moisture suction.
polymer-like grouping. The angle of associaltion (105°) has Suction is the negative of the soil matric
potential implying that the the hydrogen atoms encourage an open tetrahedral lattice soil has an
attraction for water to prevent it from being taken up by structure. The net association in liquid is more
tightly the soil. packed than Is ice thereby accounting for higher density of liquid water as compared to
ice. Polarity also explains why Matric potential of soil water or soil water suction depends upon the
water molecules are attracted to electostatically charged Ions as Na, Ca and K and to charge clay
surfaces. Polarity of water molecules also encourage the dissolution of salts in water since the ionic
components have greater attraction for water molecules than for each other.
Hvdrogen bonding-it is a phenomenon by which hydrogen atoms act as connecting linkages between
water molecules. It accounts for the polymerization and lattice structure of wate and for the relatively
high boiling point, specific heat and viscousity of water.
Cohesion and adhesion-Cohesion (attraction between like molecules) adhesion (attraction between
unlike molecules. By adhesion, soil particles hold water molecules that In turn hold water molecules by
cohesion. Together. these factors make it possible for the soil solids to retain water and control its
movement and utilization.
Surface tension-It is a phenomenon commonly evidenced at liquid-air interfaces and results from a
greater attraction of water molecules for each other than for the air above. The net effect is an inward
force at the surface which causes water to behave as if its surface were covered with a stretched elastic
membrane.
Forces that affect the free energy of soil water
Matric force- refers to the attraction of the soil solids (matrix) for water. This would markedly reduce
The free energy of adsorbed, molecules and even those held by _,. cohesion. ./2) Osmotic force- refers
to the attraction of ions and other solutes for water. This force also tend to reduce the free energy of
soil solution.
Gravitational force- refers to the force acting on soil water, which tends to pull the water downward.
The free energy Of soil water at some lower elevation. It is this difference. in free energy level, which
causes water to flow.
Basic Ideas on Soil Moisture Retention
Depending upon the supply, soil pore spaces can be filled reciprocally with varying amounts of water
and air. In better (Veined soils, the larger pore spaces are filled with air while water occurs as films in the
surfaces of soil particles and as wedges at the .places where two or more particles meet. Plants obtain
their water - from these films and wedges and must overcome forces of cohesion, adhesion and osmosis
holding the water in the soil.As the film gets thinner (water content decreasing further) forces of
retention increases very fast so that it becomes more difficult to remove each additional increment of
water. The thickness of water films at which plants can no longer obtain sufficient water to sustain
growth so that they wilt, identifies the condition when the soil has reached the wilting point. The
thickness of the film is about the same for all soils abut water content differs from soil to soil.
Water then retained in the soil by surface tension forces, adsorption forces, and by Ions that are found
in the soil, the action of some of these forces is illustrated in the works of Richards (1947) using a
membrane to determine potential and water content in soils. This shows a dry soils placed inside a
chamber on top of a membrane permeable to water and solute but not too solid and air, and the
membrane is in contact with pure water below.
There is a tendency for water to move through the membrane in the soil. Such movement can be
prevented by increasing the pressure Inside the chamber. The ability of the soil matrix to attract water
through membrane is known as the matrix potential (tit m) while the effect of the pressure on the soil
matrix is to drive the water away from the soil through the membrane. This driving force is known as the
pressure potential OP p). Water will continue to move until the matrix potential(W m) is numerally equal
to the pressure potential (tP p). The pressure needed to prevent the entry of water through the
membrane is numerically equal to the pull on the water on the opposite end to prevent it from entering.
The pull on the water is termed as soil moisture tension or soil moisture suction. Suction is the negative
of the soil matric potential implying that the soil has an attraction for water to prevent it from being
taken up by the soil.
Matric potential of soil water or soil water suction depends upon the amount of water in the soil and the
temperature of the water. water moves from locations of high matric potential (low suction) to locations
of low metric potential (high suction). Because of this, it can be imagined that water will move from a
sandy soil at lower.