Name: Artchiel B.

Bito-on Date Submitted: 10-14-19

Course/Year: BSABE-2 Subject: Principle of Soil

Sci.

Exercise 2. The Soil Profile

1. What is regolith and what are its two possible origins?

Regolith is a layer of loose or unlithified soil and rock debris that overlies and
blankets bedrock. It is derived from the Greek roots rhegos, for blanket, and lithos, for
stone. Lunar regolith (also known as lunar soil) is the loose material ranging in size from
dust to boulders on the surface of the Moon, and is believed to have been formed as a
result of meteorite impact and fragmentation.

Possible origin of regolith:

 Regolith is created from rock by the action of wind and water.

 Regolith is created by meteoritic impact.

2. What is residual soil and how does it form?

Residual soils is the soil that is remaining after the soluble elements have been
dissolved. Residual soils are formed when soils or rocks weather at the same location
due to chemicals, water, and other environmental elements, without being transported.

3. What are the three zones of weathering profile and in which zone(s) do you find
the soil profile?

The weathering profile was divided into three zones according to color, structure,
hardness and morphology of the cut surface. These zones were temporarily named
zones II, III and IV from the depth to the ground surface, with zone I being the
unweather zone. The boundaries among these zones were roughly parallel to the slope
surface before cutting.

Zone II is characterized by massive, gray and relatively hard rock that retains
scars made by excavating machines on its cut surface. Machine scars were preserved
on the cut surface of the rock only in this zone.

Zone III is characterized by massive, pale gray and relatively soft rock. The
boundary between zones II and it is not very well defined, but is within an interval of 10–
20 cm. The top of zone II is soft and partly creamy brown, an area which is a transitional
zone to zone III, as will be discussed below. This transitional zone is less than ten
centimeters thick, and its lower boundary is roughly parallel to its upper planar margin,
the boundary with zone III. The boundary between zones II and III is clearly defined and
is nearly planar.

Zone IV is characterized by pale gray or creamy brown and soft rock separated
into platy segments that are roughly parallel to the boundary with the underlying zone II.
The fractures separating the segments are undulating and anastomosing; the segments
are a few to 5 cm thick and less than a few meters long. Zone IV is characterized by
massive, brown, soft rock (soil) with sporadic pale gray parts at the bottom. Zone IV is
covered by black topsoil 10– 20 cm thick.

4. Rank the following in order Shallowest (1) to deepest (4).

Weathering profile: 4

Solum: 2

Regolith: 1

Soil profile: 3

5. Define the following:

 Soil profile- The soil profile, showing the major layers from the O horizon (organic
material) to the R horizon (consolidated rock).

 Pedon- A pedon is the smallest unit of land surface that can be used to study the
characteristic soil profile of a landscape.

 Soil map unit- A soil map unit is a collection of areas defined and named the
same in terms of their soil components (e.g., series) or miscellaneous.

6. Write the symbol that applies to the master, transitional, or subordinate horizon
below:

a. zone of maximum leaching/eluviation : E- horizon

b. subsoil zone with accumulation of silicate clays : B- horizon

c. surface layer disturbed by plowing : B- horizon

d. unconsolidated material underlying the solum: C- horizon

e. subsoil layer that is weakly developed : R- horizon

f. bedrock: R- horizon

g. surface layer of highly decomposed organic matter: A- horizon

h. intermixed zone of eluviation, with illuviation dominating : B- horizon

7. What is Lithologic discontinuity and how it is denoted within a soil profile?

Lithologic discontinuities are significant changes in particle size distribution or

mineralogy that represent lithological differences within a soil column. Recognition of
these types of lithologic changes is important because pedogenesis and pedogenic
interpretations are greatly influenced by changes in parent material. Also, knowledge of
lithologic discontinuities provides important information about past geologic and
sedimentologic processes, which pre‐date the start of soil formation.

Numerous techniques have been developed to identify lithologic discontinuities in

soils, including examination of depth functions of particle size classes and
immobile/stable minerals. Weathering, pedoturbation, and other processes that move
and disturb soils, however, can complicate the detection of discontinuities, or even
destroy them.

8. What is paleosol and how is it denoted within a soil profile?

Paleosols are ancient soils that when retrieved in a relatively unaltered state, can
be used to infer the conditions of the environment in which they formed.

In 1943, Bryan and Albritton stated that soils provided a promising method for
investigating climatic changes through geologic time. Simonson (1941) discussed
morphology of buried soils and said that although they had been little studied they “do
hold promise as a key to environmental conditions of past geologic ages”.

Reference:

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Geotechnical Engineering Calculations and Rules of Thumb (Second Edition), 2016

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118786352.wbieg0816

https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/astronomy-and-space-
exploration/astronomy-general/regolith

Treatise on Geochemistry, 2003

Name: Artchiel B. Bito-on Date Submitted: 10-14-19

Course/Year: BSABE-2 Subject: Principle of Soil

Sci.

EXERCISE 3. Soil Taxonomy

1. Define the following diagnostic surface horizon:

a. Mollic - The mollic epipedon consists of mineral soil material and, after mixing of the
upper 18 cm of the mineral soil or of the whole mineral soil if its depth to a densic, lithic,
or paralithic contact, a petrocalcic horizon, or a duripan (all defined below) is less than
18 cm.

b. Umbric - An umbric epipedon, for example, could not also be a mollic epipedon. A
kandic horizon with clay films, however, could also meet the definition of an argillic
horizon. The exclusions are stated in the horizon definitions.

c. Ochric - The ochric epipedon fails to meet the definitions for any of the other seven
epipedons because it is too thin or too dry, has too high a color value or chroma,
contains too little organic carbon, has too high an n value or melanic index, or is both
massive and hard or harder when dry.

d. Histic - The histic epipedon is a layer (one or more horizons) that is characterized by
saturation (for 30 days or more, cumulative) and reduction for some time during normal
years (or is artificially drained)

e. Melanic - An upper boundary at, or within 30 cm of, either the mineral soil surface or
the upper boundary of an organic layer with andic soil properties (defined below),
whichever is shallower.

2. Define the following subsurface horizons

a. Argillic - An argillic horizon is normally a subsurface horizon with a significantly higher

percentage of phyllosilicate clay than the overlying soil material. It shows evidence of
clay illuviation.The argillic horizon forms below the soil surface, but it may be exposed at
the surface later by erosion.

b. Natric - A natric horizon is an illuvial horizon that is normally present in the

subsurface and has a significantly higher percentage of silicate clay than the overlying
horizons. It shows evidence of clay illuviation that has been accelerated by the
dispersive properties of sodium.
c. Spodic - A spodic horizon is an illuvial layer with 85 percent or more spodic materials
(defined below). A spodic horizon is normally a subsurface horizon underlying an O, A,
Ap, or E horizon. It may, however, meet the definition of an umbric epipedon. A spodic
horizon must have 85 percent or more spodic materials in a layer 2.5 cm or more thick
that is not part of any Ap horizon.

d. Albic - Albic (L. albus, white) materials are soil materials with a color that is largely
determined by the color of primary sand and silt particles rather than by the color of their
coatings. This definition implies that clay and/or free iron oxides have been removed
from the materials or that the oxides have been segregated to such an extent that the
color of the materials is largely determined by the color of the primary particles.

e. Cambic - A cambic horizon is the result of physical alterations, chemical

transformations, or removals or of a combination of two or more of these processes.

3. Define the following soil moisture regimes and list a state or portion of a state
in the U.S. you are likely to find regime:

a. Aquic - The aquic (L. aqua, water) soil moisture regime is a reducing regime in a soil
that is virtually free of dissolved oxygen because it is saturated by water. Some soils are
saturated with water at times while dissolved oxygen is present, either because the
water is moving or because the environment is unfavorable for micro-organisms (e.g., if
the temperature is less than 1 degree Celsius; such a regime is not considered aquic.

b. Udic - The udic (L. udus, humid) soil moisture regime is one in which the soil moisture
control section is not dry in any part for as long as 90 cumulative days in normal years.

c. Ustic- The ustic (L. ustus, burnt;implying dryness) soil moisture regime is intermediate
between the aridic regime and the udic regime. Its concept is one of moisture that is
limited but is present at a time when conditions are suitable for plant growth. The
concept of the ustic soil moisture regime is not applied to soils that have permafrost.

d. Aridic (and torric)- Aridic and torric (L. aridus, dry, and L. torridus, hot and dry) soil
moisture regimes. These terms are used for the same moisture regime but in different
categories of the taxonomy.

e. Xeric- The xeric (Gr. xeros, dry) soil moisture regime is the typical moisture regime in
areas of Mediterranean climates, where winters are moist and cool and summers are
warm and dry. The moisture, which falls during the winter, when potential
evapotranspiration is at a minimum, is particularly effective for leaching.

4. Define the following soil temperature regimes and list a state or portion of a
state in the U.S. you are likely to find that regime:
a. Hyperthermic —The mean annual soil temperature is 22 degree Celsius or higher,
and the difference between mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures is 6
degree Celsius or more either at a depth of 50 cm below the soil surface or at a densic,
lithic, or paralithic contact, whichever is shallower.

b. Thermic—The mean annual soil temperature is 15 degree Celsius or higher but lower
than 22 degree Celsius, and the difference between mean summer and mean winter
soil temperatures is 6 degree Celsius or more either at a depth of 50 cm below the soil
surface or at a densic, lithic, or paralithic contact, whichever is shallower.

c. Mesic—The mean annual soil temperature is 8 degree Celsius or higher but lower
than 15 degree Celsius and the difference between mean summer and mean winter soil
temperatures is 6 degree Celsius or more either at a depth of 50 cm below the soil
surface or at a densic, lithic, or paralithic contact, whichever is shallower.

d. Frigid—A soil with a frigid soil temperature regime is warmer in summer than a soil
with a cryic regime, but its mean annual temperature is between 0 and 8 degree Celsius
and the difference between mean summer (June, July, and August) and mean winter
(December, January, and February) soil temperatures is 6 degree Celsius or more
either at a depth of 50 cm below the soil surface or at a densic, lithic, or paralithic
contact, whichever is shallower.

e. Cryic- Cyric (Gr. kryos, coldness; indicating very cold soils) soils in this temperature
regime have a mean annual temperature between 0 and 8 degree Celsius but do not
have permafrost.
5. For the following soil taxonomic classification, identify which element in the
classification belongs to each level of Soil Taxonomy and what it tells you about
the soil: Loamy, mixed, superactive, mesic, Typic Palefluvent (Example: Fine,
smectitic, active, thermic, Vermic Argiaquoll- oll indicates Mollisol soil order; aqu
indicates it is the wet suborder; Argi indicates it is the great group with an Argillic
horizon, Vermic indicates it is the subgroup with intense earthworm activity, etc.)

a. Order:

b. Suborder:

c.Great Group:

d. Subgroup:

e. Family:

REFERENCE:

BOOK:
Keys to Soil Taxonomy (By Soil Survey Staff): United States Department of Agriculture
Natural ResourcesConservation Service.Twelfth Edition, 2014
Name: Artchiel B. Bito-on Date Submitted: 10-14-19

Course/Year: BSABE-2 Subject: Principle of Soil

Sci.

Exercise 4. Soil Forming Factors

1. List and briefly describe the five factors of soil formation.

 Parent material- mineral and organic

 Climate- rainfall/ temperature drive the process
 Organisms- plants, animals, microbes
 Topography- slope, aspect, landscape position
 Time- All four of the factors above are strongly independent and interact via soil
forming processes over time to form soils.

2. List five different types of parent materials and the process(es) that formed/
transported/ deposited the parent material.

1. Organic matter (litter and roots) is added to soils and decomposes (turns over)
into humus. This then leads to humus (organic matter) accumulation, but also
generates soil acidity, particularly in uplands. Wetland soils tend to accumulate
OM since their saturation limits the rate of OM breakdown.

2. Weathering of sand-sized minerals like feldspars and micas produces clays and
Feoxide coatings on soil surfaces.

3. Reduction of certain elements like, Fe, Mn and S leads to distinctive coloration

patterns.

4. Oxidation generates acidity while reduction generally results in higher pH

conditions.

5. Over time, clay particles and humus are leached (illuviated) downward in soils
with periodic wetting fronts. This process generates the E and B horizons.

3. Compare and contrast two types of parent material (geomorphic processes,

spatial distribution, timing, dominant properties, etc.)

Parent material, from which soil develops, comes from many different sources.
This is due to the fact that parent material is not static. Soils form in parent material that
is not just bedrock weathered in place. Parent material is classified based on its mode
of transportation: ice, water, etc.
Parent Material Deposited by Ice

Parent material transported by ice is known as glacial till. This parent material is
found where glaciers have deposited material, such as interminal moraines or lateral
moraines. Ice itself is a poor sorter of soil particles. The force carrying particles is able
to carry particles of all sizes the same distance. Thus this parent material contains
everything from the smallest clay-sized fraction to rocks, pebbles, and boulders.

Parent Material Deposited by Water

Water is a good sorter of soil particles. Larger particles (i.e., sand) settle out of
water first because they are heavier and require more energy to carry them. Smaller
particles settle out of water last because they are lighter and can be carried greater
distances. Larger, sand-sized fractions are found closer to the water source and clay-
sized fractions further away. Parent material transported by flowing water (streams and
rivers) is called alluvium. In addition, parent material formed from water flowing from
glaciers is known as outwash or glacial outwash.

4. What are the two principal climatic variables influencing soil formation, and
how do changes in these variables influence soil formation?

Climate plays a very important role in the genesis of a soil. The two most
important climatic variables influencing soil formation are temperature and moisture.

Temperature has a direct influence on the weathering of bedrock to produce

mineral particles. Rates of bedrock weathering generally increase with higher
temperatures. Temperature also influences the activity of soil microorganisms, the
frequency and magnitude of soil chemical reactions, and the rate of plant growth.

Moisture levels in most soils are primarily controlled by the addition of water via
precipitation minus the losses due to evapotranspiration.

5. Compare and contrast the role of grassland vegetation versus trees in soil
formation.

Grassland soils tend to be darker, particularly to greater depths, and have a more
stable structure than forest soils. Soils developed under grass are generally more fertile
and best suited for crop production. While, under forests, soil microorganisms are more
diverse than under grasslands; however, microorganisms under grasslands are more
active and have greater mass than under forest conditions.
 Soils formed under grass are much higher in organic matter than soils formed
under forests because of their massive fibrous root structure and annual senescence of
above ground vegetation.

6. How do animals influence soil formation?

The activities of organisms affect soil. The living organisms in a soil have a huge
impact on the soil’s characteristics. In fact, without them, the soil would not be able to
support the wide variety of plants that people depend on to live.

Animals such as earthworms, ants, termites, mice, gophers, moles, and prairie
dogs all make their homes in the soil. All of these animals loosen and mix the soil as
they tunnel through it. They create spaces in the soil, thereby adding to its air content
and improving its ability to absorb and drain water. Burrowing animals also bring partly
weathered rock particles to the surface of the ground, where they become exposed
tomore weathering. Just like plants, animals return nutrients to the soil when their
bodies decompose after death.

7. How does topography influence soil formation?

Topography has a significant impact on soil formation as it determines runoff of

water, and its orientation effects microclimate which in turn affects vegetation. For soil to
form, the parent material needs to lie relatively understurbed so soil horizon processes
can proceed. Water moving across the surface strips parent material away impleding
soil development.

8. Describe a catena.

A catena in soil science (pedology) is a series of distinct bit co-evolving soils. The
term soil catena is used to describe the lateral variation in soils over hill slope.

9. How do soils change over time?

Soil changes with age. As a soil ages, it gradually starts look different from its
parent material. That’s because soil is dynamic. Its components such as minerals, air,
organic matter, and organisms constantly change. Some components are added. Some
components are lost. Some move from place to place within the soil. And some
components are transformed into others.

10. List and briefly describe the four basic processes of soil formation.

Additions. These consist of materials being deposited on the soil from above as
well as materials moving in from below with rising groundwater. Obvious examples are
additions of leaf litter as trees shed their leaves, or additions of organic material as
plants and plant roots die.

Losses. Erosion is a major form of soil loss. Erosion can be the slow process of
dust being blown away, the rapid, large scale process of a landslide moving materials
off a slope, or anything in between.

Translocations are similar to losses in that they involve the movement of

materials. Translocation differs in that the material is not removed from the soil; instead
it moves from one location to another

Transformations takes a little more thought. As an example, leaf litter that is

added to the soil is eventually decomposed. This decomposition is a transformation
process. Likewise, rocks weathering to soil is also a transformation process.

REFERENCE:

https://passel.unl.edu/pages/informationmodule.php?
idinformationmodule=1130447021&topicorder=7&maxto=7&minto

https://www.soils.org>soil-basic

Https://www.earthonlinemedia.com

https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/usda-soil-taxonomy-soil-orders-and-their-major-
characteristics.html

https://wikidiff.com/solum/regolith

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/41202103
Name: Artchiel B. Bito-on Date Submitted: 10-14-19

Course/Year: BSABE-2 Subject: Principle of Soil Sci.

Exercise 5.Soil Orders

1. Classification into a soil order is primary based on what?

A taxonomy is an arrangement in a systematic manner; the USDA soil taxonomy

has six levels of classification. They are, from most general to specific: order, suborder,
great group, subgroup, family and series. Soil properties that can be measured
quantitatively are used in this classification system, they include: depth, moisture,
temperature, texture, structure, cation exchange capacity, base saturation, clay
mineralogy, organic matter content and salt content.

2. Which soil order is the most highly weathered? Least weathered?

According to B.L. Allen, D.S. Fanning in Developments in Soil Science (1983),

oxisols are considered to be the most-weathered of all soils, are mainly in tropical areas
or, when present outside the tropics, are believed to be relics of a past tropical
weathering regime. Present climate ranges from arid to extremely wet.

Globally, andisols are the least extensive soil order and account for only about
1% of the ice-free land area. They occupy about 1.7% of the U.S. land area, including
some productive forests in the Pacific Northwest region.

3. What soil order are you likely to find in wet regions with thermic soil
temperatures?

Histosols as wet land where restricted drainage inhibits the compositions of plant
and animal remains, allowing these organic materials to accumulate over time.

4. What soil order are you likely to find in moist to dry regions with mesic soil
temperature?

Gelisols are soils of very cold climates that contain permafrost within 2 meters of
surface. These soil are limited geographically to the high latitude polar regions and
localized areas at high mountain elevations.
5. Which two soil orders are defined in relation to climate?

Oxisols develop in tropical climates and characteristically lack well develop

horizons. Mollisols soil orders that are defined to climate.

6. Briefly describe each soil order. Include in your description major

characteristics and diagnostic features, and locations in the U.S you are likely to
find that order.

a. Entisol- Mineral soils lacking developed soil horizons. Moisture content varies.

b. Inceptisol- Mineral soils containing some developed horizons other than one of illuvial
clay. Moisture is available to mature a crop.

c. Alfisol- form in semiarid to humid areas, typically under a hardwood forest cover.

d. Mollisol- Mineral soils with thick, dark surface horizons relatively high in organic
matter and with high base saturation.

e. Ultisol- soils with an illuvial clay horizon. Has low base saturation. Generally found in
humid climates.

f. Aridisol- Mineral soils relatively low in organic matter. Contain developed soil
horizons. Moisture is inadequate to mature a crop without irrigation in most years.

g. Vertisol- Clayey soils with deep wide cracks at some time in most years. Moisture
content varies.

h. Oxisol- Mineral soils with no weatherable minerals. High in iron and aluminum oxides.
Contain no illuvial horizons.

i. Andisol- are soils that are formed in organic ash and defined as soils containing high
proportions of glass and amorphous colloidal materials.

j. Spodosol- Soils that contain an illuvial horizon of amorphous aluminum and organic
matter, with or without amorphous iron. Usually moist or well leached.

k. Histosol- is a soil consisting primarily of organic materials.

l. Gelisol- they are soils of very cold climates which are defined as containing
permafrost within two meters.
REFERENCE:

https://globalrangelands.org/topics/rangeland-ecology/twelve-soil-orders

https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/usda-soil-taxonomy-soil-orders-and-their-major-
characteristics.html

https://www.google.com/search?client=ms-opera-mini-
android&sxsrf=ACYBGNRa3tWmskcJZXz916qNenHjhmOmww
%3A1570132985613&q=parent+material+of+soil&oq=parent+material+of+s&aqs=heirloom-srp.0.0l5

https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/usda-soil-taxonomy-soil-orders-and-their-major-
characteristics.html

https://wikidiff.com/solum/regolith