A Soil Profile

Background

If you look in a soil pit or on a roadside cut, you will see various layers in the soil.
These layers are called soil horizons. The arrangement of these horizons in a soil is
known as a soil profile. Soil scientists, who are also called pedologists, observe and
describe soil profiles and soil horizons to classify and interpret the soil for various
uses.

Soil horizons differ in a number of easily seen soil properties such as color, texture,
structure, and thickness. Other properties are less visible. Properties, such as
chemical and mineral content, consistence, and reaction require special laboratory
tests. All these properties are used to define types of soil horizons.

Soil scientists use the capital letters O, A, B, C, and E to identify the master
horizons, and lowercase letters for distinctions of these horizons. Most soils have
three major horizons -- the surface horizon (A), the subsoil (B), and the substratum
(C). Some soils have an organic horizon (O) on the surface, but this horizon can also
be buried. The master horizon, E, is used for subsurface horizons that have a
significant loss of minerals (eluviation). Hard bedrock, which is not soil, uses the
letter R.

MASTER HORIZONS

As soils age, they may develop more horizons than the basic master horizons. Some of these
layers are between the master horizons both in position and properties. These layers are identified
by the two master letters, with the dominant one written first. Thus, an AB layer lies between the
A and B horizons and resembles both, but is more like the A than the B.

A soil layer can be further identified by a lowercase letter suffix that tells some trait of the
layer. The following is a list of the symbol suffixes. Further subdivisions are noted by a number
following the letters. Thus, one could have a soil with both a Bt1 and a Bt2 horizon. This means
that the Bt horizon of the soil has two distinct layers in it.
a Highly decomposed organic material. This suffix is used with O horizon.
Buried horizon. Such a soil layer is an old horizon buried by sedimentation or other
b
processes.
Concretions or hard nodules. a nodule is a hard "pocket" of a substance like gypsum in
c
the soil.
e Moderately decomposed organic material. Used with the O horizon.
f Frozen soil. The soil contains permanent ice (permafrost)
Strong gleying. Such a horizon is gray and mottled, the color of reduced (nonoxidized)
g
iron, resulting from saturated conditions.
Illuvial accumulation of organic matter. The symbol is used with the B horizon to show
h that complexes of humus and sesquioxides have washed into the hoizon. Includes only
small quantities of sesquioxides. May show dark staining.
i Slightly decomposed organic matter. Used with the O horizon.
Accumulation of carbonates. Indicates accumulation of calcium carbonate (lime) or
k
other carbonates.
Cementation. The symbol indicates a soil horizon that has been cemented hard by
carbonates, gypsum, or other material. A second suffix indicates the cementing agent,
m
such as "k" for carbonates. This is a hardpan horizon; roots penetrate only through
cracks.
Accumulation of sodium. Indicates a high accumulation of exchangeable sodium, as in
n
a sodic soil.
o Accumulation of sesquioxide clays.
Plowing or other human disturbance. Horizon was heavily disturbed by plowing,
cultivation, pasturing, or other activity.
p
Applies to O and A horizons.
q Accumulation of silica.
Weathered or soft bedrock. Used with C horizon to indicate bedrock that can be dug
r
with spade that roots can enter through cracks.
Illuvial accumulation of both sesquioxides and organic matter. Both the organic matter
s
and sesquioxide components of humus-sesquioxide complexes are important.
Accumulation of silicate clays. Clay may have formed in horizon or moved into it by
t
illuviation.
Plinthite. An iron-rich material common to tropical soils that hardens when exposed to
v
air.
Development of color or structure. The symbol indicates that a horizon has developed
w enough to show some color or structure but not enough to show illuvial accumulation
of material.
Fragipan or other noncemented natural hardpans. These are horizons that are firm,
x
brittle, or have high bulk densities from natural processes.
y Accumulation of gypsum.
z Accumulation of salts more soluble than gypsum.
SUB HORIZON

A soil horizon is a layer parallel to the soil surface, also the decaying matter on it (plant litter),
whose physical, chemical and biological characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath.
Horizons are defined in many cases by obvious physical features, mainly colour and texture.
These may be described both in absolute terms (particle size distribution for texture, for instance)
and in terms relative to the surrounding material, i.e. ‘coarser’ or ‘sandier’ than the horizons above
and below.

The identified horizons are indicated with symbols, which are mostly used in a hierarchical way.
Master horizons (main horizons) are indicated by capital letters. Suffixes, in form of lowercase
letters and figures, further differentiate the master horizons. There are many different systems of
horizon symbols in the world. No one system is more correct – as artificial constructs, their utility
lies in their ability to accurately describe local conditions in a consistent manner. Due to the
different definitions of the horizon symbols, the systems cannot be mixed.
In most soil classification systems, horizons are used to define soil types. The German system
uses entire horizon sequences for definition.[1] Other systems pick out certain horizons, the
“diagnostic horizons”, for the definition; examples are the World Reference Base for Soil
Resources (WRB),[2] the USDA soil taxonomy[3] and the Australian Soil Classification.[4] Diagnostic
horizons are usually indicated with names, e.g. the “cambic horizon” or the “spodic horizon”. The
WRB lists 37 diagnostic horizons. In addition to these diagnostic horizons, some other soil
characteristics may be needed to define a soil type. Some soils do not have a clear development
of horizons.
A soil horizon sensu stricto is a result of soil-forming processes (pedogenesis).[5] Layers that do
not have undergone such processes may be simply called “layers”. Some soil scientists use the
word layer in a more general way, including the horizons sensu stricto.

Transitional and Combination Horizons

Horizons dominated by properties of one master horizon but having subordinate

properties of another: Two capital-letter symbols are used for such transitional horizons,
e.g., AB, EB, BE, or BC. The first of these symbols indicates that the properties of the
horizon so designated dominate the transitional horizon. An AB horizon, for example,
has characteristics of both an overlying A horizon and an underlying B horizon, but it
is more like the A than like the B.

In some cases, a horizon can be designated as transitional even if one of the master
horizons to which it presumably forms a transition is not present. A BE horizon may be
recognized in a truncated soil if its properties are similar to those of a BE horizon in a
soil from which the overlying E horizon has not been removed by erosion. A BC horizon
may be recognized even if no underlying C horizon is present; it is transitional to
assumed parent materials.

Horizons with two distinct parts that have recognizable properties of the two kinds of
master horizons indicated by the capital letters: The two capital letters designating such
combination horizons are separated by a virgule (/), e.g., E/B, B/E, or B/C. Most of the
individual parts of one horizon component are surrounded by the other.
The designation may be used even when horizons similar to one or both of the
components are not present, provided that the separate components can be recognized
in the combination horizon. The first symbol is that of the horizon with the greater
volume.

Single sets of horizon designators do not cover all situations; therefore, some
improvising has to be done. For example, Argic Udipsamments have lamellae that are
separated from each other by eluvial layers. Because it is generally not practical to
describe each lamella and eluvial layer as a separate horizon, the horizons can be
combined but the components described separately. One horizon then contains several
lamellae and eluvial layers and can be designated an "E and Bt" horizon. The complete
horizon sequence for this soil could be: Ap-Bw-E and Bt1-E and Bt2-C.