NexGen Technologies for Mining and Fuel Industries

ISBN 978-93-85926-40-2

Status of import substitute potash reserves and innovative

technology for deep seated mining in India
J.K. Mohnot1 and P.K. Singh2
1
Geotechnical Engineering and Underground Space, CSIR-Central Institute of Mining and Fuel
Research, Research Centre, Roorkee–247667, India
2
CSIR-Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research, Dhanabad, Jharkhand, India

ABSTRACT: The fertiliser mineral potash is completely imported in India. But, it has been
identified the deep seated vast reserves of potash mineralisation in Nagaur-Ganganagar basin in
Northwest part of the Rajasthan state about three decades ago. The current requirement and the
technology encourages for its mining after detailed exploration with estimation of in-situ grades
for atleast one of the prospective locations in Kalu, Jaitpura, Satipura, Bharusari and Lakhasar sub-
basins. The source of potash has also been found in Glauconite deposits at surface to sub-surface
locations in various states of India. These deposits are still not taken up for the mining. This paper
is an attempt to highlight the international status of potash and the latest emerging opportunities
for its mining in India as an import substitute mineral with details of innovative techno-economic
mining technology including solution mining technique for deep seated potassium deposits.

1. INTRODUCTION Appendix-I). However, potassium sulphate

T he entire requirement of potash in India is
met by imports since there is no commer-
cial production in the country as described by
the author Mohnot.[1] The potash is mainly used
as fertiliser and other uses of potassium
minerals are in the manufacturing of glass,
explosives and chemicals. The current import
of potash during the year 2014–15 is around
4.6 million tonne which entails US$ 1400
million (i.e., approx. ` 100,000 million/annum)
as per Indian Minerals Year Book[2] and
projected more in future if no indigenous
production comes up. Thus, there exists huge
investment opportunities for potash mining in
India as an import substitute mineral.
Potassium fertilisers constitute an important
variety amongst the fertilisers used for plants.
There is no substitute for natural potassium
fertilisers. The most prevalent form in use is
muriate of potash (KCl), normally called potash
(Potash related terminology are described in
(K2SO4) is also used as fertiliser under special
soil conditions for certain types of plants. Most
of the potash is obtained by underground mining
of bedded deposits of potassium chloride and
sulphate associated with thick halite (NaCl)
bearing evaporite beds. The highly concentrated
brines of some of the saline lakes are among
other sources. Some igneous and sedimentary
rocks have higher concentration of potash in
silicate form which is not easily soluble and,
therefore, cannot be used up by the plants. The
most important source of potash hence remains
to be the bedded deposits associated with halite-
bearing evaporite sequences as reported by
GSI.[3]
In north-west Rajasthan, halite belts are
developed in the Lower Palaeozoic evaporite
sequence. So far, about 6 trillion tonne halite
containing about 80% NaCl has been estimated
by Geological Survey of India (GSI) over an
area of 40,000 sq. km in Nagaur-Ganganagar

19
basin to a depth between 300 and 900 m.
Potash deposits have been identified based on
the drilling data in Satipura, Bharusari, Jaitpura
and Lakhasar sub-basins. Exploration work has
been completed in Satipura-Bharusari sub-
basins and 175.95 million tonnes containing
5.15% K2O have been estimated in Satipura,
and 150.85 million tonnes reserves containing
4.68% K2O in Bharusari by the GSI in year
1982.
The exploration and grade estimation of
potash deposits is a difficult task as it occurs
mostly in the form of highly soluble minerals.
In this vast deposit, there are possibilities of
availability of high grade potash deposit at
shallow depth of 350 m in Kalu and Jaitpura
areas. The Jaitpura area could not be worked
out properly for want of water supply and
inaccessible terrain condition at the time of
exploration.
The potash reserves are also found in Saltpe-
tre and Glauconite deposits in Rajasthan,
Gujarat and other states. The latest conventional
and solution mining technology are described
for large scale potash mining at depth.
2. MODE OF ORIGIN OF POTASH
DEPOSITS
Evaporites are deposited in marine basins
which get separated from the open sea by some
barrier. The restricted sea water, on evaporation,
progressively gets concentrated in marine salts
which precipitate out of it in order of their
solubility in water at atmospheric temperature.
Under ideal conditions, the first to precipitate
is calcium carbonate, followed by calcium
sulphate, sodium chloride accompanied by
magnesium sulphate, and lastly the potassites
which include potassium chloride and magne-
sium chloride. For appreciable concentrations
and final precipitation of potash salts, it is
imperative that the basin must remain in steady
equilibrium with the barrier for a considerable
span of time. The potassic layer is also required
to be covered up by an impervious layer of
clastics or non-clastics, for its preservation as
per GSI Report.[3]
20
3. GEOLOGICAL AND EXPLORATION
DETAILS
GSI has identified a thick marine evaporite
sequence developed in the subsurface in Nagaur-
Ganganagar basin by drilling (70 boreholes and
60,000 m) in Churu, Bikaner, Hanumangarh and
Sriganganagar districts during 1974–83.
The Nagaur-Ganganagar basin contains
marine sediments of Marwar Supergroup (Late
Proterozoic to Early Cambrian) lying uncon-
formably over the basement rocks of the Malani
Igneous suite and/or Delhi metamorphites. The
Marwar Supergroup comprising Jodhpur,
Hanseran Evaporite Group and its homotaxial
time equivalent lateral facies variants Bilara
Group and Birmania formation exposed in the
Southern parts of the basin and Nagaur Group.
The Marwar Supergroup is unconformably
overlain by rock formations of diverse ages at
different places as described by Sinha.[4]
The Hanseran Evaporite Group (HEG)
which contains the host rock halite for potash
mineralisation is subcroping in the northern
parts of the basin falling in parts of Churu,
Bikaner, Hanumangarh and Sriganganagar
districts. HEG lies unconformably above the
predominantly arenaceous Jodhpur Group and
is underlain by predominantly red argillites of
Nagaur Group of rocks, the upper and lower
contacts being gradational. The HEG comprises
cyclic deposits of halite (most dominant)
containing potash minerals (localised at places),
alternating with clay, marl, limestone, dolomite,
anhydrite, magnesite, occasionally glauberite,
glauconite, rarely vanthofite etc. Potash minerals
hosted within the halite include polyhalite
[K2MgCa2(SO4)4.2H2O], sylvinite (KCl, NaCl),
sylvite (KCl), Langbeinite (K2SO4. Mg SO4)
and carnallite (KCl.MgCl2) in decreasing order
of abundance. The thickness of HEG ranges
from 103 m to more than 652 m containing
halite zones with a maximum cumulative
thickness of 488 m. A maximum of seven halite
cycles numbered H1, H2 ……H7 (from bottom
to top) have been identified. The basin deepens
towards the center and northwest direction due
to step like NNE-SSW gravity faults with their
down thrown sides towards west causing
progressive deepening. The thickness of HEG
as well as the number of halite cycle increases
from the margins towards the center of the basin.
Amongst the potash minerals, polyhalite is
more frequently noticed than sylvite/sylvinite.
Thickness of polyhalite bearing zones varies
from 0.05 m to 27.27 m containing 0.1% to
10.20% K. Thickness of sylvite/sylvinite bearing
zones varies from 0.10 m to 4.34 m containing
0.20 to 22.75% K. Langbeinite mineralisation
occurs in association with sylvite and polyhalite
and is intersected in Bharusari sub-basin only.
Amongst all the halite cycles, H2 halite cycle
appears to be most prospective with respect to
sylvite mineralisation.
On the basis of exploration based on drilling
eight sub-basins/depocentres/areas for potash
mineralisation containing over 2% K have been
identified viz. Bikaner, Hanseran, Arjunsar,
Gharsisar, Jaitpura, Satipura, Bharusari and
Lakhasar. Out of these the last four were
considered to be most prospective for sylvite/
sylvinite mineralisation as mentioned by
Kumar.[5]
In Kalu, where -44 mg gravity closure has
been indicated by the ONGC, halite has been
encountered at a depth of 320 m and continued
up to 824.93 m including various sequences of
anhydrite, dolomite, fetid dolomite and clay. In
this borehole No. P-8, total 6 major halite cycles
(H1 to H6) have been recorded.
The potash in the form of sylvite (KCl) and
sylvinite (KCl + NaCl) have been intersected
only in H2 halite zone at depths between 592 m
to 681 m for borehole Nos. P-21 (Satipura), P-29
(Jandewali), P-32 (Mukkasar) and P-35
(Khunja). The thickness of sylvite or sylvinite
zones varies from 0.10 m to 1.05 m with 2.5% to
19.2% K (wt. average).
The drilling operation for potash exploration
in Rajasthan is shown in Figure 1. Summarised
logs of the evaporite sequence, encountered in
different boreholes, are presented in Table 1 as
reported by GSI.[3]

Table 1. Summarized logs of potash boreholes

Evaporite sequence No. of Thickness
Locality and bore (m) halite of halite Remarks
hole No.
From To cycles (m) (m)

Lakhasar south P4 450 667 2 (H1 & H2) 92 Five polyhalite

Lakhasar north P10 453 679 -do- 91 Four polyhalite zones
Lakhasar east P9 452 668 -do- 92 -do-
Jhanjheu P5 521 664 Nil – No halite was encountered
Sudsar P6 477 620 Nil – -do-
Gusainsar P7 449 730 2 (H1 & H2) 101 Five polyhalite zones
Kalu P8 308 828 6 (H1 to H6) 393 Dispersed Potash mineralisation
up to 9.89% in H2
Bikaner P11 443 821 2 (H1 & H2) 123 Eleven polyhalite zones
Hanseran P12 267 919 7 (H1 to H7) 470 Sampling of the
cores is in progress
Lakhusar P13 502 826 3 173 The borehole was closed without
touching the bottom of the
evaporite due to drilling problems
Malkisar P14 289 con 3 207 The borehole was in progress
Gurha P15 561 con – – The borehole was in progress.
Halite is expected below the
anhydrite dolomite zones
Source: GSI Report.[3]

21
 Table 2. Potash reserves estimated by boreholes in
sub-basins
Potash reserves in
Ganganagar Area million tonnes Grade
P-30 Sub-basin
sq. km Prob- K%
P-29 P-21 Possible
Satipura P-27
able
P-33
Hanumangarh
Satipura 245.61 202.30 1429.95 4.80
P-42
Suratgarh
Bharusari 71.0 88.16 300.15 4.68
Anupgarh
Lakhasar 29.50 113.73 342.29 4.39
P-19 P-18
Bharusari
P-17 Source: GSI Report.[3]
P20

RAJASTHAN
Jaitpura Total reserves (probable + possible) in the
P-16
Chattargarh
Malkisor
P-14 three sub-basins are of the order 2476 million
Pugal
P-12 tonnes with 4.70% K or 5.26% K2O. It is,
P-44
P-13 P-8 however, important to note that the in-situ grade
Kalu
of potash mineralisation is likely to be much
P-7
Lakhasar
P-10
more than what has been reported above based
P-9
P-11
P-6
P-5
P-4
Dungargarh on the assay values of the core samples. It is
P-15 Bikaner
Naguar because during the process of drilling and
P-22 retrieval of the core from the borehole, the
sylvite crystals from the surface of the core gets
INDEX
dissolved due to leaching and leaving behind
BOREHOLES
cavities on the surface of mineralised core.[5]
Fig. 1. Map showing potash exploration in Northwest The international economic grades are ranging
Rajasthan. from 8% to 24%. Germany is mining potash
from grades of 8 to 16%, but most of the other
4. RESERVES AND GRADES mines are mining this mineral for 22–24%
grades deposits as per report of Asia Pacific
The total probable and possible reserves of Potash.[7] In the vast deposit of India, the
potash resources computed over an area of international economic grades may be estab-
approx. 5,000 sq. km in Northwest Rajasthan, lished if proper in-situ grades are worked out
lying between Nagaur, Bikaner, Lakhasar, with latest techniques using sonic tools and
Gusainsar, Hanseran, Kalu, Jaitpura, Suratgarh, radioactive methods like gamma ray and
Hanumangarh, Satipura and Ganganagar, is of neutron logs, etc. The available grades of
the order of 20397 million tonnes as per Indian Indian potash deposits are based on core
Minerals Yearbook.[6] The reserves of halite in recovery and not the actual in-situ grades.
areas covered by 1.0 km radius around the
boreholes drilled so far are of the order of 7,900
5. OTHER POSSIBLE SOURCES OF
million tonnes. If the mining depth is restricted POTASH IN INDIA
to 350 m, the halite reserves in Kalu and
Hanseran areas would be estimated at 322 5.1 Saltpetre (KNO3) deposits
million tones.[3] Potassium nitrate (saltpetre), commonly known
Ten boreholes in Satipura, six in Bharusari as ‘shora’ occurs as salt encrustations in the
and four in Lakhasar areas/sub-basins/depo- form of efflorescence on the soil surface as
centres intersected potash mineralisation pockets in Dholpur, Bharatpur, Bhilwara,
containing over 3% K at 1.5 m minimum stoping Sriganganagar and Hanumangarh districts of
width and accordingly following reserves were Rajasthan. These are being regularly extracted
estimated, as given in Table 2. by local persons under state control. A good

22
quantity of crude salt (50–70% KNO3) is
obtained from such sources as mentioned by
Ghevariya.[8]
5.2 Glauconite deposits
Glauconite is a hydrous silicate of iron and
potassium with variable quantities of aluminum
and magnesium. It contains 2 to 8% K2O. Green
sand containing good quantity of glauconite
had been used as slow acting potash fertilizer in
England, France, Belgium, USA and Western
Australia during pre-world War-II times.
Glauconitic shale, clays and sands are asso-
ciated with various Mesozoic horizons in
different parts of Kachchh area in Gujarat
State. A systematic study revealed various
glauconite bands with K2O percentage varies
from 2.5 to 5.40. The glauconitic shales and
clays occur in the surface with overburden
ranging from few cm. to about 0.5 m and occur
in several repetitive bands at several localities.
Aggregate thickness may be more than 5 to
7 m. with a considerable strike length. These
glauconite horizons may form good source for
potash. This can be used directly after pulveris-
ing and suitable beneficiation treatments to
break the complex silicate structures to increase
water solubility. This can be directly used as
potash fertiliser. Gujarat has very large reserves
of glauconite in various geological horizons
ranging from Mesozoic to Tertiary. A systematic
evaluation may indicate detail reserves.
In Rajasthan, glauconite occurrences are
reported from Vindhyans of Chittorgarh and
Kota districts with K2O content upto 5.50%.
Reserves of these occurrences, however, have
not yet been estimated. Deposits of glauconite
occurring in Sanu Formation (Lower Palaeocene
age) located near village Mashuriyan in Sam
tehsil of Jaisalmer district have been investigated
by GSI. This glauconitic sand deposit covers an
area of about 1.5 sq. km. and occurs in the
massive argillaceous member of Sanu Forma-
tion. It is successively overlain by Khuiala
Formation (Eocene) and desert sand (Sub-
pyritiferous at places and contains intercalation
of fossiliferous shales. The glauconitic horizon
extends for about 3 km with an average width
23
of 500m and occurs at depth between 73 m and
78 m below surface. Its thickness varies from
0.60 cm to 5.30 m with K2O average grade with
an ore/overburden ratio as 1.19.
Around village Giral in Barmer district,
glauconitic sandstone horizon has been inter-
sected between 35.20 m and 160 m; 90.70 m
and 172.4 m; and 85 m respectively in three
boreholes drilled for lignite investigation.
24 drill core samples analysed from these
horizons contain K2O varying from 1.0% to
2.05% and XRD analysis indicate presence of
glauconite with quartz as major constituents. In
Kapurdi area of Barmer district, glauconitic
clay in eight patches, 1.0 m to 36.10 m were
intersected in boreholes by GSI.
At the instance of GSI, some of the agricul-
tural institutes conducted field experimentation
on the applicability of glauconitic sandstone to
the crops of wheat and paddy and have
indicated quite encouraging results. The results
of the experiments indicate that glauconite is an
ideal slow acting potash fertilizer and it has
an advantage over the traditional chemical
fertilizer. Thus, the application of glauconite
may not only be effective slow acting potash
fertilizer but is also very cheap, easily available
and has tremendous indigenous resources (over
2000 million tonnes). Glauconitic sand is
applicable only in acidic soil as described by
Kumar.[5]
5.2.1 Feasibility of glauconite as source of potash
The glauconite is feasible as source of import
substitute potash in India in view of following.
• Glauconite is a complex hydrous silicate of
iron and potassium with average potash
content of 2–7% in India
• Glauconite found as green coloured sand
size particles but does not behave like sand
• The porous structure of glauconite enhances
the water storage ability for the soil for the
growth of crops
• Glauconite is used as fertiliser for acidic
soils and soil conditioner for hard water area
• Source of potassium is essential for the
growth of plants, yield and nutrition values
 for crops such as tea, coffee, banana, coco-
nut, oil palm, black pepper, rubber, etc.
5.2.2 Present status of glauconite mining in India
Presently, there is no mining of glauconite
mineral in India. The glauconite as source of
potash is a sedimentary deposit found at surface
in the form of sandstone/shale/limestone and as
greensands. It is available in the following
states with locations.[2]
• Rajasthan: Jaisalmer, Barmer, Chittorgarh,
Kota, Karauli
• U.P.: Chitrakoot (7% K), Mirzapur, Banda,
Deposits are located mainly in Canada (31%),
Belarus (21%), Russia (17%), China and USA
(6% each), Chile and Germany (4% each) as
per Indian Minerals Year Book-2014.[9]
The world production of potash in 2013 was
34.3 million tonnes in terms of K2O content as
against 36.3 million tonnes in 2012. Canada
remained the leading producer of potash with
30% share in total production in 2013, followed
by Russia (17%), Belarus (12%), China (10%),
Germany (9%), Israel (6%), Chile and Jordan
(3% each) as shown in Table 3.

Sonbhadra
• M.P.: Sidhi (4–11% K) and Satna
(Vindhyan sandstone)
• Gujarat: Guneri in Kachchh district
• Kerala: Occurrence in Quilon Limestone
and sea bed sediments of Trivandrum coast.
The detailed exploration work is under
progress to assess the quantity, quality, depth
and size of the glauconite deposits as source of
Potash.[2]
6. WORLD SCENARIO OF POTASH
The world reserves are estimated at approxi-
mately 3500 million tonnes of K2O content.
7. FOREIGN TRADE OF POTASH
BY INDIA
7.1 Exports
The exports of potash fertilizer increased
considerably to 19753 tonnes in 2013–14 as
against 13972 tonnes in the previous year.
Exports were mainly to Sri Lanka (48%), UAE
(19%) and Mozambique (9%). Exports of
potassium nitrate increased marginally to 1,144
tonnes in 2013–14 from 1,061 tonnes in the
previous year. Exports were mainly to Thailand
(36%), Turkey (13%), Malaysia (12%) and
UAE (10%).

Table 3. World reserves and production of potash (By principal countries)

(In '000 tonnes of K2O content)
Yearly production
Country Reserves
2011 2012 2013
World: Total 3500000 35000 36300 34300
Belarus 750000 5306 4831 4178
Canada (Chloride) 1100000 11005 8963 10140
Chile (Chloride) 150000 864 996 1158
China 210000 2599 2559 3600
Germany (Potassic salt) 150000 3215 3149 3075
Israel (Chloride) 40000 1790 2115 2155
Jordan 40000 1355 1094 1046
Russia 600000 6526 5403 6000
USA (Potassic salt) 200000 1000 900 970
Other countries 230000 1340 6290 1978
Source: World mineral production, 2009–2013.[10]

24
Table 4. Import of potash fertilizer in India (by countries)
2012–13 2013–14
Country Quantity Value Quantity Value
(t) ` ’000 (t) ` ’000
All Countries 2122718 57194141 3394833 81826455
Russia 579407 15463618 898673 21447423
Canada 236330 6735209 828718 20070241
Israel 521217 13774506 576773 13786229
Jordan 217051 6170509 352043 8706090
Belarus 352953 9246885 280412 6681302
Latvia 27061 733748 181983 4186537
Germany 66076 1737843 153293 3791005
Lithuania 57456 1473700 92985 2180279
Chinese Taipei/Taiwan 12837 452268 7258 280543
Iceland – – 10000 232158
Other countries 52330 1405855 12695 464648
[9]
Source: Indian minerals year book-2014.

7.2 Imports machine is economical for large scale produc-

The imports of potash fertilizer increased
considerably to 3.39 million tonnes in 2013–14
from 2.12 million tonnes in the previous year.
Russia (26%), Canada (24%), Israel (17%),
Jordan (10%), Belarus (8%) were the main
suppliers in 2013–14 as shown in Tables 4.
8. MINING METHODS AND
BENEFICIATION OF POTASH
8.1 Conventional mining
Mining of potash is being done mainly by
conventional mechanized underground mining
methods. The potash deposits in India lies from
300–900 m depth below the surface in the solid
halite formations. A variety of mining tech-
niques and equipment including large boring
machines can be used depending upon different
factors such as ore body depth, physical
properties of the deposit, geological and
geotechnical conditions of the ore and surround-
ing rock, and the occurrence of overlying
aquifers. Variations of room and pillar, long-
wall, cut and fill, and open stope techniques
can be used for mining of potash. The
conventional mining with potash special boring
tion from underground because of continuous
mining without any blasting. Ore from the
mining face is usually moved by bridge
conveyor, shuttle cars or load-haul-dump
(LHD) units to conveyor systems for transfer to
underground storage bins for transport to the
surface in automated skips operating in the
mine shafts.[11]
8.2 Solution mining
The solution mining is employed when under-
ground extraction is no longer feasible because
of depth of the deposits and/or when water
inflow problems interfere with conventional
underground mining. In some of the cases a
combination of conventional and solution
mining can be practiced in order to recover the
left over ore. Solution mining of evaporates,
such as halite, potash and soda ash is an
innovative mining technology as shown in
Figure 2. This technique employ drilling,
injection and production wells to produce salt
from relatively thin beds at great depths from
the surface. The large caverns developed by
this mining can be used for sub-surface storage
of petrochemicals and industrial wastes. This
method relies on the greater solubility of sylvite

25
over halite (NaCl) in high temperature brines.
Solar evaporation of brines that naturally
contain potassium is the method of obtaining
potash ore. Halite and Carnallite are precipitated
in a succession of ponds, and the Carnallite is
transferred in slurry form to the beneficiation
facilities.
Fig. 2. A typical diagram showing solution mining
layout.[12]
Advantage of solution mining:
• Reduced development costs, timeline and
mining risks
• The investment costs are low, as we do not
need a mine
• Reduced CAPEX, shorter payback period
and higher IRR
• The drilling of the bore holes are running
costs
• No underground workings, access or
personnel needed
• Development and production is easily
scalable
• Ability to mine deep and irregularly shaped
deposits
• Faster timeline to production compared to
conventional
• Reduced environmental impact compare to
conventional
26
• Residue remains in the cavern, therefore
eco-friendly
• Less surface area is disturbed
• The demand of manpower is low
•
The first step of the potash mill (hot
leaching) is in the underground, and it
contribute for clean technology.
8.3 Beneficiation
The steps in the processing of potash ore are
usually size reduction-de-sliming-separation,
drying, then compaction or granulation. The
following series of steps: crushing and grinding;
de-sliming; separation; drying; and compaction
and granulation. The specific processes used
depend upon characteristics and composition of
the potash ore and market requirements. A
system of crushing and grinding is used to
separate crystalline minerals and disperse clay
slime. Fine materials such as clays and sand are
separated from the potash ore in the de-sliming
step, which involves intense agitation followed
by either flotation or hydro-cyclone. Four
separation processes are used to concentrate the
potash: flotation, electrostatic separation,
thermal dissolution-crystallization, and heavy
media separation. Drying is usually carried out
in a rotary or fluid bed dryer. Dried potash is
then either granulated or compacted through
high-pressure rollers and screened to specific
particle sizes.
Fig. 3. Schematic block diagram of a conventional
potash flotation plant.[13]
 About 70% of the total potash, and almost
90% of fertilizer grade potassium chloride is
produced by conventional froth flotation,
sometimes supplemented by heavy media
separation. Crystallization is used mainly to
produce industrial grade and specially fertilizer
grade (white muriate) potash. Figure 3 shows
the conventional flotation route to obtain
fertilizer grade potassium chloride as described
by Perucca.[13]
9. CONCLUSIONS
This may be concluded that huge potash
reserves are available in the forms of marine
evaporite deposits at depth of 300–900 m,
saltpetre and glauconite as surface deposits in
Northwest Rajasthan and other states of India.
The indigenous production may be undertaken
after detailed exploration of the identified
deposits. During detailed exploration, the
correct in-situ grades can be established using
gamma ray, neutron logs and other latest
techniques. The in-situ grades should be more
than the reported grades based on the core
recovery. It is because the mineral is water
soluble and it gets dissolved from the surface of
core during the process of drilling.
The market of potash is expected to increase
year-by-year globally. Over half of the forecast
is accounted for Asian markets which will
further consolidate the region’s position as the
world’s largest importer of potash. There is also
good potential for export of this mineral to
neighbouring Asian countries. Therefore, the
investment opportunities for potash mining in
India as an import substitute mineral may be
utilised for the development of mineral wealth.
The domestic demand of this fertiliser mineral
and entire supply by import encourages for
mining of potash in India.
The conventional mining with special boring
machine is economical for large scale production
from underground. In some cases a combina-
tion of conventional and solution mining can be
practiced in order to recover the left over ore.
The solution mining technique for potash is
an innovative mining technology for deep
seated deposits as eco-friendly method with
27
benefits of reduced development costs, timeline
and mining risks because only bore holes are
required for mine production.
REFERENCES
[1] Mohnot, J. K., Prasad, V.V.R. and Verma,
H.K., “Investment Opportunities for Potash
Mining in India as an Import Substitute Min-
eral”, First Indian Mineral Congress and Tech-
nological Exhibition on Showcasing the Min-
eral Industry in 21st Century, organised by ISM
Alumni Association, CMRI and DGMS, Dhan-
bad, pp. 421–34, Feb.28–March 1, 2005.
[2] Indian Minerals Yearbook-2015, Published by
Indian Bureau of Mines, Nagpur, pp. 40, Nov.,
2016.
[3] GSI Report, “Exploration of Potash in
Rajasthan”, J. Indian Minerals, Calcutta, Vol.
36, No. 4, pp. 1–5, 1982.
[4] Sinha-Roy, S., Malhotra, G. and Mohanty, M.,
Geology of Rajasthan, Published by GSI, Ban-
glore, pp. 167–176, 1998.
[5] Kumar, Virendra and Rasik, Ravindra,
“Rajasthan—The Leading Indian State in Fertil-
iser Mineral Resources”, Conf. on Indian In-
dustrial Minerals, org. by Federation of Indian
Mineral Industries, New Delhi, Vol. I, pp. 278–
80, 1998.
[6] Indian Minerals Yearbook, Published by Indian
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[7] Report on Asia Pacific Potash Corporation,
Thailand, Published by Asia Pacific Resources
Ltd., Canada, pp. 1–5, 1999.
[8] Ghevariya, Z.G., “Industrial Minerals of
Gujarat—Certain Issues Related to Exploration,
Upgradation and Utilisation”, Conf. on Indian
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[9] Indian Minerals Yearbook–2014, Published by
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2016.
[10] BGS Report, “World Mineral Production 2009-
2013”, British Geological Survey, London,
pp. 59, 2015.
[11] Mohnot, J.K., “Formulation of Optimun
Investment Decision Model for Economic
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[12] PotashCorp Report, “The Potash Journey”,
published by PotashCorp, Canada, Aug., 2013.
[13] Perucca, C.F., “Potash processing in Saska-
tchewan—a review of process technologies”,
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[14] Fuzesy, Anne, “Potash in Saskatchewan”,
Saskatchewan Geological Survey, Canada,
Report No. 181, pp. 2, 1982.

Appendix I: Potash related terminology

Chemical or mineral Chemical Common or
Item
name formula trade name
Element Potassium (Kalium) K Potash (adjective)
Mineral Sodium (natrium) Na Soda (adjective)
Sylvite (or sylvine) KCl Potassium Salts
Halite NaCl Common Salt
Carnallite KCl + MgCl2
Ore Sylvinite Sylvite + Halite
Carnallitite Carnallite +
Halite
Product Potassium Chloride KCl Potash,
Muriate of Potash*
Unit of Measure Potassium Oxide K2O Potash*
Other Potassium Sulphate K2SO4 Sulphate of
Compounds Potash*
Potassium Carbonate K2CO3 Pot ash (crude)
Sodium Carbonate Na2CO3 Soda ash
Potassium Hydroxide KOH Caustic Potash
Potassium Nitrate KNO3 Nitre, Saltpetre*
Conversion Factors (based on muriate with 61% K2O content):
(i) Multiply given tons of KCl by 0.61 to determine tons of K2O.
(ii) Multiply given tons of K2O by 1.64 to determine tons of KCl.
* Fertiliser grade.
Source: Report on Potash in Saskatchewan, Canada, 1982.[14]

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