1.WHAT IS SCIENCE?

Science is the study of the nature and behavior of natural things and the knowledge
that we obtain about them.
knowledge about or study of the natural world based on facts learned through
experiments and observation.
Science is the systemized knowledge derived from observations and experiments.
These experiments are carried out to determine the principles about how nature
operates. Scientists like chemists, biologists and physicists use the same scientific
method to make and test new theories.

2. HOW WE CAN SOLVE THE BIOLOGICAL PROBLEM.

Biological Method

Questions about living things have provided problems that man has investigated
to aid his own survival and to satisfy his desire to know. The scientific method in
which biological problems are solved, is termed as biological method. It
comprises the steps a biologist adopts in order to solve a biological problem.
Biological method has played an important part in scientific research for almost
500 years. From Galileo’s experiment (in the 1590s) to current research, the
biological method has contributed to the advancements in medicine, ecology,
technology etc. Biological method also ensures the quality of data for public use
Biological problem, hypothesis, deductions and experiments

In biology (like other sciences), new things are being discovered and long-held
theories are being modified or replaced with better ones as more data/knowledge is
accumulated. This happens when biologists recognize some biological problem
and go for its solution. In solving a biological problem, biologist takes following
steps; • Recognition of biological problem • Observations • Hypothesis formulation
• Deductions
Man has always been a biologist. He had to be a biologist in order to live. Early in
history, he was a hunter of animals and a gatherer of fruits, seeds, roots etc. The
more he knew about animals and their habitat, the more successful hunter he was.
The more he knew about plants, the better he distinguished between edible and
non-edible plants.
2. Solving a Biological Problem
1. Recognition of the Biological Problem Biologists go for adopting biological
method when they encounter some biological problem. A biological problem is a
question related to living organisms that is either asked by some one or comes in
biologist’s mind by himself.
2. Observations As the first step in solving a biological problem, biologist recalls
his/her previous observations or makes new ones. Observations are made with five
senses of vision, hearing, smell, taste and touch. Observations may be both
qualitative and quantitative. Quantitative observations are considered more accurate
than qualitative ones because the former are invariable and measurable and can be
recorded in terms of numbers. Examples of qualitative and quantitative observations
are given below.
Qualitative observations
• The freezing point of water is colder than the boiling point.
• A liter of water is heavier than a liter of ethanol.
Quantitative observation
• The freezing point of water 0 oC and the boiling point is 100 oC
• A liter of water weighs 1000 grams and a liter of ethanol weighs 789 grams
3. Formulation of Hypotheses Observations do not become scientific observations
until they are organized and related to a question. Biologist organizes his/her and
others’ observations into data form and constructs a statement that may prove to be
the answer of the biological problem under study. This tentative explanation of
observations is called a hypothesis. It may be defined as a proposition that might be
true. A hypothesis should have the following characteristics: • It should be a general
statement. • It should be a tentative idea. • It should agree with available
observations. • It should be kept as simple as possible. • It should be testable and
potentially falsifiable. In other words, there should be a way to show the hypothesis
is false; a way to disprove the hypothesis. A great deal of careful and creative
thinking is necessary for the formulation of a hypothesis. Biologists use reasoning
to formulate a hypothesis.
4. Deductions In the next step, biologist draws deductions from hypotheses.
Deductions are the logical consequences of hypotheses. For this purpose, a
hypothesis is taken as true and expected results (deductions) are drawn from it.
Generally in biological method, if a particular hypothesis is true then one should
expect (deduction) a certain result. This involves the use of “if-then” logic.
5. Experimentation The most basic step of biological method is experimentation.
Biologist performs experiments to see if hypotheses are true or not. The
deductions, which are drawn from hypotheses, are subjected to rigorous testing.
Through experimentations, biologist learns which hypothesis is correct. The
incorrect hypotheses are rejected and the one which proves correct is accepted. An
accepted hypothesis makes further predictions that provide an important way to
further test its validity.
6. Summarization of results Biologist gathers actual, quantitative data from
experiments. Data for each of the groups are then averaged and compared
statistically. To draw conclusions, biologist also uses statistical analysis.
7. Reporting the results Biologists publish their findings in scientific journals and
books, in talks at national and international meetings and in seminars at colleges
and universities. Publishing of results is an essential part of scientific method. It
allows other people to verify the results or apply the knowledge to solve other
problems.

3. STUDY OF MALARIA
Study of Malaria - An Example of Biological Method

We know malaria is a common disease in many countries including Pakistan. We

will go through the history of this disease to know how biology solved the biological
problem concerning the cause and transmission of malaria. In ancient times (more
than 2000 years ago), physicians were familiar with malaria. They described it as a
disease of chills and fevers with recurring attacks. They also observed that the
disease was more common among people living in low, marshy areas. It was thought
that the stagnant water of marshes poisoned the air and as a result of breathing in
this “bad air”, people got malaria. This belief led to the name of this disease. The
Italian words “mala” means bad and “aria” means air. For further clarification of the
observation, some volunteers drank stagnant water from the marshes. They did not
develop malaria. In the 17th century when the New World (America) was
discovered, many plants from America were sent back to Europe to be used as
medicines. The bark of a tree known as quina-quina was very suitable for curing
fevers. It was so beneficial that soon it was impossible to carry enough bark to
Europe. Some dishonest merchants began to substitute the bark of another tree,
cinchona which closely resembled quina-quina. This dishonesty proved much
valuable for mankind. Cinchona bark was found to be excellent for treating malaria.
We now know the reason: cinchona bark contains quinine that is effective in treating
the disease.
At that time, physicians treated malaria with cinchona without understanding the
cause of malaria. Two hundred years later, it was found that some diseases are
caused by tiny living organisms. After this discovery, it also became a belief that
malaria, too, might be caused by some microorganism. In 1878, a French army
physician Laveran began to search for the “cause” of malaria. He took a small
amount of blood from a malarial patient and examined it under microscope. He
noticed some tiny living creatures. His discovery was not believed by other
scientists. Two years later, another physician saw the same creatures in the blood of
another malarial patient. Three years after the second discovery, the same creatures
were observed for third time. The organism was given a name Plasmodium.
In the last part of nineteenth century, many different causes of malaria were being
suggested. By that time, there were four major observations about malaria. • Malaria
and marshy areas have some relation. • Quinine is an effective drug for treating
malaria. • Drinking the water of marshes does not cause malaria. • Plasmodium is
seen in the blood of malarial patients. We know that a scientist uses whatever
information and observation he has and makes one or more hypotheses. The
hypothesis made in this case was; “Plasmodium is the cause of
malaria.” Scientist does not know whether his hypothesis is true or not, but he
accepts it may be true and makes deductions. One of the deductions from the above
hypothesis was; “If Plasmodium is the cause of malaria, then all person ill with
malaria should have Plasmodium in their
blood.” The next step was to test the deduction through experiments which were
designed as; “Blood of 100 malarial patients was examined under microscope. For
the purpose of having a control group, the blood of 100 healthy persons was also
examined under microscope.”
The results of experiments showed that almost all malarial patients had Plasmodium
in their blood while 07 out of 100 healthy persons also had Plasmodium in their
blood (now we know that Plasmodium in the blood of healthy people was in
incubation period i.e. the period between the entry of parasite in host and the
appearance of symptoms). The results were quite convincing and proved that the
hypothesis “Plasmodium is the cause of malaria” was true.
Malaria has killed more people than any other disease. The account of malaria is an
example of a biological problem and of how such problems are solved.
Next biological problem was to learn about “How Plasmodium gets into the blood
of man”. Biologists were having following observations; • Malaria is associated with
marshes. • Drinking water of marshes does not cause malaria. • From these
observations, it can be concluded that Plasmodium was not in the marsh water. But
it must be carried by something that comes to marsh water. In 1883, a physician A.
F. A. King, listed 20 observations. Some important observations of King were: •
People who slept outdoors were more likely to get malaria than those who slept
indoors; • People who slept under fine nets were less likely to get malaria than those
who did not use such nets; and • Individuals who slept near a smoky fire usually did
not get malaria. • On the basis of these observations King suggested a hypothesis:
“Mosquitoes transmit Plasmodium and so are involved in the spread of malaria.”
Following deductions were made considering the hypothesis as true i.e. If
mosquitoes are involved in the spread of malaria then; “Plasmodium
should be present in mosquitoes.” “A mosquito can get Plasmodium by biting
a malarial patient.” In order to test the above deductions, Ronald Ross: a British
army physician working in India in 1880’s; performed important experiments. He
allowed a female Anopheles mosquito to bite a malarial patient. He killed the
mosquito some days later and found Plasmodium multiplying in mosquito’s
stomach.
The next logical experiment was to allow an infected mosquito (having Plasmodium)
to bite a healthy person. If hypothesis was true, the healthy person would have got
malaria. But scientists avoid using human beings for experiments when results can
be so serious. Ross used sparrows and redesigned his experiments. He allowed a
female Culex mosquito to bite on the sparrows suffering from malaria. Some of the
mosquitoes were killed and studied at various times. Ross found that Plasmodium
multiplied in the wall of mosquito’s stomach and then moved into mosquito’s
salivary glands. He kept some mosquitoes alive and allowed them to bite healthy
sparrows. Ross found that the saliva of the infected mosquito contained Plasmodia
(plural of Plasmodium) and these entered the sparrow’s blood. When he examined
the blood of these previously healthy sparrows, he found many Plasmodia in it.

In the end, the hypothesis was tested by direct experimentation on human beings. In
1898, Italian biologists allowed an Anopheles mosquito to bite a malarial patient.
The mosquito was kept for a few days and then it was allowed to bite a healthy man.
This person later became ill with malaria. In this way, it was confirmed that
mosquitoes transmit Plasmodium and spread malaria.

4.WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY.
The term “biodiversity” has been derived from ‘bio’ and ‘diversity’. “Diversity”
means variety within a species and among species. Biodiversity is a measure of the
variety of organisms present in different ecosystems.
The diversity of plants’ (flora) and animals’ (fauna) in a region depends on climate,
altitude, soils and the presence of other species. Biodiversity is not distributed evenly
on Earth. It is richest in the tropics. Temperate regions also have many species while
there are fewer species in the polar regions. Biodiversity found on Earth today is the
result of 4 billion years of evolution. The origin of life is not well known to science,
though limited evidence suggests that until 600 million years ago, all life consisted
of bacteria and similar unicellular organisms.

5. STUDY ABOUT FIVE KINGDOMS.

The Five Kingdoms
The general characteristics of the five kingdoms are as follows (See Table 3.2 also);
1. Kingdom monera: It includes prokaryotic organisms i.e. they are made of
prokaryotic cells. Monerans are unicellular, although some types form chains,
clusters, or colonies of cells. Prokaryotic cells are radically different from eukaryotic
cells. Most are heterotrophic but some perform photosynthesis because they have
chlorophyll in their cytoplasm. Within this kingdom, there are two different kinds of
organisms i.e. bacteria and cyanobacteria.
2. Kingdom protista: It includes eukaryotic unicellular and simple
multicellular organisms. There are three main types of protists. • Algae are
unicellular, colonial or simple multicellular. They resemble plant cells with cell
walls and chlorophyll in chloroplasts. Simple multicellular means that they do not
have multicellular sex organs and do not form embryos during their life cycles. •
Protozoans resemble animals whose cells lack chlorophyll and cell walls. •
Some protists are fungi-like.
3. Kingdom fungi:It includes eukaryotic multicellular heterotrophs which are
absorptive in their nutritional mode e.g. mushrooms. Most fungi are decomposers.
They live on organic material, secrete digestive enzymes and absorb small organic
molecules formed by the digestion by enzymes.
4. Kingdom Plantae: It includes eukaryotic multicellular autotrophs. Plants are
autotrophic in nutritional mode, making their own food by photosynthesis. They
have multicellular sex organs and form embryos during their life cycles. Mosses,
ferns and flowering plants are included in this kingdom.
5. Kingdom Animalia: It includes eukaryotic multicellular consumers. Animals live
mostly by ingesting food and digesting it within specialized cavities. They lack
cell wall and show movements.

6. PLASMA MEMBRANE.

The plasma membrane, also called the cell membrane, is the membrane
found in all cells that separates the interior of the cell from the outside
environment. In bacterial and plant cells, a cell wall is attached to the plasma
membrane on its outside surface. The plasma membrane consists of a lipid
bilayer that is semipermeable. The plasma membrane regulates the
transport of materials entering and exiting the cell.
7.Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is the semi-viscous and semi-transparent substance between
plasma membrane (cell membrane) and nuclear envelope. It contains water
in which many organic molecules (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids) and
inorganic salts are completely or partially dissolved.
Cytoplasm provides space for the proper functioning of organelles and also
acts as the site for various biochemical (metabolic) reactions. For example,
Glycolysis (breakdown of glucose during cellular respiration) occurs in
cytoplasm.
8. CYTOSKELETON
Cytoskeleton

Cytoskeleton is a network of microfilaments and microtubules. Microtubules are

made of tubulin protein and are used by cells to hold their shape. They are also the
major component of cilia and flagella. Microfilaments are thinner and are made of
actin protein. They help cells to change their shapes.

9. ORGANALLESE AND NON ORGANALLESE

Main Difference – Membranous vs Nonmembranous Organelles

Cell membrane, cytoplasm along with its organelles, and the nucleus are the three
main structures in a cell. Organelles are specialized structures, which carry out
unique functions inside the cell. These structures can be categorized into two as
membranous and nonmembranous organelles. Most organelles like mitochondria,
plastids, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus are fluid-filled structures. On
that account, fluid-filled organelles are membranous. Nonmembranous organelles
are ribosomes, cytoskeleton, nucleolus, and centrosome. All prokaryotic organelles
are nonmembranous. The main difference between membranous and
nonmembranous is that membranous organelles are surrounded by single or double
membranes, which are structurally similar to a cell membrane whereas
nonmembranous organelles are not surrounded by any kind of a membrane.
10. APPENDIX

The appendix is a thin tube that is joined to the large intestine. It sits in the
lower right part of your belly (abdomen). When you are a young child, your
appendix is a working part of your immune system, which helps your body to
fight disease. When you are older, your appendix stops doing this and other
parts of your body keep helping to fight infection.

The appendix can get infected. If not treated it can burst (rupture). This can
happen as soon as 48 to 72 hours after you have symptoms. Because of
this, appendicitis is a medical emergency. If you have symptoms, see a
doctor right away to avoid more infection, which can be life-threatening.

11. CAECUM
cecum, also spelled caecum, pouch or large tubelike structure in the lower abdominal
cavity that receives undigested food material from the small intestine and is
considered the first region of the large intestine. It is separated from the ileum (the
final portion of the small intestine) by the ileocecal valve (also called Bauhin valve),
which limits the rate of food passage into the cecum and may help prevent material
from returning to the small intestine.
The main functions of the cecum are to absorb fluids and salts that remain after
completion of intestinal digestion and absorption and to mix its contents with a
lubricating substance, mucus. The internal wall of the cecum is composed of a thick
mucous membrane, through which water and salts are absorbed. Beneath that lining
is a deep layer of muscle tissue that produces churning and kneading motions.

Variations in cecum size and structure occur among animals. In small herbivores,
such as rabbits, for example, the cecum is enlarged and contains bacteria that aid in
the digestion of plant matter and facilitate nutrient absorption. Cecum number can
also vary; for example, the rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) has two ceca, whereas
certain insectivores (such as hedgehogs, moles, and shrews) lack a cecum.
12. RECTUM
rectum, terminal segment of the digestive system in which feces accumulate just
prior to discharge. The rectum is continuous with the sigmoid colon and extends 13
to 15 cm (5 to 6 inches) to the anus. A muscular sheet called the pelvic diaphragm
runs perpendicular to the juncture of the rectum and anal canal and maintains a
constriction between these two segments of the large intestine. The internal cavity
of the rectum is divided into three or four chambers; each chamber is partly
segmented from the others by permanent transverse folds (valves of Houston) that
help to support the rectal contents. A sheath of longitudinal muscle surrounds the
outside wall of the rectum, making it possible for the rectum to shorten in length.
Food wastes remain in the sigmoid colon until they are ready to be excreted from
the body. As the fecal material enters the rectum, the walls distend to accommodate
the material. When sufficient pressure builds up within the distended rectal cavity,
the urge to eliminate wastes occurs. When receptors of the nervous system within
the rectal wall are stimulated by its stretching, they send impulses to the anal canal,
chest and abdominal-wall muscles, and the medulla oblongata of the brain, which
makes the individual conscious of the need to defecate. See also defecation.

WHAT IS THE COLON?

The colon is also known as the large bowel or large intestine. It is an organ that is
part of the digestive system (also called the digestive tract) in the human body. The
digestive system is the group of organs that allow us to eat and to use the food we
eat to fuel our bodies.
WHAT DOES THE COLON DO?

The colon plays a very important role in how our bodies use the food we eat.
Here is how food travels through the body.
1. Food begins in the mouth where it is chewed by the teeth into smaller pieces.
Once swallowed the food travels into the esophagus which connects to the
stomach.
2. In the stomach food is further broken down to liquid and passed on to the small
bowel (intestine).
3. In the small bowel, the food breakdown continues with the assistance of the
pancreas, liver and gallbladder. Here is where all the important vitamins and
nutrients in food are absorbed.
4. What is left over, which is mostly liquid, then moves into the colon. The water is
absorbed in the colon. Bacteria in the colon break down the remaining material.
Then the colon moves the leftover material into the rectum.
5. The rectum is like a storage-holder for this waste. Muscles in the rectum move the
waste, called stool, out of the body through the anus.
14. ULCER
Ulcers are sores that are slow to heal or keep returning. They can take many forms
and can appear both on the inside and the outside of your body.
They can be found on places of your body you can see, such as a leg ulcer found
on the skin, or in places you can’t see, such as a peptic ulcer in the lining of your
stomach or upper intestine. From your eye to your foot, you can get them just
about anywhere on your body.
Injuries, diseases, and infections can cause them. What they look like depends on
where you have them and how you got them. While some go away on their own,
others cause serious problems if you don’t treat them.
15. Diarrhea
Diarrhea — loose, watery and possibly more-frequent bowel movements — is a
common problem. It may be present alone or be associated with other symptoms,
such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain or weight loss.
Luckily, diarrhea is usually short-lived, lasting no more than a few days. But when
diarrhea lasts beyond a few days into weeks, it usually indicates that there's another
problem — such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) or a more serious disorder,
including persistent infection, celiac disease or inflammatory bowel disease (IBD
16. CONSTIPATION.
Constipation is a condition in which a person has uncomfortable or infrequent bowel
movements. Generally, a person is considered to be constipated when bowel
movements result in passage of small amounts of hard, dry stool, usually fewer than
three times a week. However, normal stool elimination may consist of having a
bowel movement three times a day or three times a week; it depends on the person.
17. Factors Affecting Opening and Closing of Stomata:
The following four points will highlight the four major factors affecting opening
and closing of stomata.
The four factors affecting opening and closing of stomata are: (1) Light (2) Water
Content of Epidermal Cells (3) Temperature and (4) Mineral Elements.
Factors affecting opening and closing of stomata:
1. Light:
Among external factors, light plays predominant role in the movement of guard
cells. Blue and red light are effective in both photosynthesis and stomatal opening.
However, blue light is found to be more effective (relative to red light) in causing
stomatal opening than in photosynthesis.
At low light levels, blue light may cause stomatal opening when red light has no
effect at all. Blue light causes movement of K+. It is now thought that blue light
promotes the breakdown of starch into the PEP molecules that can accept CO2
producing malic acid.
2. Water Content of Epidermal Cells:
The movement of guard cells is turgor phenomenon and guard cells derive water
from the adjoining epidermal cells and hence water content of the latter is bound to
effect this phenomenon.
3. Temperature:
Increase in the temperature causes stomata to open. Temperature has significant
effect on the permeability of the wall of the guard cells and therefore greatly affect
the osmotic phenomenon which is responsible for the movement of these cells.
4. Mineral Elements:
Deficiency of certain mineral elements like nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
has some effect on the opening and closing of stomata (Desai, 1937).
18. RED BLOOD CELLS AND WHITE BLOOD CELLS
RBC
Red blood cell, also called erythrocyte, cellular component of blood, millions of
which in the circulation of vertebrates give the blood its characteristic colour and
carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. The mature human red blood cell is
small, round, and biconcave; it appears dumbbell-shaped in profile. The cell is
flexible and assumes a bell shape as it passes through extremely small blood
vessels. It is covered with a membrane composed of lipids and proteins, lacks a
nucleus, and contains hemoglobin—a red iron-rich protein that binds oxygen.
The function of the red cell and its hemoglobin is to carry oxygen from the lungs
or gills to all the body tissues and to carry carbon dioxide, a waste product of
metabolism, to the lungs, where it is excreted. In invertebrates, oxygen-carrying
pigment is carried free in the plasma; its concentration in red cells in vertebrates,
so that oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged as gases, is more efficient and
represents an important evolutionary development. The mammalian red cell is
further adapted by lacking a nucleus—the amount of oxygen required by the cell
for its own metabolism is thus very low, and most oxygen carried can be freed into
the tissues. The biconcave shape of the cell allows oxygen exchange at a constant
rate over the largest possible area.
WBC

A type of blood cell that is made in the bone marrow and found in the blood and
lymph tissue. White blood cells are part of the body’s immune system. They help
the body fight infection and other diseases. Types of white blood cells are
granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils), monocytes, and
lymphocytes (T cells and B cells). Checking the number of white blood cells in the
blood is usually part of a complete blood cell (CBC) test. It may be used to look
for conditions such as infection, inflammation, allergies, and leukemia. Also called
leukocyte and WBC.
19.Understanding kwashiorkor
Kwashiorkor, also known as “edematous malnutrition” because of its association
with edema (fluid retention), is a nutritional disorder most often seen in regions
experiencing famine. It is a form of malnutrition caused by a lack of protein in the
diet. People who have kwashiorkor typically have an extremely emaciated
appearance in all body parts except their ankles, feet, and belly, which swell with
fluid.
Kwashiorkor is rarely found in the United States and other countries with a
generally steady food supply. It’s most common in sub-Saharan Africa and other
countries where people routinely have a limited supply of food.
Most people who are affected by kwashiorkor recover fully if they are treated
early. Treatment involves introducing extra calories and protein into the diet.
Children who develop kwashiorkor may not grow or develop properly and may
remain stunted for the rest of their lives. There can be serious complications when
treatment is delayed, including coma, shock, and permanent mental and physical
disabilities. Kwashiorkor can be life-threatening if it’s left untreated. It can cause
major organ failure and eventually death.
What causes kwashiorkor?
Kwashiorkor is caused by a lack of protein in the diet. Every cell in your body
contains protein. You need protein in your diet for your body to repair cells and
make new cells. A healthy human body regenerates cells in this way constantly.
Protein is also especially important for growth during childhood and pregnancy. If
the body lacks protein, growth and normal body functions will begin to shut down,
and kwashiorkor may develop.

Kwashiorkor is most common in countries where there is a limited supply or lack

of food. It is mostly found in children and infants in sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast
Asia, and Central AmericaTrusted Source. A limited supply or lack of food is
common in these countries during times of famine caused by natural disasters —
such as droughts or floods — or political unrest. A lack of nutritional knowledge
and regional dependence on low-protein diets, such the maize-based diets of many
South American countries, can also cause people to develop this condition.
This condition is rare in countries where most people have access to enough food
and are able to eat adequate amounts of protein. If kwashiorkor does occur in the
United States, it can be a sign of abuse, neglect, or fad diets, and it’s found mostly
in children or older adults. It can also be a sign of an underlying condition, such as
HIV.
What are the symptoms of kwashiorkor?
The symptoms of kwashiorkor include:

change in skin and hair color (to a rust color) and texture
fatigue
diarrhea
loss of muscle mass
failure to grow or gain weight
edema (swelling) of the ankles, feet, and belly
damaged immune system, which can lead to more frequent and severe infections
irritability
flaky rash
shock
20. MARASMUS
Marasmus is a form of severe malnutrition. It can occur in anyone who has severe
malnutrition, but it usually occurs in children. It typically occurs in developing
countries. Marasmus can be life-threatening, but you can get treatment for it.
Symptoms of marasmus
The main symptom of marasmus is being underweight. Children with this
condition have lost a lot of muscle mass and subcutaneous fat. Subcutaneous fat is
the layer of fat just under the skin. Dry skin and brittle hair are also symptoms of
marasmus.
In children with marasmus, the following can also occur:
chronic diarrhea
respiratory infections
intellectual disability
stunted growth
Seriously malnourished children may look older and have little to no energy or
enthusiasm for anything. Marasmus can also make children short-tempered and
irritable, but this is usually a more common symptom of kwashiorkor.
Kwashiorkor is another form of serious malnutrition. Kwashiorkor causes a
buildup of fluid in the body that can cause the face to become round and the belly
to become distended.
Causes of marasmus
Nutrient deficiency is the main cause of marasmus. It occurs in children that don’t
ingest enough protein, calories, carbohydrates, and other important nutrients. This
is usually due to poverty and a scarcity of food.
There are several types of malnutrition. A malnourished child may have something
other than marasmus. Among the more common types of malnutrition are serious
deficiencies in:
iron
iodine
zinc
vitamin A