Essential Characteristic of Science (by Judge Overton)

1. It is guided by natural law.

2. It has to be explanatory by reference to natural law.
3. It is testable against the observable world.
4. Its conclusions are tentative, that are not necessarily the final world.
5. It is falsifiable.
Scientific Method – is a way of gaining information (facts) about the world by
forming possible solutions to questions followed by rigorous testing to
determine if the proposed solutions are supported.
 Describes how scientists find out about the natural world.
 It refers to systematized testing of ideas, inferences, predictions and
hypotheses.
Basic Assumption in Science
When using the Scientific Method, scientists make some basic assumptions:
1. There are specific causes for events observed in the natural world.
2. The causes can be identified.
3. There are general rules or patterns that can be used to described what
happens in nature.
4. An event that occurs repeatedly probably has the same cause.
5. What one person observes can be observed by others.
6. The same fundamental rules of nature apply, regardless of where and
when they occur.
Steps in Designing and Planning an Experiment or Research using
Scientific Method
1. Observations - observe nature through your senses.
2. State the Problem
 What do you want to find out?
 State the problem as a question.
 Make the question as specific as possible.

3. Hypothesize
 What do you think is the cause of problem you are studying?
 State a logical answer to your question.

4. Plan your experiment

 The goal of the experiment is to test your hypothesis.
 What is the variable? What will be te control?Write a clean step-by-
step procedure so that another person can repeat the same
process.

5. Make a Prediction
From your hypothesis, make and record a prediction about the outcome
of your experiment.

6. Gather and Organize Data

 What kind of data would you collect: measurements, observations,
estimates? Will you use graphs, tables, and drawings to organize the
data?

7. Analyze Data
Do you see any trends or patterns in your data? Do the data support
your hypothesis or predictions?

8. Conclude
Do you need more information?
State your conclusion based on your data.
Your data should either support your conclusions or lead you to
another hypothesis. Have any new questions or problems come up?

A Fact is a True Statement - based on observations, studies, tests and

experiments.
Gathering of facts is an important part of developing a good hypothesis. Once
hypothesis has been thoroughly tested and no contradictions have been found
it may be incorporated into a theory or law.

A Theory (Scientific Theory) – describes why an event occurs. It is often an

explanation of the law or set of laws.

A Scientific Law - describes how an event occurs. It can be used to make

accurate predictions.

Laws and Theories – are subject to change. New hypotheses are tested; laws
and theories are often redefined.

Suggestions for Developing Scientific Attitudes

1. Open – mindedness – objective on different side of the issue. He/She

does not make rush conclusions. He/she are willing to listem to the
opinion of others.

2. Critical Outlook – Analyzes the claims or attitudes, investigates who

made the statements, check if these are unbiased and logical and
ascertains that these are not inconsistencies in the statements.

3. Truthfullness – Truth is the very foundation of science. He/she has a

passion of investigating and experimenting, is honest in recording and
reporting observations and takes a stand what he believes is true and
admits mistakes if proven wrong.

BIOGENETIC THEORIES (Theories on the Origin of life)

1. Theory of Special Creation
According to this theory, all the different forms of life that occurtoday on
planet earth, have been created by God, the almighty. This idea is found in
the ancient scriptures of almost every religion. According to Hindu
mythology, Lord Brahma, the God of creation, created the living world in
accordance to his wish. Accordiing to the christian belief, God created this
universe, plants, animals and human beings in about six natural days. The
Sikh mythology says that all forms of life including human beings came into
being with a single word of God. Special creation theory believes that the
things have not undergone any significant change since their creation.

The theory of Special Creation was purely a religious concept, acceptable

only o the basis of faith. It has no scientific basis.

2. Theory of Spontaeous Generation (Abiogenesis Theory)

This theory assumed that living organisms could arise suddenly and
spontaeously from any kins of non-living matter. One of the firm believers in
spontaneous generation was Aristotle, the Greek philosopher (384 – 322 BC).

Aristotle

He believed that dead leaves falling from a tree into a pond would
transform into fishes and those falling on soil would transform into worms and
insects. He also held that some insects develop from morning dew and rooting
manure. Egyptians believed that mud of the Nile river could spontaneously
give rise to many forms of life. The idea of spontaneous generation was popular
almost till seventeenth century. Many scientists like Descartes, Galileo and
Helmont supported this idea. In fact, Von Helmont went to the extent stating
that he had prepared a ‘soup’ from which he could spontaneously generate
rats! The ‘soup’ consisted of a dirty cloth soaked in water with a handful of
wheat grains. Helmont stated that if human sweat is added as an ‘active
principle’ to this, in just 17 days, it could generate rats!
The theory of Spontaeous Generation was disproved in the course of time
due to the experiment conducted by Francisco Redi, (1665), Spallanzani (1765)
and later by Louis Pasteur (1864) in his famous Swan neck experiment. This
theory was disapproved, as scientist gave definite proof that life comes from
pre-existing life.

3. Theory of Catastrophism
 It is simply a modification of the theory of Special Creation. It states that
there have been several creations of life by God, each preceded by a
catastrophe resulting from some kind of geological disturbance. According to
this theory, since each catastrophe completely destroyed the existing life, each
new creation consisted of life form different from that of previous ones.

Georges Cuvier

A French scientist Georges Cuvier (1769-1832) and Orbigney (1802 to

1837) were the main supporters of this theory.

4. Cosmozoic Theory (Theory of Panspermia)

According to this theory, life has reached this planet Earth from other
heavenly bodies such as meteorites, in the form of high;y resistance spores of
some oragnisms. This idea was proposed by Richter in 1865 and supported by
Arrhenius (1908) and other contemporary scientists. The theory did not gain
any support. This theory lacks evidence, hence it was discarded.

Svante Arrhenius

5. Theory of Chemical Evolution

This theory is also known as Materialistic Theory or Physico-chemical
theory. According this theory, Origin of life on earth is the result of a slow and
gradual process of chemical evolution that probably occurred about 3.8 billion
years ago. This theory was proposed independently by two scientists – A.I.
Oparin, a Russian scientist in 1923 and J.B.S Haldane, an english scientist, in
1928.
 A.I. Oparin

According to this theory,

 Spontaeous generation of life, under the present environmental condition is not
possible.

 Earth’s surface and atmosphere during the first billion years of existence, were radically
different from that of today’s conditions
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

 LIVING THINGS (ORGANISMS):

1. Have definite structural organization

Living things are made up of of atoms, molecules, elements,
compounds which are inanimate components and cell, tissues, organs
and organ system which are mere components of life.

2. Undergo metabolism
This refers to all the mechanical activities that take place within
the organism which are either a breaking down process (catabolism) e.g.
digestion, respiration and building up process (anabolism) e.g.
photosynthesis adn DNA Repilication. Catabolism is a process directed
towards energy production by the organism whereas anabolism is
directed energy utilization.

3. Exhibit growth:
Growth which is addition of the protoplasmic components of the
cells (intussusceptions) and manifested by cell division (mitosis) which
are responsible for the increase in size and volume of organism. Living
things increase in size than intussusception which is addition of
substances from within, while non-living things increase in size through
addition of substances from the outside called accretion.

4. Undergo reproduction
Reproduction is the process of producing a new kind of individual
of the same species from the union of parental gametes (sexual
reproduction) or the appearance of new body parts from shoot or germ
(blasterma), vegetative parts and all of which are forms of a sexual
reproduction.

5. Have the ability to adapt to the environment

Population or species of organisms have the ability to adjust to the
conditions of the environment wherein they tend to exhibit traits in order
for them to survive leading the evolution of their structures, functions
and behavior from simple to complex. Adaptation to the environment is
 either long term called evolutionary adaptation short-term adaptation
which is either physiological or behavioral.
6. Respond to stimuli (irritability)
Environmental stresses and products of chemical reactions are
factors that elicit a response to organisms which bring about
equilibrium or steady state conditions. Likewise it enables organisms to
react by conditioning or avoiding.

MAJOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LIVING THINGS AND NON-LIVING

THINGS

CHARACTERISTICS NON-LIVING THINGS LIVING THINGS

STRUCTURAL Sub atomic to Sub atomic to organ

ORGANIZATION molecular level system level

MOVEMENT None With limited or

powerful movement

GROWTH By accretion By intussusception

REPRODUCTION Don’t reproduce By asexual or sexual

means

IRRITABILITY None irritable Less or highly irritable

due to senses and
chemical reactions

ADAPTATION Don’t undergo Undergo adaptation

adaptation

METABOLISM Don’t undergo Undergo metabolism

metabolism