1

1.

Normal science

The normal science is very cumulative, aim is very successful, steady the scope and precision of
scientific knowledge .The process is very anomalies. If the accumulation of major anomalies in a
particular paradigm, there is loose confident in paradigm in practitioners .In this situation occur
crisis. The process of normal science is puzzle solving method. The paradigm is the example or
model of a great scientific achievement such as Newton’s theory of gravity, Einstein’s theory of
relativity.

Revolutionary science

The older paradigm is replaced in whole or in part by an incompatible one. The scientific
revolution that results in paradigm change is analogous to a political revolution. The scientific
revolutions are affected by the impact of the nature and of logic and techniques of persuasive
argument .A successful new paradigm/theory permit perdition that are different from those
derived from its predecessors. That difference could not occur if the two were logically
compatible. In the process of being assimilated the second displace the first.

Uniqueness of science

Scientist cannot translate between old and new paradigm. These paradigms are
incommensurable .also partially translated by aid of historian and philosophers of science.as an
example the explanation of combustion before oxygen must be explain. Scientists escape
dominant paradigm which they conduct research. And there is no higher authority to adjudicate
or decide competing truth-claims. Kuhn make more radical claim that the concept of truth can be
dispensed with entirely, replace by that a successful problem solving within a paradigm. Thomas
Kuhn claimed that science progress over time.

2.

The Kuhn’s answers are extremely radical. He said language of one paradigm cannot translate
into another language .also Kuhn claim that the relation between two successive paradigm in

1
commensurable .according to process of scientific process is continuous process .Also true is
relative to the paradigm and there is no truth laying outside all paradigm. And Kuhn’s position
regarding the scientific enterprise could be characterized as conservative.

The Newton’s develop lows of motion and gravitation. The Einstein explained theory of
relativity in perfectly. The Newton claim that gravity was a constant instantaneous force, the
information about sudden change of mass would have to be communicated across the entire
universe at once.

The Newtonian physic is close approximation of the space is not flat, gravity affect time. These
ideas are inconceivable to Newton. The Newton’s equations are accurate in absence of very
strong gravity.(Apple still fall, Moon still orbit).According to Newton’s fixed the space .Also
according to Einstein’s flexible space and time. Sir Isaac Newton quantified the gravity between
two objects, he formulate three lows of motion. The Newton lows assume that gravity is an
innate force of an object that can act over a distance. This example is important type of paradigm
shift. The Einsteinium physic is a deeper theory and greater predictive power. The Newton’s
lows are simplified approximations.

2.

Fayerabend position was radical philosophy of science. Because philosophy can be neither in
providing a general description of science or devising a method for differentiating product of
science from non-scientific entities. He objected scientific method on ground , such method
would limit the activities of science, restricted scientific process. For success of his position
Fayerabend provide counterexamples to claim that science operates according to a certain fixed
method. He used in disputable examples, such as Copernian revolution. He showed that all
common prescriptive rule of science are violated in such circumstances.

2
2

Consistency condition

A new theory must be consist with already well establish theories. A traditional philosopher of
science, both positivists and proper overlook the fact that called well established
theories .Fayerabend insisted that real test of a theory may be possible only by adapting an
alternative theory. The existing theories are well supported by facts. But some facts which might
go against these theories

Corresponding condition

The observation are theory laden, it may be consider observationally obvious might be wrong
due to incorrectness of the theory. Fayerabend say that new theory must be allowed to grow even
if it goes against. It may be noted that two conditions.

Correspondence condition is primary because the consistency condition can be reducing to it.
The consistency condition say new theory must be consisting existing theories. Also consistency
theory provides the guarantee of the theory. But Fayerabend not agree both conditions. He say
new theory should not be constraint by the rule that it should first correspond with fact which we
already known.

1.

Reductionism is referred philosophical ideas which can be described in other phenomena. The
basic assumptions are ontological and epistemological. In ontological is belief that the whole of
reality consist of a minimal number of parts. Epistemological is study or a theory of the nature
and ground of knowledge especially with reference to its limits are validity.

The ontological assumptions of reductionism.-

 That system is reducible to its parts.

 That all systems are made up of the same basic constituents which are discrete and

3
 atomistic
 All system have the basic process which are mechanical

The epistemological assumptions of reductionism.-

 The knowledge of the part of a system gives knowledge of the whole system.
 That “expert “and “specialist “are the only legitimate knowledge –seekers and
knowledge justifiers.

2.

The objective of this controlled experiment in laboratory is arbitrary isolated from its natural
surrounding from its relationship with others objects and observers. It can determine the
properties in preserved nature and set of beliefs. Mainly 3 drawbacks in control experiment.

 Ontological .in that properties are not taken

 Epistemological, in that other way of preserving and knowing are not recognized.
 Sociological, in that the non –expert is deprived of the right both of access to
knowledge and judging the claims of knowledge.

All things are politics not science. If one of the specialist is known the physical world, to find
some set of properties, it is a political not science act. The knowledge obtained is presented as
“the low of nature “.It’s argued in defence of modern science .It’s not science but political misuse
of science .And science that lead to violence the fragmentation of science into variety of
specification and sub specializations. The science claim that science truth are verifiable, justified
belief. The verification model of science was forcefully presented by positivism .It claim that
verifications are direct observations of the fact of nature.

3.

Vandana Shiva stated that reductionism science is epistemological violence. The Kunnion model
challenged the neutrality of the scientific fact .The Kuhn stated that scientific facts are determine
by social world scientists, not by the natural world. The Kunnion model is done by scientific
paradigm and not by social, political and economic interests. By restricting social world
scientists, Kunnion model unable to deal with value determination of science facts by the

4
demand made on the system of science by economic interest. Also he restricted material world
lab .Kuhn unable to deal with ecological situations. More appropriate method for modern science
the Kunnion model extend the materially and socially. The materially test of scientific belief in
physical world. Socially the scientific experiment and belief extend social organization of
society. The verification and validation system validate the practice in real life activity in society
and nature.

4.

a. Eucalyptus planting

Eucalyptus planting introduce by food and agriculture organization, World Bank and USAID.
They introduce forestry master plan to Srilanka which included the world renowned tropical rain
forest in Srilanka. But the strongest protest by peasant and environmentalist they stop their
master plan. Eucalyptus plant absorbs more water than other plants, occur farm scarcity and
desertification. Also affect life cycle of nutrient and hydrological .More over absorb fertilizer in
agricultural land, they reduce soil nutrient and destroying the soil capacity of biological
productivity. This plant destroyed soil fauna and indigenous plants .Eucalyptus plants are fast
growing species, also destruction cost is very high. In Srilanka Eucalyptus planting badly affect
the erosion of soil lack of soil water and nutrient .Finally government try to remove Eucalyptus
plants and substitution suitable indigenous species to restore the ecological balance.

b. Pesticides

Organic fertilizers improve the immunity system to improve resistance to diseases. But the
pesticides system destroyed the infected area or part. The chemical fertilizers decrease the plant
resistant to pest .In past there are several natural pest control methods available .They are mix
cropping ,rotational plating and use of organic fertilizers. In mix cropping pest –predators are
easily grown. This method very stable and balance the ecological system. In scientific pest
control method, it disturbed the ecological balance in agro –eco system. If we use pesticides, the
natural predators died. Also continuously need the pesticides to retain the pest control because
the plant predators lost .In this situation pesticides usage is very high and the plant immunity

5
system is very low. In media they show how quickly remove weeds, pests rather than traditional
methods. But they didn’t mention about the after effects of the usage of pesticides. If we use
chemical fertilizer, the natural pest predators died so the natural pest control method is lost. In
this situation plan immunity system is very low. Then farmers use pesticides to destroy pest .But
the pest is controlled but the plant is no well growth. Then they use chemical fertilizer. Then
suddenly grown the plant but in some time the grown stage is slowly, Then farmers repeatly used
pest and chemical fertilizers .The above used chemicals are include in over water sources and
plants .In past no any person found in kidney diseases in Polonnaruwa area and Anuradapura
areas. But recently most of them are suffering kidney diseases in above areas. The main reason is
uncontrolled and higher usage of chemical pesticides and fertilizer .The traditional Method is
improve the resistance to plant to diseases. Due to scientific method there are several after effects
due to various chemicals. Also the best pest control method is tradition method.

Reference

Bertie.ccsu.edu. (2017). Thomas Kuhn's Theory of Scientific Revolutions. [online] Available at:
http://bertie.ccsu.edu/naturesci/PhilSci/Kuhn.html [Accessed 3 Aug. 2017].

Course material -HN5001