The 

cosmos (UK: /ˈkɒzmɒs/, US: /-moʊs/) is another name for the Universe. Using the

word cosmos implies viewing the universe as a complex and orderly system or entity.[1]
The cosmos, and our understanding of the reasons for its existence and significance, are studied
in cosmology – a broad discipline covering scientific, religious or philosophical aspects of the
cosmos and its nature. Religious and philosophical approaches may include the cosmos among
spiritual entities or other matters deemed to exist outside our physical universe.

Contents

 1Etymology
 2Cosmology
o 2.1Physical cosmology
o 2.2Philosophical cosmology
o 2.3Religious cosmology
 3Cosmology’s Standard Model
 4Early views of cosmos: European, Chinese, India, and Australia
o 4.1European view
o 4.2Chinese view
o 4.3Indian view
o 4.4Australian view
o 4.5Similarities in observation
 5First Cosmos
 6Copernican Revolution
o 6.1Early beliefs
o 6.2Copernican theory
o 6.3Neoplatonism
 7See also
 8References
 9External links

Etymology[edit]
The philosopher Pythagoras first used the term kosmos (Ancient Greek: κόσμος, Latinized kósmos)
for the order of the universe.[2] Greek κόσμος "order, good order, orderly arrangement" is a word with
several main senses rooted in those notions. The verb κοσμεῖν (κοσμεῖν) meant generally "to
dispose, prepare", but especially "to order and arrange (troops for battle), to set (an army) in array";
also "to establish (a government or regime)", "to adorn, dress" (especially of women).
Thus kosmos had an important secondary sense of "ornaments, decoration"
(compare kosmokomes "dressing the hair," and cosmetic).[3] In Modern Greek, κόσμος has
developed, along with primary "the universe, the world", the meaning of "people" (collectively).
The term became part of modern language in the 19th century when geographer and
polymath Alexander von Humboldt resurrected the use of the word, assigning it to his five-volume
treatise, Kosmos (1845–1862), which influenced modern and somewhat holistic perception of the
universe as one interacting entity.[4][5]

Cosmology[edit]
The Ancient and Medieval cosmos as depicted in Peter Apian's Cosmographia (Antwerp, 1539).

Cosmology is the study of the cosmos, and in its broadest sense covers a variety of very different
approaches: scientific, religious and philosophical. All cosmologies have in common an attempt to
understand the implicit order within the whole of being. In this way, most religions
and philosophical systems have a cosmology.
When cosmology is used without a qualifier, it often signifies physical cosmology, unless the context
makes clear that a different meaning is intended.

Physical cosmology[edit]
Main article: Cosmology
Physical cosmology (often simply described as 'cosmology') is the scientific study of the universe,
from the beginning of its physical existence. It includes speculative concepts such as a multiverse,
when these are being discussed. In physical cosmology, the term cosmos is often used in a
technical way, referring to a particular spacetime continuum within a (postulated) multiverse. Our
particular cosmos, the observable universe, is generally capitalized as the Cosmos.
In physical cosmology, the uncapitalized term cosmic signifies a subject with a relationship to the
universe, such as 'cosmic time' (time since the Big Bang), 'cosmic rays' (high energy particles or
radiation detected from space), and 'cosmic microwave background' (microwave radiation detectable
from all directions in space).
According to Charles Peter Mason in Sir William Smith Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography
and Mythology (1870, see book screenshot for full quote), Pythagoreans described the universe.[6]

Excerpt from Philolaus Pythagoras book, (Charles Peter Mason, 1870)

It appears, in fact, from this, as well as from the extant fragments, that the first book (from Philolaus)
of the work contained a general account of the origin and arrangement of the universe. The second
book appears to have been an exposition of the nature of numbers, which in the Pythagorean theory
are the essence and source of all things. (p. 305)

Philosophical cosmology[edit]
Main article: Philosophical cosmology
Cosmology is a branch of metaphysics that deals with the nature of the universe, a theory or
doctrine describing the natural order of the universe.[7] The basic definition of Cosmology is the
science of the origin and development of the universe. In modern astronomy, the Big Bang theory is
the dominant postulation.
Philosophy of cosmology is an expanding discipline, directed to the conceptual foundations of
cosmology and the philosophical contemplation of the universe as a totality. It draws on the
fundamental theories of physics — thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, quantum mechanics,
quantum field theory, and special and general relativity — and on several branches of philosophy --
philosophy of physics, philosophy of science, metaphysics, philosophy of mathematics, and
epistemology.[8]

Religious cosmology[edit]
See also: Religious cosmology, Hellenistic philosophy and Christianity, and Orphism (religion)
In theology, the cosmos is the created heavenly bodies (sun, moon, wandering stars, and fixed
stars). The concept of cosmos as the created universe and its arrangement has been important
in Christendom since its very inception, as it is heavily used in the New Testament and occurs over
180 times.[9] In Christian theology, the word is sometimes used synonymously with aion[10] to refer to
"worldly life" or "this world" or "this age" as opposed to the afterlife or world to come, although
"aion/aeon" is also at times used in a more other-worldly sense as the eternal plane of the divine [11]
The 1870 book Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology noted[6]
Thales dogma that water is the origin of things, that is, that it is that out of which every thing
arises, and into which every thing resolves itself, Thales may have followed Orphic
cosmogonies, while, unlike them, he sought to establish the truth of the assertion. Hence,
Aristotle, immediately after he has called him the originator of philosophy brings forward the
reasons which Thales was believed to have adduced in confirmation of that assertion; for
that no written development of it, or indeed any book by Thales, was extant, is proved by the
expressions which Aristotle uses when he brings forward the doctrines and proofs of
the Milesian. (p. 1016)
Plato, describes the idea of the good, or the Godhead, sometimes teleologically, as the
ultimate purpose of all conditioned existence; sometimes cosmologically, as the ultimate
operative cause; and has begun to develop the cosmological, as also the physico-theological
proof for the being of God; but has referred both back to the idea of the Good, as the
necessary presupposition to all other ideas, and our cognition of them. (p. 402)
The book The Works of Aristotle (1908, p. 80 Fragments) mentioned[12]
Aristotle says the poet Orpheus never existed; the Pythagoreans ascribe this Orphic poem to
a certain Cercon (see Cercops).
Bertrand Russell (1947) noted[13]
The Orphics were an ascetic sect; wine, to them, was only a symbol, as, later, in the
Christian sacrament. The intoxication that they sought was that of "enthusiasm," of union
with the god. They believed themselves, in this way, to acquire mystic knowledge not
obtainable by ordinary means. This mystical element entered into Greek philosophy with
Pythagoras, who was a reformer of Orphism as Orpheus was a reformer of the religion of
Dionysus. From Pythagoras Orphic elements entered into the philosophy of Plato, and from
Plato into most later philosophy that was in any degree religious.

Cosmology’s Standard Model[edit]

Further information: Lambda-CDM model
Physical cosmology has achieved a consensus Standard Model (SM), based on
extending the local physics governing gravity and the other forces to describe the
overall structure of the universe and its evolution. According to the SM, the universe
has evolved from an extremely high temperature early state, by expanding, cooling,
and developing structures at various scales, such as galaxies and stars. This model
is based on bold extrapolations of existing theories—applying general relativity, for
example, at length scales 14 orders of magnitude larger than the those at which it
has been tested—and requires several novel ingredients, such as dark matter and
dark energy. The last few decades have been a golden age of physical cosmology,
as the SM has been developed in rich detail and substantiated by compatibility with
a growing body of observations. Here we will briefly introduce some of the central
concepts of the SM to provide the minimal background needed for the ensuing
discussion.[14]

Early views of cosmos: European, Chinese, India,

and Australia[edit]
Eastern and Western thought differed greatly in their understanding of space and
the organization of the cosmos. The Chinese saw the Cosmos as empty, infinite,
and intertwined with the Earth. Western ideas, based on the ancient Greeks'
understanding of the cosmos, believed in a multi-planar divided cosmos that was
finite and filled with air.

European view[edit]

Stars rotating in the night sky

Early Europeans viewed the cosmos as a divinely created, spatially finite, bifurcated
cosmos, divided into sublunary and superlunary realms. Objects above the lunar
disc were believed to be stable, with heavenly bodies believed to be made out of a
refined substance called "quintessence". This was understood to be a crystalline,
completely transparent substance that held all of the superlunary spheres in perfect
order. After their creation by God, these spheres did not change except for their
rotation above the Earth.[15] Objects below the lunar sphere were subject to constant
combination, separation, and recombination. This was because they consisted of
the chaotic elements of earth, air, fire, and water.[15]
The idea of celestial spheres was developed in the cosmological models
of Plato, Eudoxus, Aristotle, Ptolemy, Copernicus, and others.[16] They believed in a
stable cosmos created by God, where distinct realms were subject to different kinds
of order. Europeans maintained the Aristotelian view that infinity could only be seen
as an attribute of God, with the cosmos being finite. Furthermore, following the
Aristotelian view that "nature abhors a vacuum", Europeans believed that the space
between the spheres were filled with air.[15] This theory persisted until the Scientific
Revolution, when the discovery that the Sun was in the center of the planetary
system rocked cosmological understanding to its core.

Chinese view[edit]
The Chinese had multiple theories of the processes and components of the
cosmos. The most popular of these beliefs was the Xuan Ye theory, the
astronomical view of the cosmos as an infinite space with floating pieces of
condensed vapor.[15] The Chinese believed that the Earth consisted of
condensed yin and the heavens of yang; and that these properties coexisted in
constant relation to each other, with yin and yang being used together to explain
processes on Earth as well of those relating the Earth in conjunction with the
heavens.[15] This idea was described by Joseph Needham as a cosmos that
functioned similarly to a complex organism, with discernible patterns in an ever-
changing structure. There was both a pattern and a randomness to the cosmos.
[17]
 Because of this, the Chinese believed that earthly phenomena could affect
heavenly bodies.[15]
The Chinese believed that qi was the substance of all things in the cosmos and
Earth, including inanimate matter, humans, ideas, emotions, celestial bodies and
everything that exists or has existed;[18] and that it was qi condensing that created all
the matter within the cosmos.[15] This is relatively consistent with our modern
understanding of the congregation of matter through gravitational fields.[18]
The Chinese held a belief associated with the Xuan Ye theory, which held space as
both empty and infinite.[19] This was inconsistent with the Aristotelian concepts that
nature would not contain a vacuum, and that infinity could only be a divine attribute.
[15]
 The idea of the nothingness of space was later recognized as one of the most
important discoveries of modern science.[15]

Indian view[edit]
The Indians believed in a cyclic universe and is related to three other beliefs: (i),
time is endless and space has infinite extension; (ii), earth is not the center of the
universe; and (iii), laws govern all development, including the creation and
destruction of the universe. The Indians believed that there were three types of
space, physiological, physical, and infinite space. The infinite space is conducted of
undivided consciousness and everything that consist inside and outside. However,
finite division of space is where time begins and the division of time is where all
beings were first created. It was believed that there are connections between the
physical and the psychological worlds, and an equivalence existed between the
outer cosmos and the inner cosmos of the individual. This is expressed in the
famous sentence -yat pinḍe tad brahmṇḍe,
“as in the cell so in the universe”. The ancient Indians mapped out the outer world
or the universe at an altar where Yajurveda listed multiples of ten that reached ten
million. The numbers used to count to ten million was used as a reference to show
the relation of the planets in the universe to earth, it was not a relevant scale to the
entire universe, therefore backing that they believed the universe to be infinite and
endless. Another astonishing belief that the Indians believed in was that they
calculated the speed of light to be four thousand four hundred and four (4,404)
yojanas per nimesa, or about one hundred eighty six thousand (186,000) miles per
second. Ancient Indian beliefs included the belief that the earth was created after
certain stars, these stars include the sun, Gemini, Aja, and Kurma. Evidence from
the Etymological considerations prove this belief and also points towards the
discovery of the twin asses, which in western astrology can be found next to the
Cancer constellation as Asellus, Borealis, and Asellus Australis
The Indian cyclic model assumes the existence of countless island universes, which
go through their own periods of development and destruction. The conception of
cyclicity is taken to be recursive. For an early exposition of these astronomical and
cosmological ideas, one may read al-Bīrūnī’s classic history of Indian science,
composed in 1030 AD, and for an even earlier, popular, view of Indian ideas, one
may consult the Vedantic text called the Yoga Vāsiṣṭha (YV), which at 32,000
shlokas is one of the longest books in world literature.[20]

Australian view[edit]
See also: Australian Aboriginal astronomy
Australian cosmology has a vast and varied history.[21]
Australian cosmology beliefs were based around the Aboriginal and Teres Straight
Islander people's ideas, also known as Indigenous astronomy, and it was around
before the Babylonians, Greeks, and the Renaissance period. They found ways to
observe the moon, stars, and the sun, this enabled them to create a sense of time.
This also allowed them to navigate across the continent, create calendars, and
predict the weather. One of the most important constellations in Australia for the
Aboriginal people is the Emu. The Emu constellation represents the connection
between the earth and the sky, you can see stories and representations of their
constellations written on some cave walls in Australia. Another indigenous tribe
known as the Euahlayi saw the Milky Way as a river and between the two bright
sides represented a Galactic Bulge where the two sons of the creator Baiame and
the river made a connection from the earth and the sky. The Yolgnu people were
one of the first to discover how the tide of the ocean works. They discovered the
tide had a direct correlation with the moon. Their reasoning as to why the ocean did
not fill up as much as perhaps when the moon was full versus a crescent moon is
because the moon was not as full either. This contradicts the father of science,
Galileo, who said that the tides correlated with the earth's orbit around the sun.
Multiple indigenous tribes described winter by the seven sisters, a group of stars in
the sky that provided hunter-gatherers a sort of calendar to indicate whether they
should be hunting or gathering based off of the season.

Similarities in observation[edit]
There is one way that both the Chinese and the Europeans, along with countless
other ancient societies, related to the cosmos. This was through meaning, placed
on celestial bodies, that were observed moving above the Earth. The Chinese had a
very complex astronomical understanding of the stars and the cosmos that
influenced everything from their art and architecture to their myths and science.
[22]
 This was also true of the Greeks and Romans, whose 48 constellations, including
the zodiac signs and the constellation of Orion, have been passed down to modern
Western cultures. These were likely passed down to them from ancient Babylonian
and Egyptian astronomers.[23] Copernicus is said to have been inspired by the
fecund sun deity of neoplatonic thought, which may have initially inspired his vision
of a heliocentric universe.[15]

First Cosmos[edit]
Anaximander was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who is widely referred to as the
"father of astronomy" and even as the "father of cosmology" as a result of his works
to explain the origin and makeup of the physical universe. He is regarded as the
most important of the Ionian philosophers, and was a pupil of Thales. Traditionally,
details of his life and opinions are perpetuated not only
by Aristotle and Theophrastos, but also by a great number of secondary authors.
[24]
 He lived throughout the fifth and fourth centuries, BCE, and was most likely the
first philosopher to try to rationalize the system of the Earth, Sun, and Moon by the
use of geometry and mathematics. Anaximander was also said to have created the
first map of the world, however, like much of the rest of his works, this has been lost
since his time. There is, however, documentation of Anaximander being responsible
for the conception of the first mechanical model of the world, which is outlined by
a geocentric model. He postulated that the Earth was at the very center of the
universe, and that its shape was convex and cylindrical, with life existing on one of
the two flat sides. Beyond the earth, sits the other planets, which Anaximander also
details the order of. Next are the fixed stars, which he regarded as wheel-like
condensations of air filled with fire, provided at certain places with openings through
which flames are discharged.[24] Anaximander places the moon beyond these stars,
and assumed it to also be wheel-like in shape, being nineteen times the size of
earth. Finally, on the top of the universe is the sun, which interacts with the moon,
and the relationship between them is described in terms of aperture, in which a
stoppage in would lead to eclipses. In this model, the sun is a ring, 28 times the size
of the earth, with a hollow rim, filled with fire, which at a certain place is seen
through an aperture as in a pair of bellows.[24] He also postulated regarding the
formation of thunder and lightning, maintaining that they are caused by the wind
becoming compressed inside a thick cloud and suddenly breaking through, causing
the loud sound to be heard as the cloud is bursting. He claimed the fissure then
looked like a spark because of the contrast with the dark cloud. Anaximander's
model set a precedent for succeeding theories, including Copernicus's system, with
the major change being the shift away from the geocentric model and towards
the heliocentric model of the universe. The explained model, although accredited to
Anaximander, did necessarily take from ideas originated in foreign cultures, such as
the astronomical wheels which are known from Persian cosmology.[24] But even
without detailed commentary, these elements of the Anaximander tradition give a
strong impression of an original and courageous thinker making conscious efforts
towards producing a rational explanation of fundamental physical principles, the
nature and motion of heavenly bodies, the shape of earth, its place in the universe,
etc.

Copernican Revolution[edit]

Copernicus' Heliocentric Solar System

Further information: Copernican Revolution

Commonly regarded as the foundation of modern astronomy, the common universal
view of the cosmos shifted as Nicolaus Copernicus positioned the Sun as the center
of the Universe.

Early beliefs[edit]
Prior to the Copernican Revolution, the Ptolemaic system, also known as
the geocentric model, was widely accepted. This put the Earth at the center of the
universe, with the sun and other planets revolving around the earth in an epicyclic
orbit.[25] Aristotle's geocentric model was also broadly acknowledged, along with his
claim that the planets rotated but did not orbit. The reasoning behind this was due to
the belief that all objects outside of the lunar sphere were celestial bodies, and
therefore could not change, as they were made of quintessence.[26]
There were notable critiques of this model prior to Copernicus. In the Islamic
world, Ibn al-Haytham doubted Ptolemy's notion of the planetary orbits,
and Muhammad al-Battani recalculated the parameters. However, both still agreed
with the geocentric model.[27]
One of the first known astronomers that supported the Heliocentric theory
was Aristarchus of Samos. After observing a lunar eclipse, he came to the
conclusion that the sun was farther away from earth than the moon and that the sun
was much larger than Earth. He also claimed the sun was a star. While Aristarchus
was later an influence on Copernicus and his groundbreaking work, prior to the 17th
century Aristarchus' findings were obstructed by the more established theories of
Ptolemy and Aristotle.[28] [29]

Copernican theory[edit]
Astronomer and mathematician Nicolaus Copernicus was appointed by the Catholic
Church as an official, as his uncle was a bishop in the church. He used his income
to further his studies, eventually studying at the University of Bologna in Italy.
[30]
 Copernicus began doubting the knowledge of natural philosophers and their
beliefs, claiming that geometrical astronomy instead would result in the true reality
of the cosmos. His manuscript, De revolutionibus, pioneered ideas that would
change the course of how both the cosmos and astrology were viewed. Most
notably, Copernicus claimed that the sun was the stationary center of the universe.
His work also included calculations on the motions of the moon, and the motions in
latitude and longitude of the planets, all which orbit the sun.[31] [32] Copernicus' work
was not immediately published as it disagreed with Biblical teachings, and he feared
his work would be rejected by Catholic officials.[33]

Neoplatonism[edit]
Copernicus' work was not entirely mathematical conviction. There is evidence that
Copernicus was influenced by Neoplatonism. Founded by philosopher Plotinus,
neoplatonism believes that the sun is the symbol of The One, or The Universal
Soul. It would make sense then that Copernicus would place the god-like figure at
the center of the universe.[34] Neoplatonist Nicholas of Cusa claimed the universe
was infinite, containing multiple earths and suns. This changed the belief of a finite
universe to an infinite one, which emphasized a more obscure and incomplete
version of God.[35] [36]

See also[edit]
 Carl Sagan
o Cosmos (Carl Sagan book)
o Cosmos: A Personal Voyage
o Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey
 Cosmic View
 Cosmic Zoom
 Cosmonaut
 Cosmicism
 Cosmogony
 Cosmogram
 Cosmography
 Macrocosm and microcosm
 Megaverse (disambiguation)
 Oikeiôsis (Stoic cosmopolitanism)
 Omega point (de Chardin)
 Omniverse (disambiguation)
 Rerikhism
 Russian cosmism

References[edit]
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