28 Chapter 2 Fundamental Concepts

(c) du
τupper = τyx, upper = μ
dy y=d

Since u varies linearly with y,

du Δu U −0 U
= = =
dy Δy d −0 d
m 1 mm
=0 3 × × 1000 = 1000 s −1
s 0 3 mm m
U lbf s 1000 τupper
τupper = μ = 1 36 × 10 −5 2 × = 0 0136 lbf ft2
d ft s
U lbf N ft2 Pa m2
(d) τlower = μ = 0 0136 2 × 4 45 × 2
×
d ft lbf 0 305 m2 N
τlower
= 0 651 Pa
Part (c) shows that the shear stress is:
(e) Directions of shear stresses on upper and lower plates.
• Constant across the gap for a linear
velocity profile.
y The upper plate is a negative y surface; so • Directly proportional to the speed of the
positive τyx acts in the negative x direction upper plate (because of the linearity of
Newtonian fluids).
upper
The lower plate is a positive y surface; so • Inversely proportional to the gap
positive τyx acts in the positive x direction between the plates.
lower Note that multiplying the shear stress by
x e the plate area in such problems computes
the force required to maintain the motion.

Non-Newtonian Fluids
Fluids in which shear stress is not directly proportional to deformation rate are non-Newtonian. Although
we will not discuss these much in this text, many common fluids exhibit non-Newtonian behavior. Two
familiar examples are toothpaste and paint. The latter is very “thick” when in the can, but becomes “thin”
when sheared by brushing. Toothpaste behaves as a “fluid” when squeezed from the tube. However, it
does not run out by itself when the cap is removed. There is a threshold or yield stress below which
toothpaste behaves as a solid. Strictly speaking, our definition of a fluid is valid only for materials that
have zero yield stress. Non-Newtonian fluids commonly are classified as having time-independent or
time-dependent behavior. Examples of time-independent behavior are shown in the rheological diagram
of Fig. 2.10.
Numerous empirical equations have been proposed [3, 4] to model the observed relations between
τyx and du dy for time-independent fluids. They may be adequately represented for many engineering
applications by the power law model, which for one-dimensional flow becomes

n
du
τyx = k 2 16
dy

where the exponent, n, is called the flow behavior index and the coefficient, k, the consistency index.
This equation reduces to Newton’s law of viscosity for n = 1 with k = μ.
 2.5 Surface Tension 29

Bingham
plastic

Apparent viscosity, η
Pseudoplastic
Shear stress, τ
Pseudoplastic

Dilatant Dilatant

Newtonian Newtonian

du
Deformation rate, ___ du
Deformation rate, ___
dy dy
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.10 (a) Shear stress, τ, and (b) apparent viscosity, η, as a function of deformation rate for one-dimensional flow of
various non-Newtonian fluids.

To ensure that τyx has the same sign as du dy, Eq. 2.16 is rewritten in the form

n −1
du du du
τyx = k =η 2 17
dy dy dy

The term η = k du dy n −1 is referred to as the apparent viscosity. The idea behind Eq. 2.17 is that we end
up with a viscosity η that is used in a formula that is the same form as Eq. 2.15, in which the Newtonian
viscosity μ is used. The big difference is that while μ is constant (except for temperature effects),
η depends on the shear rate. Most non-Newtonian fluids have apparent viscosities that are relatively high
compared with the viscosity of water.
Fluids in which the apparent viscosity decreases with increasing deformation rate n < 1 are called
pseudoplastic (or shear thinning) fluids. Most non-Newtonian fluids fall into this group; examples
include polymer solutions, colloidal suspensions, and paper pulp in water. If the apparent viscosity
increases with increasing deformation rate n > 1 the fluid is termed dilatant (or shear thickening). Sus-
pensions of starch and of sand are examples of dilatant fluids.
A “fluid” that behaves as a solid until a minimum yield stress, τy , is exceeded and subsequently
exhibits a linear relation between stress and rate of deformation is referred to as an ideal or Bingham
plastic. The corresponding shear stress model is
du
τyx = τy + μp 2 18
dy
Clay suspensions, drilling muds, and toothpaste are examples of substances exhibiting this behavior.
The study of non-Newtonian fluids is further complicated by the fact that the apparent viscosity may
be time-dependent. Thixotropic fluids show a decrease in η with time under a constant applied shear
stress; many paints are thixotropic. Rheopectic fluids show an increase in η with time. After deformation
some fluids partially return to their original shape when the applied stress is released; such fluids are
called viscoelastic. Many biological fluids exhibit this behavior.

2.5 Surface Tension

You have probably noticed that rain drops on a rain coat often remain as little drops, but flatten out on
other surfaces. These two cases of a liquid on a surface are shown in Fig. 2.11. We define a liquid as
“wetting” a surface when the contact angle θ < 90 . The behavior is due to surface tension. Whenever a
liquid is in contact with other liquids or gases, or in this case a gas/solid surface, an interface develops