Drilling Hydraulics

Rheology

 Rheology- Study of the deformation and flow of matter

 Viscosity
 Parallel plate representation

F μ∗V
o =
A L
o μ (viscosity) = constant of proportionality
o F/A = shear stress
o V/L (velocity gradient) = shear rate
8V
o γ= for pipe flow
D
o γ=12 V /( D 1−D2)
 Viscosity is the representation of a fluid’s internal resistance to flow, defined as the
ratio of shear stress to shear rate.

τ shear stress
μ= =
γ shear rate
Dyne × sec
μ= 2
=poise
cm
 o Only laminar flow can be described analytically, turbulent flow must be
described empirically
 Rotational Viscometers
o Hard to build viscometer with two parallel plates; instead use an outer
sleeve rotating around an inner bob
o Fluid exerts torque on inner bob, which is measured with a torsional spring.
Torque can be related to shear stress
o All fluid characterization measurements must be taken in laminar flow
300∗θ
o μ= ; at N=300, μ= θ
N
o γ=1.7N; where N is RPM of viscometer
 Fluid Types
o Newtonian Fluids- shear stress directly proportional to shear rate (i.e.
water, gases, high gravity oil)
o Non-Newtonian Fluid- no direct proportionality between shear stress and
shear rate
o Pseudoplastic- viscosity reduces with increasing shear rates
o Dilatant- viscosity increases with increasing shear rates
o Thixotropic- viscosity decreases with time sheared, mud “thins” over time
with shearing and “gels” when static (usually not modeled)
o Rheopectic- viscosity increases with time sheared

Rheological Models

 Mathematical description of viscous forces present in a fluid

 Bingham Plastic Model
o Defined by
o τ =μ p γ + τ y
 μ p=Plastic Viscosity ( PV )
 τ y =Yield Stress(Yield Point ; YP)
o Linear relationship between τ and γ, μ is slope or proportionality constant
o Representative at high shear rates, but overestimates shear stress at low
shear rates (i.e. annulus)
o τ =PV ( 300γ )+YP
o Plastic Viscosity (PV or μp)
 PV= Θ600-Θ300
 Plastic viscosity is the theoretical minimum viscosity, because it is
the effective viscosity as the shear rate approaches infinity. (i.e. at
bit)

 Part of resistance of flow due to mechanical friction

 Affected by:
 Concentration of solids
 Size and shape of solids
 Viscosity of fluid phase
 Polymers
 Oil/water ratio
 Solids ↑, PV ↑
 Solids Size ↓, PV ↑ (due to surface area increase of solid particles)
 Lower by dilution or mechanical separation
 Rule of thumb; PV= 2*PPG
o Yield Point (τy)
 The initial resistance to flow due to electrochemical forces between
particles
 YP=θ 300 −PV
 Can be lowered with chemical (thinners, i.e. lignosulfanates)

o Want a high YP/PV ratio. Means the fluid has good shear thinning
properties.
o Effective Viscosity- Viscosity of Non-Newtonian at particular shear rate.
o Apparent Viscosity- Viscosity reading at Θ600 divided by 2 (API). It is a
reflection of the plastic viscosity and yield point combined. An increase in
 either or both will cause a rise in apparent viscosity (and probably in funnel
viscosity

 Power Law Model

o Pseudo-Plastic model, improves upon Bingham Plastic at lower shear rates,
but goes through the origin (no YP, like Newtonian fluid)
n
τ =K γ
 K= consistency index, related to viscosity at low shear rates, units of
equivalent centipoise or lb-sec–n/100 ft2,
 n= flow behavior index, characterizes the degree to which the fluid
behaves as a Newtonian Fluid, dimensionless, slope of log-log of τ vs.
γ
o n<1, shear thinning
o n=1, Newtonian
o n>1, dilatant
o Want a lower n to “flatten” the velocity profile in annulus to get better hole
cleaning
τ2

o n=3.32× log
( )
θ600
θ300
or n=log
τ1
γ2
γ1

510∗θ600 θN
o K= or K= (lbf/100 ft2)
511
n
( 1.703 × N )n

 Modified Power Law (Herschel-Buckley)

o Improves on Power Law by adding a Yield Point
o τ =τ 0 + K γ n
o τ 0= Yield stress to initiate flow

log
( θ2−YP
)
( )
θ1−YP θ600 −YP
o n= or n=3.32× log

( )
γ2 θ300 −YP
log
γ1
o YP= in practice is taken as the dial reading at RPM

Drilling Hydraulics

 API Pressure Loss Equations

o Calculate Velocities (ft/min)
24.51∗Q
 V p=
d 2i
24.51∗Q
 V a= 2 2
d o−di
o Calculate hydraulic parameter
 Pipe, dhyd=di
 Annulus, dhyd=dh-dp
o Shear rate geometry correction factors
 Geometry Correction Factor
3 n+1
 B p=
4n
2 n+1
 Ba= ∗1.5
3n
 Field Viscometer Correction Factor

[ ]
2
n
1.0678 1
 Bx = 2
x
[ 1.0672− 2
]
n n
1.0678
 Combined Shear Rate Correction Factor
 G=Ba /B x
o Shear Rate at Wall
 γ w =(1.6∗G∗V )/d hyd
o Shear Stress at Wall

 Pipe , τ w =1.066∗ () 4 n
3
n
∗τ y +k∗γ w
o Calculate Reynolds Number
ρV2
 N ReG=
19.36 τ w
o Critical Reynolds Number
 N CRe =3470−1370 n
o Laminar Friction Factor
 f lam=16/ N ReG
o Turbulent Friction Factor
16 N ReG
 f trans= 2
N CRe
o Turbulent Friction Factor
a
 f turb=
N bReG
log ( n ) +3.93
 a=
50
1.75−log ( n )
 b=
7
o Frictional Pressure Loss
2
1.076∗ρ∗V p∗f ∗L
 Pipe , P= 5
10 d i
1.076∗ρ∗V 2a∗f∗L
 Annulus , P=
105 d hyd

  Hole Cleaning
o Solid particle in hole is acted on by four factors
 Gravity
 Viscous drag
 Impact
 Buoyancy
o Slip Velocity
h ( ρc − ρ ) .5
 V S =2.19( )
ρ

The primary objective of the drilling engineer must be to maintain hole stability,
because a gauge hole can be cleaned with a low viscosity mud, in which case progress
will be rapid and problems will be few. If the hole enlarges, as it inevitably will in many
formations, viscosity and gel strengths will have to be increased in order to clean the
hole, but the higher viscosities and gel structures will decrease penetration rates and
cause high swabbing and surge pressures, gas cutting, etc. The conflicting rheological
requirements will be minimized by using a shear-thinning mud, which sets to a
gel, which is sufficient to suspend cuttings when circulation is stopped, but which
breaks up quickly to a thin fluid when disturbed. Such a mud will have a high yield
point/plastic viscosity ratio, and a low flow-behavior index, n. Techniques for
controlling the rheological requirements in the field are beyond the scope of this
chapter, but it may be said that high YP/PV ratios are best obtained by lowering the
plastic viscosity rather than by increasing the yield point, As a general rule,
therefore, maintain the lowest possible plastic viscosity by mechanical removal of
drilled solids at the surface, and keep the yield point no higher than required to
provide adequate carrying capacity. The yield point is controlled by adding or
maintaining thinners when drilling colloidal clays and by adding bentonite when
drilling other formations.

The clay in its dry state has platelets stacked in face-to-face association, like a deck of cards.
This is Aggregation. When the dry clay is placed into fresh water with no agitation, the
packets adsorb water, hydrate, and swell. Upon agitation, the swollen packets disintegrate
into individual plates or smaller packets of plates. This is Dispersion. As long as agitation
continues, dispersion will be retained and further dispersion can occur. When agitation is
stopped, clay platelets will be mutually attracted in edge-to-edge or edge-to-face
association. This forces a structure similar to a house of cards, termed Flocculation. If an
anionic chemical thinner (deflocculant) is added, such as polyphosphate, lignosulfonate or
lignite, etc., it neutralizes the positive edge charges on clay platelets and the flocculated
state is now Deflocculated. When this deflocculated clay slurry encounters strong ionic
contamination (NaCl, CaSO4, Ca(OH)2 , etc.), the deflocculant chemical is often overpowered
- leading again to flocculation and even to a sort of aggregation where water is lost from the
clay surfaces.