ch2 MedievalToRennaissanceToIndustrialRev

Chapter 2, Part 1
Science & Technology in

Western European Civilization
2.1 Middle Ages
o Life, Society, and Industry
during Medieval Times
o Science and Technology in the
Medieval Europe
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Treadmillcrane.jpg
https://www.slideshare.net/jatoluke/life-in-the-middle-ages-27685267
http://rudderresponse.pbworks.com/w/page/106962789/Medieval%20Life
https://wccshoeing.wordpress.com/2011/11/26/life-in-a-manor/
Living in the Middle Ages, interior view, wooden furniture, old
sod house, turf and sod constructions, open-air museum
https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-living-in-the-middle-ages-interior-view-wooden-furniture-
old-sod-house-48866781.html
https://www.slideshare.net/jatoluke/life-in-the-
middle-ages-27685267
Medieval Kitchen
https://www.flickr.com/photos/43377991@N06/5071705725/
Mill house using a water wheel to grind grain
https://i.pinimg.com/originals/e9/ae/f5/e9aef5e6e856a34629162a97cc01442c.jpg
https://www.slideshare.net/jatoluke/life-in-the-
middle-ages-27685267
https://www.slideshare.net/jatoluk
e/life-in-the-middle-ages-27685267
https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-table-
of-medieval-food-including-nuts-seeds-
berries-vegetables-and-72931666.html
https://www.slideshare.net/jatoluke/life-in-the-middle-
ages-27685267
https://www.slideshare.net/jatoluke/life-
in-the-middle-ages-27685267
These crops would

be discovered from
the New World (the
Americas)
https://press.rebus.community
/historyoftech/chapter/the-
tools-of-agriculture/
https://mittelzeit.blogspot.com/2014/05/land-use-in-britain-roman-occupation.html
http://www.locallocalhistory.co.uk/brit-
land/power/page01.htm
Norse Mill
The Norse mill , using a horizontally mounted waterwheel driving a pair of

grindstones directly, without gears, provides the power to drive a millstone
for grinding the corn from which flour is made. Watermills were sited close
to a stream or river, whose flow could be controlled by building a dam to
hold back the water. It could then be released at the required rate. Such
mills, ruggedly built of stone with turf roofs, were used for grinding corn.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watermill
Scheme of the
Roman Hierapolis sawmill,
the earliest known machine
to incorporate
a crank and connecting
rod mechanism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_wheel#Overshot_wheel
undershot water wheel overshot water wheel breastshot water wheel

https://www.forteachersforstudents.com.au/si
te/themed-curriculum/water-power/facts/
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/4166534
02998846751/
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/480618591478839876/``
Post mill Tower mill

https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/portrait-windmill-grinding-grain
https://gunpowderiscool.weebly.com/
https://www.medievalists.net/2009/08/testing-medieval-gunpowder-recipes/
https://military.wikia.org/wiki/List_of_medieval_and_early_modern_gunpowder_artillery
http://dreamstime.com/stock-image-medieval-
miners-work-wieliczka-poland-image26327671
https://brewminate.com/ancient-roman-
mining-and-quarrying-techniques/
https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-the-wieliczka-salt-mine-historical-underground-
machinery-and-mining-39323631.html
https://www.abebooks.co.uk/search/sortby/3/an/Georgius+Agricola+/tn/+De+Re+Metallica
https://www.kmacims.com.ng/iron-age-and-middle-age/
https://c.pxhere.com/photos/3a/f9/well_well_and_iron_cat
har_well_old_well_courtyard_wrought_iron-555346.jpg!d
https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-tent-
of-a-cast-iron-cookware-maker-the-middle-
ages-in-the-medieval-50153439.html
Medieval
Cooking wares
Medieval Iron
Chest
https://i.pinimg.com/originals/b6/5e/f0/b65ef07f4f30d480f
9e4472a7dc875ec.jpg
https://www.pinterest.ph/paulvorster/blacksmith-bellows-blowers/
Hand-made
English fireplace
bellows
http://warehamforgeblog.blogspot.com/2011/04/medieval-
double-bag-bellows.html
https://worldbuilding.stackexchange.com/que
stions/73605/how-would-fantasy-dwarves-
produce-steel
Blast Furnace
https://www.gooseygoo.co.uk/essential
-elements/
https://wiccanrede.org/2016/01/the-guild-
structure-of-british-traditional-wicca/
https://www.heraldry-
wiki.com/heraldrywiki/index.php?title=Wesen
berg_(German_guilds)
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/369224869421069678/
https://www.bigboytravel.com/europe/to
pmedievalcities/
Weaving in the Middle Ages
Fabric Sources Uses
Linen Flax plant Undergarments,

bed mattress
Wool Fleece from sheep Outer garments
Silk Silkworms (from China) garment
Cotton Cotton plant (from India and garments

Americas)
https://www.slideshare.net/biniyaa1/natural-fiber-to-yarn-
stage-linen
https://www.slideshare.net/biniyaa1/na
tural-fiber-to-yarn-stage-linen
https://www.lifegivinglinen.com/
flax-to-linen-display.html
https://www.pinterest.ph/jesikahsundin/medieval-rustic-
life-and-artifacts/
https://www.pinterest
.ph/pin/18964383428
3229444/
Fulling Mill
https://peasantartcraft.com/traditional-crafts/fulled-
http://www.vicnewey.co.uk/mills/mills_002.htm
weaving-fulling-wool/
https://www.tes.com/teaching-resource/edexcel-gcse-history-of-medicine-middle-ages-the-
theory-of-four-humours-11544115
http://c18thgirl.blogspot.c
om/2013/10/medicine-
and-mortality-1300-1900-
time.html
https://herbs.tips/the-middle-ages
Medieval medicine & herbs
http://slimbridgedowsers.or
g.uk/HTML/medieval.shtml
https://www.abdn.ac.uk/sll/disciplines/english/lion/medicine.shtml
Monks weighing out herbs
Doctors giving medicine
This man's leg wound is being

treated, while herbs for a
soothing ointment or healing
drink are being prepared
Medieval Surgery: Blood-letting
Before Islamic experts brought a semblance

of reason to the practice of not allowing sick
people to die on the operation table, the
realm of medicine in the Medieval period
was mostly a blood-soaked shambles led by
military doctors and barber-surgeons who
were used to cutting away at wounds during
the heat of battle.
http://thatmakesitnotinsane.blogspot.com/2015/06/medieval-surgery-blood-letting-and.html
Medieval Surgery: Trepanning
Trepanation is most infamous for its use during
the Middle Ages as a form of physical exorcism.
Anyone acting in a way that might perturb
others was seen as a symptom of demonic
possession.
A trephine was a cylindrical blade used to

burrow through flesh and bone, basically a
corkscrew for people, and this tool was used to
break off a nice old piece of human skull in
order to force residing demons to evacuate
their host. To make matters worse for a
patient, the administration of anesthesia was
not available and sometimes poisonous
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/63050463510283989/
hemlock was considered a form of anesthetic if
opium was not available
Chapter 2, Part2
2.2 Middle Ages
o Dark Ages
o Golden Age of Islam
o Scholasticism and the Ptolemaic
System
https://www.medievalists.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/medieval-university.jpg
https://historiek.net/diocletianus-p-236-316-na-chr/2494/
https://www.slideshare.net/yajespina/fall-of-roman
https://www.slideshare.net/cmonafu/chapter-5-roman-empire
For three turbulent centuries, the glimpse of a square sail and dragon-
headed` prow on the horizon struck terror into the hearts of medieval
Europeans. Indeed, the Viking Age, from A.D. 800-1100, was the age of the
sleek, speedy longship. Without this crucial advance in ship technology, the
Vikings would never have become a dominant force in medieval warfare,
politics, and trade.
http://www.lostshipofthedesert.com/secrets-of-viking-ship/
http://delphjgyvon.blogspot.com/2010/06/fall-of-
roman-empire_03.html
https://www.historyonthenet.com/when-did-the-roman-
empire-really-end
In 476 C.E. Romulus, the last

of the Roman emperors in
the west, was overthrown by
the Germanic leader
Odoacer, who became the
first Barbarian to rule
in Rome. The order that
the Roman Empire had
brought to western Europe
for 1000 years was no more
The Battle of Constantinople, April 6-May 29, 1453
https://www.pinterest.ph/johnq/fall-of-constantinople/
There is a theory that lead
poisoning contributed to the
fall of Roman Civilization. The
Romans used lead water pipes
since the metal is malleable as
well as for cosmetics, cooking
pots, and defrutum, wine that
was sweetened by boiling it
down in lead pots.
Ancient lead roman water-valve
https://benedante.blogspot.com/2012/02/lead-poisoning-
and-fall-of-rome.html
https://www.amazon.com/Dark-Ages-Charles-Oman-
ebook/dp/B072C1GHJR
https://www.deviantart.com/jonasdero/art/The-Dark-Ages-312263111
http://lastmonks.philipkosloski.com/2017/12/08/barbarians-
strike-back-europe-plunged-dark-ages/
The Dark Ages witnessed terrible
political and economic upheaval in
Western Europe, as waves of
invasions by migrating peoples
destabilized the Roman Empire like
the Vikings and Saxons in the
North. It was a period of declining
human achievement, especially
when compared to the Ancient
Greeks and Romans. The Dark Ages
evokes pictures of filthy, illiterate
peasants and rulers, with medieval
society a pale, superstitious
shadow of the Greek and Roman
ages of reason and high
philosophy.
https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn12393-black-death-casts-a-genetic-shadow-over-england/
https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofEngland/The-Black-Death/
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Flea_infected_with_yersinia_pestis.jpg
https://siyach.org/node/1180
https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/19/arts/ex
hibitions-of-medieval-biblical-
masterworks.html?_r=0
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/3646509
01050783848/
https://www.wikiwand.com/de/Computus_(Osterrechnung)
https://www.quora.com/Will-the-Islamic-Golden-Age-when-science-economic-
development-and-cultural-works-flourished-ever-return
Byzantine Empire in 800 CE showing the extent of the Arabic Caliphate
https://gohighbrow.com/the-umayyad-caliphate/
https://www.slideshare.net/ganjiholic/the-islamic-golden-age-53399702
https://www.slideshare.net/AbirChaaban/the-golden-age-of-islam-10369383
https://www.1001inventions.com/
For early Muslims, knowledge was a treasure they would eagerly seek.
Medical science and pharmacy were no exceptions. Muslim physicians’
early practice emphasized the importance of preserving health through
natural gentle interventions.
https://www.hisbedergisi.com/ibn-
sina-avicenna/
Avicenna (Abu-Ali Al-Husein ibn Abdullah ibn Sina)

[980 – 1037] Avicenna is considered the greatest Arab physician today and
was recognized as such during his lifetime as well. Rulers of various
warring states of the disintegrating Arab hegemony considered Avicenna
one of the spoils of war. In addition to his many writings concerning
health and medicine, Avicenna argued that alchemists would never be
able to transmute base metals into gold. He also transmitted many of
Aristotle’s views to the wide audience he obtained for the hundreds of
books attributed to him.
https://www.slideshare.net/sthab11/golden-age-of-islamic-civilization
Rhazes (c.860-930), Islamic Persian
scholar, physician and alchemist,
with an assistant, in his chemistry
laboratory in Baghdad (now in Iraq)
https://www.thinglink.com/scene/773692914709561345
Paper making
https://www.1001inventions.com/
https://www.slideshare.net/rhalter/islamic-civilization-322497
https://richardcullinan.wordpress.com/2016/12/17/an-
overview-of-mens-abbasid-9th-10th-century-persian-
clothing/
https://www.slideshare.net/Ms_Allen/muslim-
civilizations-golden-age
https://muslimvillage.com/2010/08/21/5534/exhibition-on-
islams-golden-age-to-tour-the-globe/
Astronomy played a key role in Islam itself and those who worked to solve
astronomical problems became interested in the mathematical sciences for their own
sake. Islamic astronomers worked to create a further development of Ptolemaic
astronomy which was more fully consistent with Aristotelian physics.
https://teachmideast.org/articles/a-golden-age-of-science-and-mathematics/
This image shows the rete of an astrolabe engraved in Latin. On this you can
see a circle marking the ecliptic with each zodiac sign labelled (Virgo, Libra,
Scorpio, etc.) and pointers for key stars which are easily visible with the
naked eye such as Rigel and Altair.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/catsfive/30812013
The Spear of Destiny (also known as the

Holy Lance) is a name given to the spear used
by a Roman soldier to pierce the side of Jesus
https://www.onthisday.com/people/charlemagne of Nazareth several hours into crucifixion.
Charlemagne carried the spear through 47
battles, with legend claiming he died
immediately after dropping the relic
https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/66709638205877242/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_university
Medieval Universities
http://cdalebrittain.blogspot.com/2014/08/
medieval-universities.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible
_translations_in_the_Middle_Ages
https://www.medievalists.net/2016/02/a-
quick-guide-to-medieval-monastic-orders/
https://www.slideshare.net/jatol
uke/life-in-the-middle-ages-
27685267
https://www.slideshare.net/MrPower14/medieval-
times-research-power-point
https://www.slideshare.net/BeberlyFabayos/scholasticism
https://www.slideshare.net/sarahanddeeno/thomas-aquinas-10098149
https://www.slideshare.net/BeberlyFabayos/scholasticism
https://lookinnotout.files.wordpress.com/2014/07/1000-pcs-
ancient-astrological-map-by-schmidt.jpg
http://fabulousfibonacci.blogspot.com/
Medieval Abacus (https://www.storyofmathematics
.com/medieval.html)
Europe’s first great medieval mathematician was the Italian Leonardo of Pisa,
better known by his nickname Fibonacci. Although best known for the so-
called Fibonacci Sequence of numbers, perhaps his most important
contribution to European mathematics was his role in spreading the use of the
Hindu-Arabic numeral system throughout Europe early in the 13th Century,
which soon made the Roman numeral system obsolete, and opened the way
for great advances in European mathematics.
https://www.merdeka.com/nicole-
oresme/profil/
An important (but largely unknown and underrated) mathematician and

scholar of the 14th Century was the Frenchman Nicole Oresme. He used a
system of rectangular coordinates centuries before his countryman René
Descartes popularized the idea, as well as perhaps the first time-speed-
distance graph. Oresme was one of the first to use graphical analysis
The Christian Aristotelian cosmos,
engraving from Peter Apian's
Cosmographia, 1524
https://www.vectorstock.com/royalty-free-
vector/medieval-solar-system-planets-vector-21355424
https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-ptolemaic-system-
geocentric-model-1531-135096328.html
The Ptolemaic model accounted for
the apparent retrograde motions of
the planets in a very direct way, by
assuming that each planet moved
on a small sphere or circle, called
an epicycle, that moved on a larger
sphere or circle, called a deferent.
The stars, it was assumed, moved
on a celestial sphere around the
outside of the planetary spheres.
https://www.quora.com/What-is-
the-Ptolemaic-model-of-the-solar-
system
http://www.mysearch.org.uk/web
site1/html/17.Ptolemy.html
https://afternewton.files.wordpress.com/2014/06/alchemy1
.jpg
https://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/01/science/01alch.html
Chapter 2, Part 3
2.2 Renaissance
o Age of Exploration
o Technological Innovations
2.3 Early Scientific Revolution and
Enlightenment
http://labitoria-johnclaro.blogspot.com/2013/02/renaissance-art.html
https://www.artble.com/artists/raphael/paintings/school_of_athens
Raphael's School of Athens was not meant as any type of school that actually existed (Plato's
Academy) but an ideal community of intellects from the entire classical world. To facilitate this
vision, Raphael created a spacious hall that recalls the "temples raised by philosophy".
The School of Athens demonstrates, like classical statues or clear and distinct ideas, idealized
portraits of Raphael's contemporaries representing the major figures of classical wisdom and
science. Taken further, Raphael painted on the Vatican Palace's walls his vision of the world of
Humanist thought.
https://www.slideshare.net/joyfulgar9/science-during-renaissance-period
https://www.slideshare.net/joyfulgar9/science-during-renaissance-period?next_slideshow=1
Leonardo's physiological sketch of
the human brain and skull
https://watercolorjournal.wordpress.com/category/history-of-european-
art/art-during-the-renaissance-period/high-renaissance/leonardo-da-vinci/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci
https://www.laphamsquarterly.org/contributors/michelangelo
https://www.slideshare.net/kjglennie/renaissance-powerpoint-11390960
https://www.ehow.com/info_8538611_elements-design-used-michelangelos-pieta.html
https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/how-much-would-you-pay-for-solo-tour-of-sistine-chapel
https://twistedsifter.com/2016/11/detailed-close-ups-of-michelangelos-david/
https://issuu.com/mr.brein/docs/european_age_of_discovery_-_origins
An 1891 print shows a parade in honor of Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan,
whose ships circumnavigated the world between 1519 and 1522, Spain, 1522.
Magellan, himself, had died in 1521, and the return was achieved under the command
of one of Magellan's captains, Juan Sebastian
https://www.thoughtco.com/age-of-exploration-1435006
https://www.learningliftoff.com/3rd-grade-history-learning-activity-age-exploration
Jacob's staff in the Museo Galileo, Florence

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob%27s_staff
https://www.pinterest.ph/glasstronomix/exploration-navigation-tools/
https://crimeinthecommunity.wordpress.com/2013/05/30/
a-snake-into-your-chimney-corner-early-modern-crime-and-
the-extended-family/
Octant
https://www.puntovernal.com/en/sextant/sextant/p-
189#.Xz4wr9wzapo
A Troughton sextant of c. 1790,

now at the National Maritime
https://obscuriosityshop.com/products/vetus-quadrant
Museum in Greenwich
quadrant
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G_S7OmfJpeg
http://pandapawnch.blogspot.com/2011/11/brief-history-
about-medieval-weaving.html
Another key innovation in the 13th century was the introduction into Europe of
the spinning wheel. The Great or Jersey wheel, introduced around 1350, was
the first improvement made in the process of cotton spinning. Thread could be
spun faster on the wheel than with the traditional distaff. The final Medieval
technical improvement to the spinning wheel was the addition of a foot treadle
that powered the wheel.
The the processes of cloth manufacture
had been partially mechanized upon the
introduction of fulling mills and the use of
spinning wheels. But in the 18th century
the industry remained almost entirely a
domestic or cottage one, with most of the
processing being performed in the homes
of the workers, using comparatively
simple tools that could be operated by
hand or foot. The most complicated
apparatus was the loom, but this could
usually be worked by a single weaver.
https://www.dreamstime.com/stock-photo-woman-wool-traditional-
spinning-wheel-medieval-craft-market-image94823284
Evolution of the CLOCK
In Europe during most of the Middle Ages, there was no technological
advancement in time keeping. Sundial styles evolved but didn't move far from
ancient Egyptian principles. During these times, simple sundials placed above
doorways. By the 10th century, several types of pocket sundials were used.
https://www.liveauctioneers.com/item/10925354_medieval-bronze-folding-pocket-sundial
Medieval Bronze Folding Pocket Sundial
Then, in the first half of the 14th century, large mechanical
clocks began to appear in the towers of several large Italian
cities. These public clocks, which were weight-driven and
regulated by a verge-and-foliot escapement.
Variations of the verge-and-foliot
mechanism reigned for more than 300
years, but all had the same basic
problem: the period of oscillation of the
escapement depended heavily on the
amount of driving force and the amount
of friction in the drive. Like water flow,
the rate was difficult to regulate.
IRON GOTHIC STYLE

VERGE & FOLIOT
WEIGHT DRIVEN
LANTERN WALL
CLOCK
http://www.medievalists.net/2017/08/role-mechanical-clock-medieval-science/brunelleschi-clock
Birge & Fuller Steeple on Another advance was the invention of spring-
Steeple Clock. Wagon spring powered clocks between 1500 and 1510 by
power. Shelf clock Peter Henlein of Nuremberg. Replacing the
heavy drive weights permitted smaller (and
portable) clocks and watches. Although they
ran slower as the mainspring unwound, they
were popular among wealthy individuals due
to their small size and the fact that they
could be put on a shelf or table instead of
hanging on the wall or being housed in tall
cases.
http://delaneyantiqueclocks.com/products/detail/202/Birge-Fuller-Steeple-on-Steeple-Clock
The Dutch polymath and horologist Christiaan
Huygens, the inventor of first precision
timekeeping devices (pendulum clock and
spiral-hairspring watch)
Drawing of one of his first balance

springs, attached to a balance
wheel, by Christiaan Huygens in
1675. The application of the spiral
balance spring (spiral hairspring)
for watches ushered in a new era
of accuracy for portable
timekeepers
From its invention in 1656 by Christiaan Huygens

until the 1930s, the pendulum clock was the
world's most precise timekeeper, accounting for
its widespread use
https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/artesian-wells-made-brick-wood-521663350
https://www.shutterstock.com/search/artesian+wells
Artesian wells made of brick and wood

Water supplies were absolutely critical to
medieval castle life
A chain pump was a device used for
transporting water uphill and was used for
centuries in ancient China and Egypt, as
well as in Europe during the early
Renaissance in Europe’s dockyards and
naval vessels. The pump consisted of a
long loop of chain, mounted over two
wheels at the top and bottom. As the
looped chain was cranked around, either
by hand or by animal-power, the upward-
moving section of chain passed through a
pipe and drew water up with it, which
then flowed out at the top of the pump
Chain Pump
https://www.lostkingdom.net/medieval-water-infrastructure-tools/
https://thepragmaticcostumer.wordpress.com/tag/medieval-glasses/
Historians have estimated

that the first European
glasses were invented
around the 1280s CE in
Venice Italy since it was the
place known for glass
making
https://www.medievalists.net/2016/03/medieval-eyeglasses-wearable-technology-of-the-thirteenth-century/
The Dutch spectacle maker Hans Janssen and his son Zacharias
built probably the first compound microscope in the last decade of
the 16th century.
https://www.leica-microsystems.com/science-lab/a-brief-history-of-light-microscopy-from-the-medieval-reading-stone-to-super-resolution/
https://www.space.com/21950-who-invented-the-telescope.html
Hans Lippershey (1570–1619) was a German-Dutch spectacle-maker. He is

commonly associated with the invention of the telescope, because he was the
first one who tried to obtain a patent for it. It is, however, unclear if he was the
first one to build a telescope.
https://www.overstock.com/Home-Garden/Medieval-Brass-Crusader-Helmet-Silver-and-Gold/22092426/product.html
Brass is an alloy of copper

and zinc, in proportions
which can be varied to
achieve varying
mechanical and electrical
properties. Brass is similar
to bronze, another alloy
containing copper that
uses tin in place of zinc.
https://www.catawiki.nl/l/17119761-selection-of-medieval-brass-mounts-and-fittings-12mm-to-420mm-inc-chain
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_stained_glass
guildsmen in Venice, Italy around the

12th century perfected the making of
mirrors with glass and mercury or tin with
ornate frames and beveled edges. These
famed mirrors were highly sought after
https://www.pinterest.ph/mrgray13/victoriangothicmedieval-decor/
and, along with Venetian lace, turned
Venice into Europe’s leading exporter
Wheelbarrows
The earliest consistent and

continued use of
wheelbarrows in Europe
begins in the 12th century
CE with an adaptation of
the cenovectorium. The
cenovectorium (Latin for
"muck carrier") was
originally a cart with
handles at both ends and
carried by two individuals.
https://www.turbosquid.com/3d-models/3d-medieval-
wheelbarrow-wagon-cart/1098802
1543-1687
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)was a Polish mathematician and

astronomer, who formulated a model of the universe that placed the
Sun rather than Earth at the center of the universe.
The publication of Copernicus' model in his book De revolutionibus

orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), just
before his death in 1543, was a major event in the history of science,
triggering the Copernican Revolution (Heliocentric Model)
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tycho-Brahe-Danish-astronomer
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) is a Danish astronomer whose work in developing

astronomical instruments and in measuring and fixing the positions of stars
paved the way for future discoveries. His observations—the most accurate
possible before the invention of the telescope—included a comprehensive
study of the solar system and accurate positions of more than 777 fixed stars.
Johannes Kepler (1571 – 1630) was a German
mathematician and astronomer who was a
key figure of the Scientific Revolution. His
most famous accomplishment are:
• the three laws of planetary motion which
laid the foundation of celestial mechanics.
• laid the foundation of modern optics.
• formulated the inverse-square law
governing the intensity of light
• invented an improved refracting telescope
• correctly explained the working of a
human eye.
• made a systematic work on the calculation
of areas and volumes by infinitesimal
Johannes Kepler techniques and laid the the basis of solid
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Johannes Kepler
geometry and integral calculus
• he derived logarithms purely based on
mathematics, independent of Napier's
tables published in 1614.
http://19.detr.tpk-diningroom.de/h7/keplers-3-laws-diagram.html
Galileo Galilei (1564 -1642) born in
Pisa, Italy and lived in Florence was
an astronomer, physicist and
engineer, sometimes described as
a polymath. Galileo has been
called the "father of observational
astronomy", the "father of modern
physics", the "father of the scientific
method", and the "father of
modern science. He was the most
Galileo’s well known and successful scientist
telescope of the Scientific Revolution, save
Isaac Newton.
https://www.britannica.c
om/biography/Galileo-
Galilei
Moon Drawings
of Galileo (1609)
https://32minutes.wordpress.com/2012/1
2/01/galileo-phases-of-the-moon/
In the middle ages, Aristotle’s science
was unquestioned. His “natural motion”
theory had stated that the rate of fall of
an object is proportional to its weight,
i.e., the heavier the object the faster the
speed.
In his celebrated experiment on free fall

(at the top of the leaning tower of Pisa) ,
Galileo dropped two cannon balls of
different weights and observed them
hitting the ground at the same time,
effectively refuting Aristotle and
replacing it with the correct theory that
the Earth's gravity produced a universal
acceleration of objects toward its
surface. This laid down the foundation
of modern mechanics
https://deskarati.com/2011/10/29/galileos-leaning-tower-of-pisa-
experiment/
Galileo before the Holy Office, a 19th-century painting by Joseph-Nicolas Robert-Fleury
The Galileo affair began around 1610 and culminated with the trial and
condemnation of Galileo Galilei by the Roman Catholic Inquisition in 1633.
... Galileo was kept under house arrest until his death in 1642.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_affair
“If I have seen This quote is from a letter written to fellow scientist,
further than others, Robert Hooke in February 1675. The phrase is understood
to mean that if Newton had been able to discover more
it is by standing upon about the universe than others, then it was because he
the shoulders of was working in the light of discoveries made by fellow
giants” scientists, either in his own time or earlier
De humani corporis fabrica libri septem is
a set of books on human anatomy
Andreas Vesalius
written by Andreas Vesalius and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius
published in 1543. It was a major

advance in the history of anatomy over
the long-dominant
Luigi Galvani (1737 - 1798) was an Italian
physician, physicist, biologist and philosopher,
who discovered animal electricity. He is
recognized as the pioneer of
bioelectromagnetics. In 1780, he and his wife
Lucia discovered that the muscles of dead frogs'
legs twitched when struck by an electrical spark.
scan of sepia toned illustration of galvani experimenting with frogs on a long table
Robert Boyle (1627 - 1691) was an
Anglo-Irish natural philosopher,
chemist, physicist, and inventor.
Boyle is largely regarded today as the
first modern chemist, and therefore
one of the founders of modern
chemistry, and one of the pioneers
of modern experimental scientific
method. He is best known for Boyle's
law which describes the inversely
proportional relationship between
the absolute pressure and volume of
a gas, if the temperature is kept
constant within a closed system.
Among his works, The Sceptical
Chymist is seen as a cornerstone
book in the field of chemistry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyle
In 1656 Otto von Guericke (1602 – 1686) invented the air pump, and
demonstrates the properties of a vacuum by using his air pump to take the air
from within his famous "Magdeberg hemispheres," which, though easily
separated in normal conditions, could not be parted by two teams of sixteen
horses once he had removed the air. He thus proves that air indeed has
weight and exerts pressure.
A large step in the understanding of
the properties of gases was the
invention of the barometer, to
measure air pressure, by Italian
physicist and mathematician
Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647), in
1643. He filled a sealed tube with
mercury, and with the open end
immersed in mercury, noted that the
height fell in the tube to a consistent
level, leaving a void above it.
Torricelli’s experiments started a
controversy since Aristotle has said
that vacuums do not exist in nature
and air has no weight2
Evangelista Torricelli’s mercury barometer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelista_Torricelli_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632 -
1723) was a Dutch scientist is
commonly known as "the Father of
Microbiology" and is best known for
his pioneering work in microscopy and
for his contributions toward the
establishment of microbiology as a
scientific discipline. In 1674 he
discovers microorganisms and
observes of spermatozoa arguing they
are not forming of disease but a
source of reproductive material.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek
An English physician William Harvey (1578 – 1657) was the first to
demonstrate, by dissection and in detail, the continuous systemic circulation
and properties of blood being pumped to the brain and body by the heart in
his Anatomical Exercises on the Movement of the Heart and Blood (De motu
cordis) He broke with the beliefs of the Galen who assumed that the blood
consisted of two types, one in the veins and the other in the arteries.
René Descartes (1596 – 1650) was a French philosopher, mathematician, and
scientist. His best-known philosophical statement is "cogito, ergo sum" ("I think,
therefore I am"). Descartes has often been called the father of modern
philosophy. He laid the foundation for 17th-century continental rationalism.
Descartes's influence in mathematics is equally apparent; the Cartesian coordinate
system was named after him. He is credited as the father of analytical geometry,
the bridge between algebra and geometry—used in the discovery of infinitesimal
calculus and analysis.
The Age of Enlightenment (also known as the Age of Reason) was an intellectual
and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during
the 17th and 18th centuries. The Enlightenment emerged out of a European
intellectual and scholarly movement known as Renaissance humanism and was
also preceded by the Scientific Revolution and the work of Francis Bacon, among
others. French historians traditionally date its beginning with the death of Louis
XIV of France in 1715 until the 1789 outbreak of the French Revolution. Most end
it with the beginning of the 19th century.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Antoine-Lavoisier
Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier and His Wife, Marie-
Anne Pierette Paulze
Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) prominent French chemist and leading figure

in the 18th-century chemical revolution who developed an experimentally
based theory of the chemical reactivity of oxygen and coauthored the
modern system for naming chemical substances. Having also served as a
leading financier and public administrator before the French Revolution, he
was executed with other financiers during the revolutionary terror.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Priestley
Joseph Priestley (1733 – 1804) was an English chemist, natural philosopher,

separatist theologian, grammarian, multi-subject educator, and liberal political
theorist who published over 150 works. He has historically been credited with the
discovery of oxygen, having isolated it in its gaseous state.
During his lifetime, Priestley's considerable scientific reputation rested on his

invention of carbonated water, his writings on electricity, and his discovery of
several "airs" (gases), the most famous being what Priestley dubbed
"dephlogisticated air" (oxygen). However, Priestley's determination to defend
phlogiston theory and to reject what would become the chemical revolution
eventually left him isolated within the scientific community.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_Volta
Alessandro Volta (1745 – 1827) was an Italian physicist, chemist, and pioneer
of electricity and power who is credited as the inventor of the electric battery
and the discoverer of methane. He invented the Voltaic pile in 1799 and
reported the results of his experiments in 1800 in a two-part letter to the
President of the Royal Society. With this invention Volta proved that
electricity could be generated chemically and debunked the prevalent theory
that electricity was generated solely by living beings (animal electricity of
Luigi Galvani). Volta's invention sparked a great amount of scientific
excitement and led others to conduct similar experiments which eventually
led to the development of the field of electrochemistry.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace
Pierre-Simon marquis de Laplace (1749 – 1827) was a French scholar and polymath
whose work was important to the development of engineering, mathematics,
statistics, physics, astronomy, and philosophy. His work translated the geometric study
of classical mechanics to one based on calculus.
Laplace is remembered as one of the greatest scientists of all time. Sometimes

referred to as the French Newton or Newton of France, he has been described as
possessing a phenomenal natural mathematical faculty superior to that of any of his
contemporaries. He was Napoleon's examiner when Napoleon attended the École
Militaire in Paris in 1784.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Academy_of_Sciences
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society
The Royal Society, is a learned The French Academy of Sciences is a

society and the United Kingdom's learned society, founded in 1666 by
national academy of sciences. Louis XIV, to encourage and protect the
Founded on 28 November 1660, it spirit of French scientific research. It
was granted a royal charter by King was at the forefront of scientific
Charles II as "The Royal Society". It developments in Europe in the 17th and
is the oldest national scientific 18th centuries and is one of the earliest
institution in the world. Academies of Sciences.
Chapter 2, Part 4
• British Agricultural Revolution
• The First Industrial Revolution
• Evolution of the Steam Engine
• Electricity
• The birth of the Petroleum Industry
• The birth of the car industry
• Advancements in
• Textile industry
• Iron and Steel making
• Transportation
• communication
The British Agricultural Revolution of the mid-
17th to late 19th century was significant because it increased agricultural
productivity in Britain and freed peasants from working in the farms allowing
them to migrate from the rural areas to the cities where they can work in
the factories. This effectively ended feudalism in Britain and ushered in
capitalism. The British Agricultural Revolution was the precursor to the First
Industrial Revolution that started in Britain. There are three main events in
this period:
1. The Enclosure Movement

2. Charles Townshend’s crop rotation
3. Jethro Tull’s seed drill
The Enclosure Movement
In the decades and centuries before the 1700s, British farmers planted their
crops on small strips of land while allowing their animals to graze on
common fields shared collectively. However, in the 1700s, the British
parliament passed legislation, referred to as the Enclosure Acts, which
allowed the common areas to become privately owned. This led to wealthy
farmers buying up large sections of land in order to create larger and more
complex farms. Ultimately, this forced smaller farmers off of their land.
Having lost their way of life, many of these farmers went to local towns and
cities in search of work. This was important to the overall Industrial
Revolution, because it helped create a system that created a large
workforce for the factories and mines.
https://www.historycrunch.com/enclosure-movement.html#/
Charles Townshend successfully introduced a new
method of crop rotation on his farms. He divided his
fields up into four different types of produce with wheat
in the first field, clover (or ryegrass) in the second, oats
or barley in the third and, in the fourth, turnips or
swedes. The turnips were used as fodder to feed
livestock in winter. Clover and ryegrass were grazed by
livestock. Using this system, he found that he could
grow more crops and get a better yield from the land
The four field system was successful because it

improved the amount of food produced.
Clover is a plant which is able to add nitrogen

compounds to the soil because its roots have special
structures, called root nodules, attached to them. Inside
these nodules are found symbiotic bacteria which feed
by fixing atmospheric nitrogen and producing nitrates
(nitrogen-containing salts). The clover, which is more
nutritious than grass, was used for grazing the livestock.
In turn, the livestock produced manure which could be
ploughed back into the soil.
Jethro Tull’s Seed Drill
Jethro Tull invented the seed drill in 1701
as a way to plant more efficiently. Prior
to his invention, sowing seeds was done
by hand, by scattering them on the
ground or placing them in the ground
individually, such as with bean and pea
seeds.
His seed drill included a hopper to store

the seed, a cylinder to move it, and a
funnel to direct it. A plow at the front
created the row, and a harrow at the
back covered the seed with soil. It was
the first agricultural machine with
moving parts.
https://www.thoughtco.com/jethro-tull-seed-drill-1991640
1760 -1840
https://www.studenthandouts.com/world-history/industrial-revolution/outlines-powerpoints/industrial-revolution-powerpoint-ppt.htm
https://pt.slideshare.net/woernerc/industry-part-one?smtNoRedir=1
https://www.slideshare.net/natashadzhurkova/industrial-revolution-1-37041476
https://www.studenthandouts.com/world-history/industrial-revolution/outlines-
powerpoints/industrial-revolution-powerpoint-ppt.htm
Shown in the figure is the pre-industrial age cottage system of weaving using a
spinning wheel to mass production using a mechanized system
The Textile Industry
• Textiles – cloths or fabrics

• First industry to be industrialized
• Great Britain learned a lot about textiles
from India (cotton) and China (silk)
• Great Britain imported raw materials like
cotton (first from India then from North
America) and silk (from China)
Whereas one person using the spinning wheel could only produce one spool of
yarn or thread, the spinning jenny could produce up to 120 spools per worker.
The worker need not be very skilled in operating the machine.
A significant invention of the Industrial
Revolution was the water frame, which
was invented by Richard Arkwright in
1769.
The machine replaced the need for

manual labor and enabled the
production of inexpensive spun cotton
by using the moving force of a creek or
river that spun a shaft. This was because
the water frame essentially mechanized
all of the process of spinning the yarn
and required very little human labor
The water frame, which could produce a

much stronger yarn than that produced
by the spinning jenny. The water frame
was a major advancement over previous
types of machinery including James
Hargreaves' spinning jenny
https://www.historycrunch.com/water-frame-invention-in-the-industrial-revolution.html#/
A significant invention of the
Industrial Revolution was the
power loom. The first power loom
was developed by Edmund
Cartwright in 1784 and completed
in 1785. Edmund Cartwright was
an English inventor and is
remembered today for inventing
the power loom along with other
devices important to the textile
industry in England. A loom is a
device that is used to weave
together threads in order to
produce a fabric. Traditional
handlooms were slow and required
several laborers to operate.
Cartwright’s invention of the power
loom was significant because it
used mechanization to automate
much of the weaving process.
https://www.historycrunch.com/power-loom-invention-in-the-industrial-revolution.html#/
In 1775 Samuel Crompton produced
his Spinning Mule, so called because
it was a hybrid that combined
features of two earlier inventions,
the Spinning Jenny and the Water
Frame. The mule produced a strong,
fine and soft yarn which could be
used in all kinds of textiles.
The machine simultaneously drew

out and gave the final twisting to
the cotton fibres fed into it,
reproducing mechanically the
actions of hand spinning.
The Spinning Mule could also be

driven by the new steam engines
that were being produced by James
Watt and Matthew Boulton.
https://spartacus-educational.com/TEXmule.htm
Steam
Engine
https://www.thoughtco.com/steam-in-the-industrial-revolution-1221643
The steam engine, either used on its own or as part of a train, is the iconic invention
of the industrial revolution. Experiments in the seventeenth century turned, by the
middle of the nineteenth, into a technology which powered huge factories, allowed
deeper mines and moved a transport network. In a steam engine, hot steam, usually
supplied by a boiler, expands under pressure, and part of the heat energy is
converted into work. The remainder of the heat may be allowed to escape, or, for
maximum engine efficiency, the steam may be condensed in a separate apparatus, a
condenser, at comparatively low temperature and pressure.
https://www.britannica.com/technology/steam-engine
The first commercially successful
industrial use of steam power was
due to Thomas Savery in London in
1698. He took out a patent for a
“new Invention for Raising of Water
and occasioning Motion to all Sorts
of Mill Work by the Impellent Force
of Fire” in 1698. His apparatus
depended on the condensation of
steam in a vessel, creating a partial
vacuum into which water was
Thomas Savery’s pump forced by atmospheric pressure.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Savery It generated about one
horsepower (hp) and was used in
numerous water works and in a few mines (hence its "brand name", The
Miner's Friend). Savery's pump was economical in small horsepower ranges,
but was prone to boiler explosions in larger sizes.
The first commercially successful piston steam
engine was made by Thomas Newcomen, who
erected his first machine in 1712. The engine was
operated by condensing steam drawn into the
cylinder, thereby creating a partial vacuum which
allowed the atmospheric pressure to push the
piston into the cylinder. The piston was connected
to one end of a rocking beam, the other end of
which carried the pumping rod in the mine shaft.
His engines were robust but unsophisticated and
produced power upwards of 5 hp. Their heavy fuel
consumption made them uneconomical when
used where coal was expensive, but in the British
coalfields they performed an essential
Thomas Newcomen’s steam
service by keeping deep mines clear of
engine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ water and were extensively adopted for this
Newcomen_atmospheric_engine purpose. A total of 1,454 engines had been
built by 1800.
Newcomen’s atmospheric steam
engine was perfected by James Watt
when the latter patented a separate
condenser in 1769. Whereas
Newcomen’s engine used a single
cylinder were the steam was expanded
and then cooled, Watt separated the
two actions of heating the cylinder with
hot steam and cooling it to condense
the steam for every stroke of the engine.
The upper part of the cylinder was
closed off thereby making the low-
pressure steam drive the top of the
piston instead of the atmosphere.
In Newcomen’s engine cooling water
James Watt’s steam engine
had been injected directly into the
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watt_
steam_engine cylinder, which cooled the cylinder and
wasted steam but in Watt’s design the
use of a condenser chamber and a steam jacket kept steam from
condensing in the cylinder improved fuel efficiency by 75 to 80%. The
engines generated power from 5 to10 hp.
The original design of a single-acting
reciprocating type (i.e., applying power only
on the downward stroke of the piston) was
transformed in 1783 by Watt into a double-
acting rotative type, which meant that it
could be used to directly drive the rotary
machinery of a cotton mill and to large-scale
grain milling. Many other industries followed in
exploring the possibilities of steam power and
it soon became widely used.
With the help of industrialist Matthew
Boulton from 1775 and 1800, they produced
some 500 engines of both types, which
despite their high cost in relation to a
Newcomen engine were eagerly acquired by the tin-mining industrialists of
James Watt’s steam engine rotative
Cornwall and other power users who
type badly needed a more economic and
http://collection.sciencemuseum.org.uk/o reliable source of energy.
bjects/co50948/rotative-steam-engine-by-
boulton-and-watt-1788-beam-engines
Until about 1800 the most common pattern of
steam engine was the beam engine, built as an
integral part of a
stone or brick
engine-house,
but soon various
patterns of self-
contained
rotative engines
(readily
removable, but
not on wheels)
steam engine horizontal type
https://www.alamy.com/steam-engine-with-no- were
condenser-horizontal-cylinder-the-first- developed, such table type steam
recorded-image151886932.html as the table engine
engine. By this https://en.wikipedia.org/
time also the conventional beam-type vertical engine wiki/Table_engine
began to be replaced by horizontal-cylinder designs.
The next improvement on the steam engine was the use of higher steam
pressures. Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick and the American Oliver Evans
constructed machines that used high-
pressure steam which was then passed
to the other side of the piston, where it
condensed and there it acted as a sub-
atmospheric pressure engine. High
pressure yielded an engine and boiler
compact enough to be used on mobile
road and rail locomotives and steam
boats. The first successful steam
locomotive was the “Puffing Devil” or
“Puffer” in South Wales in 1804. The
success, however, was technological
rather than commercial because the
locomotive fractured the cast iron track
of the tramway. The age of the
Trevithicks’s “Puffing Devil”
http://www.trainhistory.net/train-invention
locomotive and railroad had to wait
/richard-trevithick/Model steam engine until the development of steel.
Meanwhile, the stationary
steam engine advanced
steadily to meet an ever-
widening market of industrial
requirements. High-pressure
steam led to the
development of the large
beam pumping engines with
a complex sequence of valve
actions, which became
universally known as Cornish
engines; their distinctive
characteristic was the cutoff
of steam injection before the
Cornish steam engines stroke was complete in order to
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/A-Cornish-beam- allow the steam to do work by
engine-house-showing-the-engine-in-position-In- expanding. These engines were
simplistic-terms-a- piston_fig2_266855084
used all over the world for heavy
pumping duties. Cornish engines, however, were probably most common in
Cornwall itself, where they were used in large numbers in the tin and copper
mining industries.
Although all the successful engines during
this era used steam as its moving fluid, Robert
Stirling in 1816 invented an external
combustion engine that used air. The hot-air
engine depends for its power on the expansion
and displacement of air inside a cylinder,
heated by the external and continuous
combustion of the fuel. Various constructional
problems limited the size of hot-air engines to
very small units, so that although they were
widely used for driving fans and similar light
duties before the availability of the electric
motor, they did not assume great
technological significance.
Sterling steam engine
http://hotairengines.org/stirling-engines-
inventors/stirling/the-stirling-engine-of-1842
The use of high-pressure steam led to the practice
of compounding, of using the steam twice or more
at descending pressures before it was finally
condensed or exhausted. Arthur Woolf in 1811
produced a compound beam engine with a high-
pressure cylinder placed alongside the low-pressure
cylinder, with both piston rods attached to the
same pin of the parallel motion, which was a
parallelogram of rods connecting the piston to the
beam
Compound steam engine
https://www.howmechanismworks.com/2017
/07/how-compound-steam-engine-works.html
In 1845 John McNaught
introduced an alternative
form of compound beam
engine, with the high-pressure
cylinder on the opposite end
of the beam from the low-
pressure cylinder, and working
with a shorter stroke. Other
methods of compounding
steam engines were adopted,
and the practice became
increasingly widespread; in
McNaught’s compound steam engine the second half of the 19th
https://wiki.opensourceecology.org/wiki/Steam_Engine century triple- or quadruple-
expansion engines were being
used in industry and marine propulsion.
By the 1880s the electric dynamo
was invented and a demand for
electricity stimulated new thinking
about the steam engine. The
problem was that a normal
reciprocating engine (i.e., with a
piston moving backward and
forward in a cylinder) could not
achieve rotational speeds to make
the dynamo efficient. The first
radical modification was to enclose
Electric Dynamo the working parts of the engine and
https://www.lowtechmagazine.com/dynamos-
electric.html force a lubricant around them under
pressure
The invention of the steam
turbine by Sir Charles Parsons in
1884 constituted a major
technological innovation
working on a completely
different principle. By passing
high pressure steam through
the blades of a series of rotors
of gradually increasing size (to
allow for the expansion of the
steam) the energy of the
steam was converted to very
Charles Parson’s steam turbine rapid circular motion,
https://www.alamy.com/1703-the-steam-turbine-1911-fig-29- which was ideal for
parsons-combined-impule-reaction-turbine-image213674704.html generating electricity.
Many refinements have since been made
in turbine construction and the size of
turbines has been vastly increased, but the
basic principles remain the same, and this
method still provides the main source of
electric power. Even the most modern
nuclear power plants use steam turbines. In
marine propulsion, too, the steam turbine
remains an important source of power
despite competition from the internal-

Modern Steam Turbine
https://www.turbinesinfo.com/steam-turbines/l combustion engine
https://www.slideshare.net/AerocomMetals/history-of-steel-34023428
https://www.powershow.com/viewfl/1dec4c-ZDc1Z/Abraham_Darby_III_powerpoint_ppt_presentation
https://www.slideshare.net/Qhudwa/coal-petroleum-ppt
https://pt.slideshare.net/woernerc/industr
y-part-one?smtNoRedir=1
https://www.slideshare.net/theironegoodson/industrial-revolution-powerpoint-8582393
https://www.slideserve.com/rae/chapter-15-the-second-industrial-revolution
On August 17, 1807, the Clermont, Robert Fulton's first American steamboat, left
New York City for Albany, serving as the inaugural commercial steamboat service in
the world. The ship traveled from New York City to Albany making history with a
150-mile trip that took 32 hours at an average speed of about five miles per hour.
https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-steamboats-4057901#fulton
https://www.thoughtco.com/richard-trevithick-locomotive-pioneer-1991694
Richard Trevithick first developed an engine called The Puffing Devil, that traveled not
on rails, but on roads. Its limited ability to retain steam prevented its commercial
success, however.
In 1804, Trevithick successfully tested the first steam-powered locomotive to ride on
rails. At seven tons, however, the locomotive—called The Pennydarren—was so heavy it
would break its own rails.
The Rocket a pioneer steam locomotive built by the English engineers George and
Robert Stephenson ran in 1825 on a 64 km line between the cities of Liverpool and
Manchester. For a short stretch the Rocket achieved a speed of 36 miles (58 km) per
hour.
https://www.slideshare.net/sahilkaundal92/industrial-revolution-architectural
https://www.slideshare.net/tomrichey/the-second-industrial-revolution-46116514
1850-1914
https://www.slideshare.net/tomrichey/the-second-industrial-revolution-46116514
The Second Industrial Revolution
• The first Industrial Revolution started in Britain but the Second Industrial
Revolution started in the United States
• This new era began with numerous discoveries that significantly altered
manufacturing, transportation and communication which include:
o Bessemer process
o Electric dynamo and generators
• At first coal fired steam engines were the power sources for factories but
increasingly dynamos and generators began replacing the steam engine
• There was an abundance of inexpensive steel because of the newly invented
Bessemer process.
• Steel was used in construction of heavy machinery, railroads, and bridges and
unlike iron steel does not rust and much stronger
• Using steel to create a skeletal frame in buildings allowed architects to design
larger, multistory buildings
Electricity
Scientists like Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania,
Alessandro Volta of the University of Pavia, Italy, and
Michael Faraday of Britain were the first pioneers in
electricity. Benjamin Franklin demonstrated that
lightning is static electricity and Alessandro Volta
produced electric currents using chemical reactions
within voltaic piles or batteries. But it was Faraday’s
experiments in 1831 that discovered the elusive
relationship between electricity and magnetism. He
mechanically generated electric currents and utilized
such current in producing rotary motion thus making
the first electric dynamo and electric motor
simple electric dynamo
simple electric motor
https://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-
https://www.123rf.com/photo_24543259_ill
technology/science/physics-and-astronomy/ physics/
ustration-of-a-simple-electric-motor.html
diy-generate-your-own-electricity
The mechanical generator and the electric motor depend on the

same principle which is that a rotating a coil of wire between the
poles of a strong magnet produced a current. Conversely passing a
current through the coil causes it to turn. Both generators and
motors underwent continuous development in the 19th century
particularly in the design of the armature (the coil of wire) and
produced the dynamo. This made the large-scale generation of
electricity commercially feasible and available to many industries.
The first use of electricity however
was in lighting and its main
competitor was the use of coal gas.
William Murdock in 1792 at
Cornwall experimented in lighting
the buildings there by gas, and use
of gas lighting spread all over in
Britain in the first half of the 19th
century. The first models used a
fishtail jet of burning gas, but were
improved by the invention of the gas lighting
https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/gas-lighting-lamp.html
gas mantle because of competition
from electric lighting.
Thomas Edison did not invent the incandescent
bulb but he was the first to find new uses for
electricity.
The development of the carbon-filament bulb

showed how this form of energy was better than
gas lighting. In a filament lamp a very thin
conductor could be made to glow brightly when an
electric current passed through it. The bulb had to
be sealed in a vacuum to prevent the filament from
burning out.
Edison and the English chemist Sir Joseph Swan

Thomas Edison’s light bulb made lamps with different types of filaments and
https://www.alamy.com/electric-light-
bulbs-from-edison-left-swan-center- eventually choosing carbon. The new invention was
maxim-right-1900-image221598209.html an immediate commercial success and different
sizes of bulbs could be made depending on the
circumstances. However gas lighting still remained
popular for some forms of street lighting until the
middle of the 20th century.
https://www.sutori.com/story/industrial-revolution-inventions--Mg4im6pCW4oFxCA6tUtGipVu
Dynamo-Michael Faraday (1832)
The dynamo was the first electrical generator to power factories. This
produced direct current (DC) electricity
https://www.asme.org/about-asme/engineering-history/landmarks/48-edison-jumbo-engine-driver-dynamo
This dynamo, connected directly to a high-speed steam engine produced direct current
(DC) at Thomas A. Edison's electric power station in New York City. Edison set out in
1878 to provide an electrical distribution system to bring lighting into houses. His first
filament lamp lit on October 21, 1879.
Tesla AC Motor-Nikola Tesla (1888)

Also called an alternator, Tesla's motor produced alternating current (AC). This
was more efficient in providing electricity over great distances than Edison’s DC
dynamo. It has since been adopted as main source of power for industry and
residential housing
In the 1880s and 1890s
due to the availability
of electric generating
equipment urban
electric tramways
became popular and
electric traction on
subway systems were
used such as the
London Underground.
Electric Trolley
https://philadelphiaencyclopedia
.org /first-electric-trolley-2/
PETROLEUM
The main demand for crude oil at first was for
the kerosene, the middle fraction distilled
from the raw material, which was used as the
fuel in oil lamps. The heavy fraction also
yielded paraffin wax and lubricating oils for
machineries and asphalt for paving roads and
waterproofing boats. Most of the other
products were discarded.
In America in the late 1700s explorers

reported the Seneca Indians practice of
skimming oil from bituminous matter floating
at the surface of oil springs at Oil Creek,
Pennsylvania. In 1859 Edwin L. Drake bored
successfully to strike oil. The success of the
well, plus a demand for kerosene, triggered an
oil rush thus inaugurating the search for and first commercial oil drill
exploitation of the deep oil resources of the https://www.sutori.com/item/1859-edwin-drake-
world. It marked the beginning of the modern steam-engine-oil-drill-this-was-the-1st-invention-
that-made-th-835f
petroleum industry.
The most volatile fraction of the
oil, gasoline, remained an
embarrassing waste product until OIL REFINERY
it was discovered that this could
be burned in a light internal-
combustion engine; the result
was an ideal prime mover for
vehicles. The way was prepared
for this development by the
success of oil engines burning
cruder fractions of oil. Kerosene-
burning oil engines, modeled
closely on existing gas engines, https://climate2014.audubon.org/article/royals-standard-oil-divest-fossil-fuels
had emerged in the 1870s, and by The image above shows the Standard Oil refinery in 1911
in Richmond, Calif., now owned and operated by the
the late 1880s engines using the
Chevron Corporation.
vapor of heavy oil in a jet of
compressed air and working on
the Otto cycle had become an
attractive proposition for light
duties in places too isolated to
use town gas.
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
The problem with the steam

engine and its boiler and
with electrical generators
are they are too big to be
used for small vehicles
A new machine had to be

developed that has to be
sufficiently small and light
to be carried by the vehicle.
An example of this is the
internal combustion engine.
.
Étienne Lenoir made
the first successful gas
engine in Paris in 1859.
It was patterned after
the horizontal steam
engine, with an air-gas
(natural gas) mixture
ignited by an electric
spark and introduced
on both sides of the
piston. The engine
was expensive to
operate but was
technically satisfactory
It was not until the
refinement introduced by
the German inventor
Nikolaus Otto in 1878 that
the gas engine became a
commercial success. He
used gasoline rather than
natural gas for its fuel. Otto
adopted the four-stroke
cycle of induction-
compression-firing-exhaust
that has been known by his
name ever since. Gas
engines thus replaced
steam engines with their big
boilers and high
maintenance costs as the
new power source for small
industrial establishments.
Internal Combustion
Engine-Gottlieb
Daimler (1886)
The internal combustion
engine used gasoline to
power an engine. The
first engines were used
in industry. This would
later on provide power
to the first automobile.
The greatest refinements in the heavy-oil
engine are associated with the work of
Rudolf Diesel of Germany in 1892.
Working from thermodynamic principles
of minimizing heat losses, Diesel devised
an engine in which the very high
compression of the air in the cylinder
secured the spontaneous ignition of the
oil when it was injected in a carefully
determined quantity. This ensured high
thermal efficiency, but it also made
necessary a heavy structure because of
the high compression maintained, and
also a rather rough performance at low
speeds compared with other oil engines.
It was therefore not immediately suitable
for locomotive purposes, but Diesel went
on improving his engine and in the 20th
century it became an important form of the Diesel Engine
vehicular propulsion. https://www.dieselnet.com/tech/diesel
_history.php
Diesel Engine-Rudolf
Diesel (1892)
The diesel engine

designed for the vehicle
proved fuel could be
ignited without a spark
by using petroleum. This
was in contrast to the
enginre developed by
Daimler Benz which ran
on gasoline and needed a
spark.
https://www.sutori.com/story/ind
ustrial-revolution-inventions--
Mg4im6pCW4oFxCA6tUtGipVu
Meantime the light high-speed
gasoline (petrol) engine
predominated. The first
applications of the new engine to
locomotion were made in Germany,
where Gottlieb Daimler and Carl
Benz equipped the first motorcycle
and the first motorcar respectively
with engines of their own design in
1885. Benz’s “horseless carriage”
became the prototype of the
modern automobile, the
development and consequences of
which can be more conveniently
considered in relation to the
revolution in transport.
By the end of the 19th century, the
internal-combustion engine was
challenging the steam engine in
many industrial and transport The first gasoline automobile by Daimler and Benz
https://media.daimler.com/Gottlieb-Daimler-and-Carl-Benz-automotive-
applications pioneers.xhtml
The Wright brothers - Orville
and Wilbur were two
American pioneers generally
credited with inventing, building,
and flying the world's first
successful motor-operated
airplane. They made the first
controlled, sustained flight of a
powered heavier-than-air https://thebeckert3group.com/two-wright-brothers-three-
aircraft with the Wright Flyer on reasons-for-success-teamwork-tone-tenacity/
December 17, 1903.
Advances in Communication
The great innovations in communications derived from electricity.
• The first was the electric telegraph invented by two British
inventors, William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone,
who collaborated on the work and took out a joint patent in
1837. Its first use was for signaling on the British railways
• Almost simultaneously, the American inventor Samuel F.B.
Morse who devised the signaling code (called the Morse
Code) that was subsequently adopted all over the world..
• The electric telephone, invented by Alexander Graham Bell in
1876 and adopted quickly for short-range oral communication
• By the end of the century, Guglielmo Marconi had transmitted
messages over many miles in Britain and was preparing the
apparatus with which he made the first transatlantic
radio communication on Dec. 12, 1901.
https://blog.sciencemuseum.org.uk/revealing-the-real- https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/4476156
cooke-and-wheatstone-telegraph-dial/ 50437396215/
The smaller Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph instrument, now believed to date
from about 1849 © Science Museum/ Science & Society Picture Library
https://prezi.com/vdh1fv7qdrrn/communication-inventions-of-the-industrial-revolution/?frame
He patented it as the
“talking telegraph”
https://www.slideshare.net/mrsbauerart/history-of-early-radio-technology

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Chapter 2, Part 1

Science & Technology in

These crops would

The Norse mill , using a horizontally mounted waterwheel driving a pair of

undershot water wheel overshot water wheel breastshot water wheel

Post mill Tower mill

Linen Flax plant Undergarments,

Wool Fleece from sheep Outer garments

Silk Silkworms (from China) garment

Cotton Cotton plant (from India and garments

Medieval medicine & herbs

Monks weighing out herbs

Doctors giving medicine

This man's leg wound is being

Before Islamic experts brought a semblance

A trephine was a cylindrical blade used to

In 476 C.E. Romulus, the last

Ancient lead roman water-valve

Avicenna (Abu-Ali Al-Husein ibn Abdullah ibn Sina)

The Spear of Destiny (also known as the

An important (but largely unknown and underrated) mathematician and

Jacob's staff in the Museo Galileo, Florence

A Troughton sextant of c. 1790,

IRON GOTHIC STYLE

Drawing of one of his first balance

From its invention in 1656 by Christiaan Huygens

Artesian wells made of brick and wood

Historians have estimated

Hans Lippershey (1570–1619) was a German-Dutch spectacle-maker. He is

Brass is an alloy of copper

guildsmen in Venice, Italy around the

The earliest consistent and

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)was a Polish mathematician and

The publication of Copernicus' model in his book De revolutionibus

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) is a Danish astronomer whose work in developing

In his celebrated experiment on free fall

published in 1543. It was a major

Evangelista Torricelli’s mercury barometer

Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) prominent French chemist and leading figure

Joseph Priestley (1733 – 1804) was an English chemist, natural philosopher,

During his lifetime, Priestley's considerable scientific reputation rested on his

Laplace is remembered as one of the greatest scientists of all time. Sometimes

The Royal Society, is a learned The French Academy of Sciences is a

1. The Enclosure Movement

The four field system was successful because it

Clover is a plant which is able to add nitrogen

His seed drill included a hopper to store

• Textiles – cloths or fabrics

The machine replaced the need for

The water frame, which could produce a

The machine simultaneously drew

The Spinning Mule could also be

despite competition from the internal-

The mechanical generator and the electric motor depend on the

The development of the carbon-filament bulb

Edison and the English chemist Sir Joseph Swan

Dynamo-Michael Faraday (1832)

Tesla AC Motor-Nikola Tesla (1888)

In America in the late 1700s explorers

The problem with the steam

A new machine had to be

The diesel engine

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