Faculty of Energy & Environmental Engineering

Petroleum Engineering & Gas Technology (DY1)

Fluid Mechanics Lab. Report

Module Leader: Dr. Nadia Salman

Teaching Assistant: Eng. Ahmed Moussa
Student Name: Muhammad Metwalli
Student ID: 199372
Table of Content:

First Experiment: (Calibration of a Pressure Gauge) ..........................................2

Abstract ...................................................................................................................2
Introduction .............................................................................................................2
Theory .....................................................................................................................2
Methodology and procedure ...................................................................................3
Results and graphs ..................................................................................................3
Discussion ...............................................................................................................5
Conclusion ..............................................................................................................5
Second Experiment: (Pressure/Vacuum Measurements) ....................................6
Abstract ...................................................................................................................6
Introduction .............................................................................................................6
Theory .....................................................................................................................6
Methodology and procedure ...................................................................................7
Results and graph ....................................................................................................8
Discussion ...............................................................................................................8
Conclusion ..............................................................................................................9
Third Experiment: (Hydrostatic thrust effect) ...................................................10
Abstract .................................................................................................................10
Introduction ...........................................................................................................10
Theory ...................................................................................................................10
Methodology and procedure .................................................................................12
Results ...................................................................................................................13
Discussion .............................................................................................................13
Conclusion ............................................................................................................14
References: ..............................................................................................................15

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First Experiment: (Calibration of a Pressure Gauge)

Abstract
Pressure measurement is a delicate and sensitive process. Therefore
the instrument used to measure the pressure must be chosen carefully to
guarantee accurate and correct results. However, several sources of error
may stand against that. So, it is important to be aware of these errors to
avoid them for better results.

Introduction
Calibration is known to be a “documented comparison of the
measurement device to be calibrated against a traceable reference
device”1. In other words, we can say that it is comparing the theoretical
results with experimental ones. There are several pressure-sensing
elements of pressure gauges that can be used to calibrate the pressure such
as Bellows, Diaphragms, and Bourdon Tubes2. Bourdon Tube is known
for its high accuracy, numerous ranges availability, and superb sensitivity,
all those are reasons why this experiment shall be done using Bourden
Tubes3.

Theory
The following figure (figure 1) clarifies the Dead Weight Tester
instrument which will be used in the pressure calibration process between
the piston and the gauge by determining the force weight divided by the
area where the force is applied4. The
formula used for this instrument can be
expressed that the pressure is equal to the
force (which is weight in this case) divided
by the are that the force is applied on4. This
formula can be written as:

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 𝐹 𝑀𝑔
𝑃= =
𝐴 𝐴
Where:
P is pressure in 𝐾𝑃𝑎 𝑜𝑟 (𝐾𝑁/𝑚2 )
A is are of the piston in (m2)
M is the total mass in (kg)
g is the gravitational acceleration in (𝑚/𝑠 2 ) which is 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2

Note: The Mass of the Piston is 1 kg.

Methodology and procedure

We shall proceed according to the following steps:
• Make sure that the pressure gauge pointer is reset to zero position
• Fill the Cylinder with water to remove any trapped air if needed
• On the weight platform, start adding weights gradually until the pressure
gauge pointer reaches the highest value and record or tabulate the reading.
• Remove the mass in the reverse order as you add them, and record or
tabulate the pressure readings
𝐹 𝑀𝑔
• Use the equation 𝑃 = = to calculate the actual pressure then tabulate it
𝐴 𝐴
• Calculate the gauge error by getting the difference between gauge pressure
and actual pressure then tabulate the results.

Results and graphs

Actual Pressure Calculations
Mass added (kg) Total Mass (kg) Actual pressure (KN/𝒎𝟐 )
0 1 29.2
0.5 1.5 43.9
1 2 58.56
2 3 87.85
3 4 117.13
4 5 146.41

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 Increasing Pressure Readings Decreasing Pressure Readings
Gauge reading Gauge error Gauge reading Gauge error
𝟐
(KN/𝐦 ) (KN/𝐦𝟐 ) (KN/m2) (KN/m2)
20 9.2 KN/m2 KN/m2
35 8.9 25 4.2
55 45 1.1
3.56
60 1.44
82 5.85 92 4.15
118 0.87 141 23.87
155 8.59 155 8.59

Actual pressure VS Increasing pressure

180
160
Actual Pressure (KN/m2)

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Gauge Pressure (KN/m2)

Actual pressure VS Increasing pressure

180
160
Actual Pressure (KN/m2)

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Gauge Pressure (KN/m2)

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Discussion
This experiment is simple but needs lots of concentration
while proceeding to avoid any kind of errors. Of course, there is no
experiment without errors, but we need to know what are the errors that
may occur to avoid them or at least minimize them. This experiment might
experience several following sources of error:
• Human errors: Such as errors while following the experiment procedure and
repeating the steps. Taking inaccurate readings because of the small scale
which in some cases cannot be seen with the naked eye, and doing wrong
calculations while tabulating the results. Moreover, proceeding without
removing the trapped air in the tube might cause inaccurate results.
Neglecting the piston mass while doing the calculations by mistake will make
the results incorrect.
• Systematic errors: Such as the zero-point error on the pressure gauge which
results in inaccurate readings, in some cases, there may be a leakage in the
tube between gauge and piston, and in some other cases, there might be a
spring error where the spring is weak resulting in inaccurate readings. There
might be air bubbles in the tube while experimenting as well.
• Random errors: Such as the table where the experiment is performed is not
stabilized properly. Also, the masses might be corroded which means that
they are not exactly the same as we use them to do the calculations.

Conclusion
To conclude, calibration is an efficient method to compare an
instrument that needs to be indicated and another accurate and precise
instrument. The Dead Weight Tester was the instrument used to calibrate
the pressure, which consists of a piston, load platform, and a pressure
gauge that uses a Bourdon tube as a pressure-sensing element. Also, the
𝐹 𝑀𝑔
hydrostatic pressure formula in this experiment was 𝑃 = = where m
𝐴 𝐴
differs while proceeding. There are several sources of error that we need
to avoid, the most effective ones are systemic errors, which why it is
recommended to do periodic maintenance for calibration instruments.

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Second Experiment: (Pressure/Vacuum Measurements)

Abstract
The pressure is one of the most famous scientific terms used all over
the world. It is involved in people’s everyday life starting from human
blood pressure inside their bodies to designing aircraft, spacecraft, and
submarines. Thus, there had to be ways to measure it by different kinds
of instruments. Measuring pressure is an extremely accurate process that
may face many kinds of errors. The manometer is one of many kinds of
instruments to measure the liquid's pressure difference.

Introduction
This experiment aims to determine the pressure difference for fluids
or liquids by the difference in height or surface using a scientific
instrument called the manometer. There are a few kinds of manometers,
the most famous and most frequently used of them are the U-tube
manometer and Inclined Manometer5. Open Manometers which are
usually filled with mercury, oil, or water measures the gas pressure
relative to the atmospheric pressure6. Perhaps there is no clearer example
of a manometer such as the sphygmomanometer, which is the device used
to measure the blood pressure6. That clearly states how important
manometers and other pressure measuring instruments are.

Theory
A U-shaped glass tube filled with a liquid is the simplest form of a
manometer. The principle of the U-tube manometer is that after the
manometer is filled with the liquid, we apply the pressure we need to
measure to one side of the tube, this will produce a fluid movement
through the tube as shown in figure (1), this displacement can be easily
measured by the fitted scale between the tubes7. Knowing that the fluid
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will not stop moving until it reaches a
sufficient displacement (h) to balance
between the pressure exerted by the column of
liquid and the pressure on the other side of the
tube, which in this case is the atmospheric
pressure7. Kowing the density (ρ) of the filling
fluid and the length of the liquid column (h),
we can calculate the applied pressure by the
next relation:

𝑃𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 = ρgh or ∆𝑃 = ρg ∆h
As mentioned before, the manometer can be
filled with water, mercury, or oil and the
densities are:
ρwater = 1000 kg/m3 Figure 1
ρmercury = 13560 kg/m3
ρoil ≈ 800~950 kg/m3

Methodology and procedure

We shall do as follow:
• Squeeze the tube to get rid of any trapped air bubbles.
• Bring a 50ml gas syringe and fully extend it before connecting it to the
apparatus pressure sockets
• Make sure that the syringe nozzle is firmly connected
• Step by step push the syringe plunger to create gauge pressure with an
increase of 5 milli-bar every time.
• Measure the difference in the surface level of liquid in the manometer (∆h)
• Using the equation ∆P= ρg∆h calculate the actual pressure
• Record the results or readings in the table.
• Repeat the steps until reaching the desired number of readings to do the
required calculations.

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Results and graph

Guage Pressure Calculated

∆h (mm)
(mbar) pressure (mbar)
5 165-145 1.962
10 180-130 4.905
15 195-115 7.848
20 215-95 11.772
25 235-75 15.696
30 250-55 19.1295

Actual pressure Vs. Guage pressure

25
Actual pressure (millibar)

20

15

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Guage pressure (millibar)

Discussion
This experiment relies on very small units of measurements, which
means that accuracy and precision are two factors to take into
consideration. Nonetheless, several sources of error may occur while
performing the experiment resulting in inaccurate readings, those types of
errors may be classified as follow:

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 • Human errors: Such as errors while repeating the experiment, proceeding
while there are gas bubbles trapped in the tube, proceeding while the nozzle
of the syringe is not connected properly, creating vacuum pressure while
experimenting by pulling the syringe plunger instead of pushing it, Pushing
the syringe plunger too quickly and unregulated manner, taking inaccurate
readings because of the small scale which in some cases cannot be seen with
the naked eye, and doing wrong calculations while tabulating the results.
• Systematic errors: Such as the zero-point error on the pressure gauge which
results in inaccurate readings, in some cases, there may be a leakage in the
tube causing loss of some air or pressure, and in some other cases, there might
be a slight difference on the liquid level between the two sides of the tube.
• Random errors: Such as the effect of temperature on gauge and actual
pressure, the capillary effect which may result in inaccurate displacement
readings, and the effect of the variable meniscus which differs from one
liquid to another resulting in inaccurate readings as well.

Conclusion
To conclude manometer is perfect and suitable when it comes to
low-pressure applications. It offers a huge range of filling fluids with
different specific gravities depending on the person’s desires. It also has
fine accuracy and better sensitivity. On the other hand, manometers have
some defects which can make it not the best option sometimes. For
instance, it has a weak dynamic response, the filling fluids densities
depend on temperature which may cause errors when it changes.
Manometer slow response is one reason why it is unsuitable for measuring
fluctuating pressures. However, when a manometer is used, we should try
as hard as we can to decrease the sources of error to get more accurate
results and better response. Moreover, we should deal with calculations
very carefully and accurately to prevent any shortage in the experiment.
After all, even if its applications are limited, it still one of the most
important instruments that we may use its concept in our daily life without
even noticing.

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Third Experiment: (Hydrostatic thrust effect)

Abstract
Hydrostatic forces are known to be the resultant force that the
pressure loading of a liquid causes while acting on either partially or fully
submerged surfaces as it moves from its equilibrium postion8. The center
of the pressure is the point where hydrostatic pressure forces act on the
submerged surface, body, or object. Indeed, both Hydrostatic pressure and
its center are sources of great interest in Fluid Mechanics.

Introduction
This experiment aims to determine the hydrostatic force due to water
whether it is acting on a partially or fully submerged surface and to
determine the hydrostatic depth pressure. Levees, dams, and gates are
practical applications where the location and magnitude of water pressure
force that acts water-control structures are essential when it comes to their
structural design8. Moreover, in hydrotherapy, hydrostatic pressure is very
important as it creates 3D pressure that comes in all directions which
support all surface areas of a submerged body part9. That clearly states
why hydrostatic force is a critical subject, not only in fluid mechanics but
also in humans life.

Theory
Armfield Hydrostatic
Pressure Apparatus is the
instrument that we are
going to use within this
experiment, which is
shown in figure (1). It
consists of a rectangular

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transparent water tank, fabricated quadrant, balance arm that pivots on
knife edges, counterbalance at the end of knife-edge pivot, ruler or scale
to measure water level, and a balance ban.
The moment about pivot point is equal to mgL = Fh at equilibrium state.
Where
M is the mass of the balance ban in kilogram (kg)
g is the gravitational force acceleration in m/s2
L is the length of the balance arm in meter (m)
h is the distance between the pivot and center of pressure in meter (m)
F is the hydrostatic thrust in Newton (N) which can be expressed as

𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ
In the partially submerged vertical plane (as shown in figure 2):
A is the area where the pressure acts (B*D)
h is the depth of immersion (d/2)

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In the fully submerged vertical plane (as shown in figure 3):
A is the area where the pressure acts (B*D)
h is the depth of immersion (D - d/2)

Methodology and procedure

We shall proceed as follow:
• Add a small mass to the weight hanger
• Add water to the tank with a jug until the hydrostatic on the end face of the
quadrant make the balance arm rise
• Tabulate or record the depth of immersion from the scale on the face of the
quadrant
• Repeat the previous steps until the water level reaches the top of the upper
scale on the quadrant face
• Calculate and tabulate your readings as you go by using the equations
mentioned in the theory part.

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Results

Partially submerged vertical plane

Measured Distance
Mass Hydrostatic Turning
turning Depth (m) center of
added (kg) thrust (N) moment
moment pressure (m)
0.05 0.134 0.045 0.744 0.18 0.133
0.1 0.269 0.065 1.554 0.173 0.268
0.15 0.404 0.080 2.354 0.171 0.4025
0.2 0.539 0.094 3.25 0.165 0.53

Fully submerged vertical plane

Measured Distance
Mass Hydrostatic Turning
turning Depth (m) center of
added (kg) thrust (N) moment
moment pressure (m)
0.25 0.674 0.109 4.34 0.155 0.672
0.30 0.8093 0.120 5.15 0.157 0.808
0.35 0.944 0.133 6.106 0.1546 0.943
0.4 1.079 0.145 6.98 0.1545 1.078
0.45 1.213 0.158 7.94 0.1527 1.212
0.5 1.348 0.17 8.829 0.1526 1.347

Discussion
The present experiment is subject to several sources of error that
we need to put into consideration for better results:
• Human errors: Such as errors while following the experiment procedure and
repeating the steps. Taking inaccurate readings because of the small scale
which in some cases cannot be seen with the naked eye, and doing wrong
calculations while tabulating the results.
• Systematic errors: There might be a leakage in the tank or the valve that
stand against accurate readings. Moreover, in some cases, there might be
parallax errors either in the balance arm or in the ruler used to measure
immersed depth.

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 • Random errors: Such as the table where the experiment is performed is not
stabilized properly. Also, the masses might be corroded which means that
they are not exactly the same as we use them to do the calculations.

Conclusion
To conclude, the Hydrostatic thrust effect experiment is a fine
example to understand the hydrostatic force, and what does it have to do
with the hydrostatic pressure and the center of the applied pressure, which
is an essential subject to study. As shown in the results, the hydrostatic
force differs from partially submerged bodies to fully submerged ones.
Nevertheless, many sources of error may occur while experimenting,
that’s why we need to pay attention to the instructions and proceed
carefully between the experiment steps and deal with the experiment
equipment in great care to guarantee the most accurate results.

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References:

1. What is calibration? Calibration meaning, calibration definition | Beamex.

2. Kuphaldt, T. R. Bellows, Diaphragms and Bourdon Tubes - Instrumentation
Tools.
3. Kania, T. History of the Bourdon Tube and Schaffer Diaphragm Pressure
Gauges. (2019).
4. What is a Dead Weight Tester? - InstrumentationTools.
5. Avinash Shrivastava. Manometer & its Types - Engineering Insider.
(2016).
6. Helmenstine, A. M. Manometer Definition and Purpose.
7. N Asyiddin. U-tube Manometer Principle Instrumentation Tools.
8. Experiment #1: Hydrostatic Pressure – Applied Fluid Mechanics Lab
Manual.
9. Cox, D. hydrostatic pressure part 1_ benefits for aquatic rehabilitation and
exercise. (2018).

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