Ground 

or earth in a mains (AC power) electrical wiring system is a conductor that provides a low-

impedance path to the earth to prevent hazardous voltages from appearing on equipment (high
voltage spikes).[citation needed] The terms ground and earth are used synonymously in this
section; ground is more common in North American English, and earth is more common in British
English. Under normal conditions, a grounding conductor does not carry current. Grounding is also
an integral path for home wiring because it causes circuit breakers to trip more quickly (ie, GFI),
which is safer. Adding new grounds requires a qualified electrician with knowledge particular to a
power distribution region.
Neutral is a circuit conductor that normally completes the circuit back to the source. Neutral is
usually connected to ground (earth) at the main electrical panel, street drop, or meter, and also at
the final step-down transformer of the supply. That is for simple single panel installations; for multiple
panels the situation is more complex. In a polyphase (usually three-phase) AC system, the neutral
conductor is intended to have similar voltages to each of the other circuit conductors, but may carry
very little current if the phases are balanced.
All neutral wires of the same earthed (grounded) electrical system should have the same electrical
potential, because they are all connected through the system ground. Neutral conductors are usually
insulated for the same voltage as the line conductors, with interesting exceptions.[1]

Circuitry[edit]
Neutral wires are usually connected at a neutral bus within panelboards or switchboards, and are
"bonded" to earth ground at either the electrical service entrance, or at transformers within the
system. For electrical installations with split-phase (three-wire single-phase) service, the neutral
point of the system is at the center-tap on the secondary side of the service transformer. For larger
electrical installations, such as those with polyphase service, the neutral point is usually at the
common connection on the secondary side of delta/wye connected transformers. Other
arrangements of polyphase transformers may result in no neutral point, and no neutral conductors.

Grounding systems[edit]
Main article: Earthing system
The IEC standard (IEC 60364) codifies methods of installing neutral and ground conductors in a
building, where these earthing systems are designated with letter symbols. The letter symbols are
common in countries using IEC standards, but North American practices rarely refer to the IEC
symbols. The differences are that the conductors may be separate over their entire run from
equipment to earth ground, or may be combined all or part of their length. Different systems are
used to minimize the voltage difference between neutral and local earth ground. Current flowing in a
grounding conductor will produce a voltage drop along the conductor, and grounding systems seek
to ensure this voltage does not reach unsafe levels.
In the TN-S system, separate neutral and protective earth conductors are installed between the
equipment and the source of supply (generator or electric utility transformer). Normal circuit currents
flow only in the neutral, and the protective earth conductor bonds all equipment cases to earth to
intercept any leakage current due to insulation failure. The neutral conductor is connected to earth at
the building point of supply, but no common path to ground exists for circuit current and the
protective conductor.
In the TN-C system, a common conductor provides both the neutral and protective grounding. The
neutral conductor is connected to earth ground at the point of supply, and equipment cases are
connected to the neutral. The danger exists that a broken neutral connection will allow all the
equipment cases to rise to a dangerous voltage if any leakage or insulation fault exists in any
equipment. This can be mitigated with special cables but the cost is then higher.
In the TN-C-S system, each piece of electrical equipment has both a protective ground connection to
its case, and a neutral connection. These are all brought back to some common point in the building
system, and a common connection is then made from that point back to the source of supply and to
the earth.
In a TT system, no lengthy common protective ground conductor is used, instead each article of
electrical equipment (or building distribution system) has its own connection to earth ground.
Indian CEAR, Rule 41, makes the following provisions:

 The neutral conductor of a 3-phase, 4-wire system and the middle conductor of a 2- phase, 3-
wire system must have at least 2 separate and distinct earth connections with a minimum of 2
different earth electrodes to have a satisfactory earth resistance
 The earth electrodes must be interconnected to reduce earth resistance
 The neutral conductor shall also be earthed at one or more points along the distribution system
or service line in addition to any connection at the user end

Combining neutral with ground[edit]

Stray voltages created in grounding (earthing) conductors by currents flowing in the supply utility
neutral conductors can be troublesome. For example, special measures may be required in barns
used for milking dairy cattle. Very small voltages, not usually perceptible to humans, may cause low
milk yield, or even mastitis (inflammation of the udder).[2] So-called "tingle voltage filters" may be
required in the electrical distribution system for a milking parlour.
Connecting the neutral to the equipment case provides some protection against faults, but may
produce a dangerous voltage on the case if the neutral connection is broken.
Combined neutral and ground conductors are commonly used in electricity supply companies' wiring
and occasionally for fixed wiring in buildings and for some specialist applications where there is little
alternative, such as railways and trams. Since normal circuit currents in the neutral conductor can
lead to objectionable or dangerous differences between local earth potential and the neutral, and to
protect against neutral breakages, special precautions such as frequent rodding down to earth
(multiple ground rod connections), use of cables where the combined neutral and earth completely
surrounds the phase conductor(s), and thicker than normal equipotential bonding must be
considered to ensure the system is safe.

Fixed appliances on three-wire circuits[edit]

In the United States, the cases of some kitchen stoves (ranges, ovens), cook tops, clothes
dryers and other specifically listed appliances were grounded through their neutral wires as a
measure to conserve copper from copper cables during World War II. This practice was removed
from the NEC in the 1996 edition, but existing installations (called "old work") may still allow the
cases of such listed appliances to be connected to the neutral conductor for grounding. (Canada did
not adopt this system and instead during this time and into the present uses separate neutral and
ground wires.)
This practice arose from the three-wire system used to supply both 120 volt and 240 volt loads.
Because these listed appliances often have components that use either 120, or both 120 and 240
volts, there is often some current on the neutral wire. This differs from the protective grounding wire,
which only carries current under fault conditions. Using the neutral conductor for grounding the
equipment enclosure was considered safe since the devices were permanently wired to the supply
and so the neutral was unlikely to be broken without also breaking both supply conductors. Also, the
unbalanced current due to lamps and small motors in the appliances was small compared to the
rating of the conductors and therefore unlikely to cause a large voltage drop in the neutral conductor.
Portable appliance
In North American and European practice, small portable equipment connected by a cord set is
permitted under certain conditions to have merely two conductors in the attachment plug.
A polarized plug can be used to maintain the identity of the neutral conductor into the appliance but
neutral is never used as a chassis/case ground. The small cords to lamps, etc., often have one or
more molded ridges or embedded strings to identify the neutral conductor, or may be identified by
colour. Portable appliances never use the neutral conductor for case grounding, and often feature
"double-insulated" construction.
In places where the design of the plug and socket cannot ensure that a system neutral conductor is
connected to particular terminals of the device ("unpolarized" plugs), portable appliances must be
designed on the assumption that either pole of each circuit may reach full main voltage with respect
to the ground.

Technical equipment[edit]
In North American practice, equipment connected by a cord set must have three wires if supplied
exclusively by 240 volts, or must have four wires (including neutral and ground), if supplied by
120/240 volts.
There are special provisions in the NEC for so-called technical equipment, mainly professional grade
audio and video equipment supplied by so-called "balanced" 120 volt circuits. The center tap of a
transformer is connected to ground, and the equipment is supplied by two line wires each 60 volts to
ground (and 120 volts between line conductors). The center tap is not distributed to the equipment
and no neutral conductor is used. These cases generally use a grounding conductor which is
separated from the safety grounding conductor specifically for the purposes of noise and "hum"
reduction.
Another specialized distribution system was formerly specified in patient care areas of hospitals. An
isolated power system was furnished, from a special isolation transformer, with the intention of
minimizing any leakage current that could pass through equipment directly connected to a patient
(for example, an electrocardiograph for monitoring the heart). The neutral of the circuit was not
connected to ground. The leakage current was due to the distributed capacitance of the wiring and
capacitance of the supply transformer. [3] Such distribution systems were monitored by permanently
installed instruments to give an alarm when high leakage current was detected.

Shared neutral[edit]
A shared neutral is a connection in which a plurality of circuits use the same neutral connection.
This is also known as a common neutral, and the circuits and neutral together are sometimes
referred to as an Edison circuit.

Three-phase circuits[edit]
In a three-phase circuit, a neutral is shared between all three phases. Commonly the system neutral
is connected to the star point on the feeding transformer. This is the reason that the secondary side
of most three-phase distribution transformers is wye- or star-wound. Three-phase transformers and
their associated neutrals are usually found in industrial distribution environments.
A system could be made entirely ungrounded. In this case a fault between one phase and ground
would not cause any significant current. In fact, this is not a good scheme. Commonly the neutral is
grounded (earthed) through a bond between the neutral bar and the earth bar. It is common on
larger systems to monitor any current flowing through the neutral-to-earth link and use this as the
basis for neutral fault protection.
The connection between neutral and earth allows any phase-to-earth fault to develop enough current
flow to "trip" the circuit overcurrent protection device. In some jurisdictions, calculations are required
to ensure the fault loop impedance is low enough so that fault current will trip the protection (In
Australia, this is referred to in AS3000:2007 Fault loop impedance calculation). This may limit the
length of a branch circuit.
In the case of two phases sharing one neutral, the worst-case current draw is one side has zero load
and the other has full load, or when both sides have full load. The latter case results in 1 +
1@120deg = 1@60deg, i.e. the magnitude of the current in the neutral equals that of the other two
wires.
In a three-phase linear circuit with three identical resistive or reactive loads, the neutral carries no
current. The neutral carries current if the loads on each phase are not identical. In some
jurisdictions, the neutral is allowed to be reduced in size if no unbalanced current flow is expected. If
the neutral is smaller than the phase conductors, it can be overloaded if a large unbalanced load
occurs.
The current drawn by non-linear loads, such as fluorescent & HID lighting and electronic equipment
containing switching power supplies, often contains harmonics. Triplen harmonic currents (odd
multiples of the third harmonic) are additive, resulting in more current in the shared neutral conductor
than in any of the phase conductors. In the absolute worst case, the current in the shared neutral
conductor can be triple that in each phase conductor. Some jurisdictions prohibit the use of shared
neutral conductors when feeding single-phase loads from a three-phase source; others require that
the neutral conductor be substantially larger than the phase conductors. It is good practice to use
four-pole circuit breakers (as opposed to the standard three-pole) where the fourth pole is the neutral
phase, and is hence protected against overcurrent on the neutral conductor.

Split phase[edit]
Main article: Split-phase electric power
In split-phase wiring, for example a duplex receptacle in a North American kitchen, devices may be
connected with a cable that has three conductors, in addition to ground. The three conductors are
usually coloured red, black, and white. The white serves as a common neutral, while the red and
black each feed, separately, the top and bottom hot sides of the receptacle. Typically such
receptacles are supplied from two circuit breakers in which the handles of two poles are tied together
for a common trip. If two large appliances are used at once, current passes through both and the
neutral only carries the difference in current. The advantage is that only three wires are required to
serve these loads, instead of four. If one kitchen appliance overloads the circuit, the other side of the
duplex receptacle will be shut off as well. This is called a multiwire branch circuit. Common trip is
required when the connected load uses more than one phase simultaneously. The common trip
prevents overloading of the shared neutral if one device draws more than rated current.

Grounding problems[edit]
A ground connection that is missing or of inadequate capacity may not provide the protective
functions as intended during a fault in the connected equipment. Extra connections between ground
and circuit neutral may result in circulating current in the ground path, stray current introduced in the
earth or in a structure, and stray voltage.[citation needed] Extra ground connections on a neutral conductor
may bypass the protection provided by a ground-fault circuit interrupter. Signal circuits that rely on a
ground connection will not function or will have erratic function if the ground connection is missing.

Electrical system design

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigationJump to search

Electrical system design is the design of electrical systems. This can be as simple as a flashlight
cell connected through two wires to a light bulb or as involved as the space shuttle. Electrical systems
are groups of electrical components connected to carry out some operation. Often the systems are
combined with other systems. They might be subsystems of larger systems and have subsystems of their
own. For example, a subway rapid transit electrical system is composed of the wayside electrical power
supply, wayside control system, and the electrical systems of each transit car. Each transit car’s electrical
system is a subsystem of the subway system. Inside of each transit car there are also subsystems, such
as the car climate control system.

Design[edit]

The following would be appropriate for the design of a moderate to large electrical system.

1. A specification document is written. It probably would have been written by the customer. The
specification document states in plain language and numerical detail what the customer
expects. If it is well written, it will be used as a reference throughout the electrical system
design.

2. A functional specification (design) document that goes into more technical details may be
created. It uses the specification document as its basis. Here calculations may be used or
referenced to support design decisions.

3. Functional diagrams may be made. These use block diagrams indicating information and
electrical power flow from component to component. They are similar to the functional flow
block diagrams used with computer programs.

4. Schematic diagrams showing the electrical interconnections between the components are

made. They may not show all the conductors and termination points. Except for one-line
diagrams, this should show all the circuit nodes. One-line diagrams represent the three or four
conductors of three-phase power circuits with one line.

5. Wiring diagrams are sometimes made. These show and name the termination points and names
of each conductor. In some systems enough information can be put onto the schematics so that
wiring diagrams are not needed.

6. Physically smaller systems that are built many times may use a cable harness. A full-sized to-
scale wiring diagram can be made of a cable harness. This wiring diagram can then be laid on a
peg board and used to guide the construction of more cable harnesses. Harnesses can be
inserted into their equipment as an assembly. Cable harnesses that are reused many
times, like automobile wiring harnesses, are created with automated machinery.

7. A wire list is made in spreadsheet or list format. It shows the electrical assembly people what
wires are to be connected and to where. When it is printed out on paper, it is easy for the
assembly people to check off conductors as they are connected. The wire list contains at a
minimum each wire name, terminal name, and wire model number or gage. It may also contain
the wire termination device model numbers, voltage classes, conductor class (high-voltage,
medium voltage, or control wiring), etc.
Design

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigationJump to search

For other uses, see  Design (disambiguation).

A design is a plan or specification for the construction of an object or system or for the implementation
of an activity or process, or the result of that plan or specification in the form of a prototype, product
or process. The verb to design expresses the process of developing a design. In some cases, the direct
construction of an object without an explicit prior plan (such as in craftwork, some engineering, coding,
and graphic design) may also be considered to be a design activity. The design usually has to satisfy
certain goals and constraints; may take into account aesthetic, functional, economic, or socio-political
considerations; and is expected to interact with a certain environment. Typical examples of designs
include architectural blueprints, engineering drawings, business processes, circuit diagrams, and sewing
patterns.[1]

People who produce designs are called designers. The term "designer" generally refers to someone who
works professionally in one of the various design areas. The word is generally qualified by the area
involved (so one can speak of a fashion designer, a product designer, a web designer or an interior
designer), but can also designate others such as architects and engineers. A designer's sequence of
activities is called a design process, possibly using design methods. The process of creating a design can
be brief (a quick sketch) or lengthy and complicated, involving considerable research, negotiation,
reflection, modeling, interactive adjustment and re-design.

Contents

 1Process

o 1.1Rational model

 1.1.1Example sequence of stages

 1.1.2Criticism of the rational model

o 1.2Action-centric model

 1.2.1Descriptions of design activities

 2Philosophies

o 2.1Approaches to design

 3Types

o 3.1Art

o 3.2Engineering
 o 3.3Production

o 3.4Process design

 4Design disciplines

 5See also

 6References

 7Bibliography

Process[edit]

Substantial disagreement exists concerning how designers in many fields, whether amateur or
professional, alone or in teams, produce designs. [2] Kees Dorst and Judith Dijkhuis, both designers
themselves, argued that "there are many ways of describing design processes" and discussed "two basic
and fundamentally different ways",[3] both of which have several names. The prevailing view has been
called "the rational model",[4] "technical problem solving"[5] and "the reason-centric perspective".[6] The
alternative view has been called "reflection-in-action", [5] "co-evolution",[7] and "the action-centric
perspective".[6]

Rational model[edit]

The rational model was independently developed by Herbert A. Simon,[8][9] an American scientist, and
two German engineering design theorists, Gerhard Pahl and Wolfgang Beitz. [10] It posits that:

1. Designers attempt to optimize a design candidate for known constraints and objectives.

2. The design process is plan-driven.

3. The design process is understood in terms of a discrete sequence of stages.

The rational model is based on a rationalist philosophy[4] and underlies the waterfall model,[11] systems

development life cycle,[12] and much of the engineering design literature.[13] According to the rationalist
philosophy, design is informed by research and knowledge in a predictable and controlled manner.

Example sequence of stages[edit]

Typical stages consistent with the rational model include the following:

 Pre-production design

o Design brief or Parti pris – an early (often the beginning) statement of design goals

o Analysis – analysis of current design goals

o Research – investigating similar design solutions in the field or related topics

o Specification – specifying requirements of a design solution for a product (product

design specification)[14] or service.

o Problem solving – conceptualizing and documenting design solutions

 o Presentation – presenting design solutions

 Design during production

o Development – continuation and improvement of a designed solution

o Testing – in situ testing of a designed solution

 Post-production design feedback for future designs

o Implementation – introducing the designed solution into the environment

o Evaluation and conclusion – summary of process and results, including constructive

criticism and suggestions for future improvements

 Redesign – any or all stages in the design process repeated (with corrections made) at any time
before, during, or after production.

Each stage has many associated best practices.[15]

Criticism of the rational model[edit]

The rational model has been widely criticized on two primary grounds:

1. Designers do not work this way – extensive empirical evidence has demonstrated that designers
do not act as the rational model suggests. [5][6][16]

2. Unrealistic assumptions – goals are often unknown when a design project begins, and the
requirements and constraints continue to change. [4][17]

Action-centric model[edit]

The action-centric perspective is a label given to a collection of interrelated concepts, which are
antithetical to the rational model.[6] It posits that:

1. Designers use creativity and emotion to generate design candidates.

2. The design process is improvised.

3. No universal sequence of stages is apparent – analysis, design and implementation are

contemporary and inextricably linked. [6]

The action-centric perspective is based on an empiricist philosophy and broadly consistent with the agile
approach[18] and a methodical development.[19] Substantial empirical evidence supports the veracity of
this perspective in describing the actions of real designers. [16] Like the rational model, the action-centric
model sees design as informed by research and knowledge. However, research and knowledge are
brought into the design process through the judgment and common sense of designers – by designers
"thinking on their feet" – more than through the predictable and controlled process stipulated by the
rational model.

Descriptions of design activities[edit]

At least two views of design activity are consistent with the action-centric perspective. Both involve
three basic activities.

In the reflection-in-action paradigm, designers alternate between "framing", "making moves", and

"evaluating moves". "Framing" refers to conceptualizing the problem, i.e., defining goals and objectives.
A "move" is a tentative design decision. The evaluation process may lead to further moves in the design.
[5]

In the sensemaking–coevolution–implementation framework, designers alternate between its three

titular activities. Sensemaking includes both framing and evaluating moves. Implementation is the
process of constructing the design object. Coevolution is "the process where the design agent
simultaneously refines its mental picture of the design object based on its mental picture of the context,
and vice versa".[6]

The concept of the design cycle is understood as a circular time structure,[20] which may start with the
thinking of an idea, then expressing it by the use of visual or verbal means of communication (design
tools), the sharing and perceiving of the expressed idea, and finally starting a new cycle with the critical
rethinking of the perceived idea. Anderson points out that this concept emphasizes the importance of
the means of expression, which at the same time are means of perception of any design ideas. [21]

Philosophies[edit]

Main article:  Philosophy of design

Philosophy of design is the study of definitions of design, and the assumptions, foundations, and
implications of design. There are also countless informal or personal philosophies for guiding design as
design values and its accompanying aspects within modern design vary, both between different schools
of thought[which?] and among practicing designers.[22] Design philosophies are usually for determining
design goals. In this sense, design philosophies are fundamental guiding principles that dictate how a
designer approaches his/her practice. For example, reflections on material culture and environmental
concerns (sustainable design) can guide a design philosophy.

Approaches to design[edit]

A design approach is a general philosophy that may or may not include a guide for specific methods.
Some are to guide the overall goal of the design. Other approaches are to guide the tendencies of the
designer.

Some of these approaches include:

 Critical design uses designed artifacts as an embodied critique or commentary on existing

values, morals, and practices in a culture.

 Ecological design is a design approach that prioritizes the consideration of the environmental
impacts of a product or service, over its whole lifecycle.

 Participatory Design (originally co-operative design, now often co-design) is the practice of

collective creativity to design, attempting to actively involve all stakeholders (e.g. employees,
partners, customers, citizens, end users) in the design process to help ensure the result meets
their needs and is usable.[23]
  Scientific design refers to industrialised design based on scientific knowledge. [24] Science can be
used to study the effects and need for a potential or existing product in general and to design
products that are based on scientific knowledge. For instance, a scientific design of face masks
for COVID-19 mitigation may be based on investigations of filtration performance, mitigation
performance,[25][26] thermal comfort, biodegradability and flow resistance.[27][28]

 Service design designing or organizing the experience around a product and the service
associated with a product's use.

 Sociotechnical system design, a philosophy and tools for participative designing of work

arrangements and supporting processes – for organizational purpose, quality, safety, economics
and customer requirements in core work processes, the quality of peoples experience at work
and the needs of society

 Transgenerational design, the practice of making products and environments compatible with
those physical and sensory impairments associated with human aging and which limit major
activities of daily living.

 User-centered design, which focuses on the needs, wants, and limitations of the end user of the
designed artifact.

Types[edit]

Design can broadly be applied to various fields such as art, engineering and production.

A terminal at Barajas airport in Madrid, Spain

Art[edit]

Today, the term design is generally used for what was formerly called the applied arts. The new term,
for a very old thing, was perhaps initiated by Raymond Loewy and teachings at the Bauhaus and Ulm
School of Design in Germany during the 20th century.

The boundaries between art and design are blurred, largely due to a range of applications both for the
term 'art' and the term 'design'. Applied arts can include industrial design, graphic design, fashion
design, and the decorative arts which traditionally includes craft objects. In graphic arts (2D image
making that ranges from photography to illustration), the distinction is often made between fine
art and commercial art, based on the context within which the work is produced and how it is traded.

Some methods for creating work, such as employing intuition, are shared across the disciplines within
the applied arts and fine art. Mark Getlein, writer, suggests the principles of design are "almost
instinctive", "built-in", "natural", and part of "our sense of 'rightness'." [29] However, the intended
application and context of the resulting works will vary greatly.

A drawing for a booster engine for steam locomotives. Engineering is applied to design, with emphasis
on function and the utilization of mathematics and science.

Engineering[edit]

In engineering, design is a component of the process. Many overlapping methods and processes can be
seen when comparing product design, industrial design and engineering. The American Heritage
Dictionary defines design as: "To conceive or fashion in the mind; invent," and "To formulate a plan", and
defines engineering as: "The application of scientific and mathematical principles to practical ends such
as the design, manufacture, and operation of efficient and economical structures, machines, processes,
and systems.".[30][31] Both are forms of problem-solving with a defined distinction being the application of
"scientific and mathematical principles". The increasingly scientific focus of engineering in practice,
however, has raised the importance of more new "human-centered" fields of design. [32] How much
science is applied in a design is a question of what is considered "science". Along with the question of
what is considered science, there is social science versus natural science. Scientists at Xerox PARC made
the distinction of design versus engineering at "moving minds" versus "moving atoms" (probably in
contradiction to the origin of term "engineering – engineer" from Latin "in genio" in meaning of a
"genius" what assumes existence of a "mind" not of an "atom").

Jonathan Ive has received several awards for his design of Apple Inc. products like this MacBook. In
some design fields, personal computers are also used for both design and production

Production[edit]
The relationship between design and production is one of planning and executing. In theory, the plan
should anticipate and compensate for potential problems in the execution process. Design involves
problem-solving and creativity. In contrast, production involves a routine or pre-planned process. A
design may also be a mere plan that does not include a production or engineering processes although a
working knowledge of such processes is usually expected of designers. In some cases, it may be
unnecessary or impractical to expect a designer with a broad multidisciplinary knowledge required for
such designs to also have a detailed specialized knowledge of how to produce the product.

Design and production are intertwined in many creative professional careers, meaning problem-solving

is part of execution and the reverse. As the cost of rearrangement increases, the need for separating
design from production increases as well. For example, a high-budget project, such as a skyscraper,
requires separating (design) architecture from (production) construction. A Low-budget project, such as
a locally printed office party invitation flyer, can be rearranged and printed dozens of times at the low
cost of a few sheets of paper, few drops of ink, and less than one hour's pay of a desktop publisher.

This is not to say that production never involves problem-solving or creativity, nor that design always
involves creativity. Designs are rarely perfect and are sometimes repetitive. The imperfection of a design
may task a production position (e.g. production artist, construction worker) with utilizing creativity or
problem-solving skills to compensate for what was overlooked in the design process. Likewise, a design
may be a simple repetition (copy) of a known preexisting solution, requiring minimal, if any, creativity or
problem-solving skills from the designer.

An example of a business workflow process using Business Process Model and Notation.

Process design[edit]

See also:  Business process management  and  Method engineering

"Process design" (in contrast to "design process" mentioned above) is to the planning of routine steps of
a process aside from the expected result. Processes (in general) are treated as a product of design, not
the method of design. The term originated with the industrial designing of chemical processes. With the
increasing complexities of the information age, consultants and executives have found the term useful
to describe the design of business processes as well as manufacturing processes.[33]

Design disciplines