Qualifications: Diploma in Beverage Packaging (Beer) Unit 3.3 Heat Transfer

Qualifications
Diploma in Beverage Packaging (Beer)

Unit 3.3 Heat Transfer
PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TRANSFER
Learning Material © Institute of Brewing and Distilling 2013

DIPLOMA IN PACKAGING (BEER) - MODULE 3  Radiation:
- Basic Stefan-Boltzmann equation
- Concept of emissivity
UNIT 3.3: Heat Transfer - Areas where radiant heat transfer is relevant
in packaging operations
- Radiant heat loss reduction
ELEMENT 3.3.1: Principles of Heat Transfer
 Overall heat transfer:
- Heat transfer through multi-component
ABSTRACT: People accredited with this unit standard are barrier (e.g. across a plate heat exchanger
able to demonstrate a working knowledge of the of the role plate with fouling layers, film coefficients and
of thermal energy transfer in the management and control conductivity for the plate and fouling layers)
of process technology for packaging - Calculation of the overall heat transfer
coefficient “U value” and calculation of heat
LEARNING OUTCOMES: On completion of this unit you will transfer in a typical composite system
be able to demonstrate: - Effects of fouling and scaling
1. A working knowledge of the role of thermal energy 3.3.1.3 Heat exchanger sizing:
transfer in the management and control of process
 Concept of the heat balance and heat transfer
technology for packaging
across a temperature gradient
2. Understanding of principles of heat transfer, heat  Concept and calculation of log mean temperature
difference (LMTD) and differences with
transfer mechanisms, heat transfer applications,
“arithmetic mean”
equipment design and operation in a packaging
 Co- and counter-current flow in a heat exchanger
plant
SYLLABUS. 3.3.1.4 Plate heat exchanger designs:

 Construction of a plate heat exchanger, its
3.3.1.1 Forms of heat energy: components and configuration
 Definition of specific heat  Function of plate patterns
 Concept of latent heat and exothermic heat as  Typical heat transfer coefficients
material properties  Sealing gaskets and “grid” or “divider” plates
 Calculations of energy change associated with  Parallel and series passes to match flow and heat
these forms of energy recovery requirements
 Importance of fouling / scaling problems
3.3.1.2 Heat transfer mechanisms:  CIP techniques
 Conduction:  Leakage protection
- Mechanism of conduction  Heat exchanger calculations (e.g. typical heat
- Concept of thermal conductivity as a exchanger area, number of plates etc.)
material property  Specific plate heat exchanger applications in
- Calculation of heat transfer through a slab packaging (e.g. flash pasteurization) with process
of material (single and multi-layer control and instrumentation arrangement.
systems with special consideration for
thick circular sections such as insulated 3.3.1.5 Jacketed vessels:
pipes i.e. log mean area or thickness)  Heat transfer in jacketed vessels
 Convection:
- Mechanisms of convection with the sub 3.3.1.6 Shell and tube heat exchangers:
classifications of “natural” and “forced”  Shell and tube heat exchanger designs and
- Concept of heat transfer across a film configurations
layer and the benefit of high turbulence  Applications in packaging
- Concept of “film heat transfer coefficient”
to be treated as a “conductivity factor” 3.3.1.7 Insulation:
- Calculation methods and influence of  Function of insulation
velocity  Choice of materials based on temperature, duty,
- The plate heat exchanger as an example safety and environmental considerations
of forced convection with high velocity /  Function of vapour barrier for cold duties
turbulence  Protection of stainless steel surfaces against
- Boiling and condensation heat transfer possible chloride attack
- Nucleate boiling and film boiling  External protection of insulation material
(including the effect of stainless steel  Multi-layer insulation systems
surface properties - “wetability”)
2 Diploma in Beverage Packaging (Beer)

Element 3.3.1 Principles of Heat Transfer
3.3.1.1 DEFINITION OF SPECIFIC HEAT. CONCEPT OF LATENT HEAT AND EXOTHERMIC HEAT AS MATERIAL
PROPERTIES
Unit of Energy
The SI unit of heat or energy is the joule (J). Sometimes the amount of energy is related to the watt, or kilowatt to give the
‘kilowatt hour’. This is not an SI unit but is compatible with energy supply units in common use.
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The rate of expenditure of energy is termed ‘Power’ and is equivalent to joules per second, (J s ). This unit is the watt (W). 1W =
-1
1Js .
The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin (K). Since most heat transfer applications involve temperature differences, the same
result is obtained whether Degrees Celsius (°C) or kelvin are used. It is often more convenient to work in Degrees Celsius (°C).
Both units will be used in this section.
The one exception to this is Radiant Heat Transfer, where it is essential that only kelvin (K) is used.
The SI unit of volume is the cubic metre (m³). In breweries, it is usual to use the hectolitre as a measure of production. It is
3
advisable to convert all units to SI for calculations. 10 hl = 1 m .
Forms of Heat Energy
Heat is a form of energy. In the brewing process, heat takes the following forms:
Sensible heat, that is heat associated with a detectable change in temperature, i.e. it may be sensed.
Latent heat that is heat energy associated with a change of phase, for example liquid to vapour. Latent means ‘hidden’ because
this form of energy is associated with a zero temperature change.
Exothermic heat: that is, heat released from a chemical reaction. Possibly the most significant in the brewing industry is the heat
produced by the fermentation. Some chemical reactions may be endothermic, that is associated with an absorption of heat.
These are not common in the brewing process.
Throughout the brewing process, there is a constant need for changes in the heat content in order to create the conditions
conducive to the final product quality. All three forms of heat will be encountered.
Sensible Heat
Sensible heat is associated with a change of temperature, that is, a change which may be sensed. However the temperature
change brought about by this energy input or output will depend upon the mass (M) of the material involved and a property
known as the:
‘Specific Heat’ (Cp)
The definition of Specific Heat is:

The energy required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a substance by unit temperature difference.
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For example the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water through 1K is 4.186 kJ kg K . This is high when
compared with other liquids.
A list of some commonly encountered specific heats appears in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Specific heats

Dipl.Pack Revision Notes v2 October 2013 3
Note that especially in the cases of liquids and gases, the specific heats vary with temperature. The data in Figure 1applies to
temperatures in the range 0 to 20°C.
The specific heat of gases is measured either at constant volume or constant pressure (Cv or Cp). The data in Figure 1 refers to
constant pressure (Cp).
The general equation for sensible heat is therefore:

Q = M * Cp * dT (1)
Where Q = Energy in J
M = Mass in kg
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Cp= Specific Heat J kg K
dT= temperature difference K or °C
With gases, there are two distinct values of the Specific Heat depending whether the property is measured at constant volume
or constant pressure. The values of the specific heat are therefore abbreviated as:
Cp = Specific heat at constant pressure.

Cv = Specific heat at constant volume.
Latent Heat
When a substance changes phase, it is associated with a change in energy. Changing solid to liquid, liquid to vapour and in some
cases solid to vapour, all requires an input of energy. Likewise this energy is released during the phase changes in the reverse
direction. This energy change is called:
‘Latent Heat’
Although energy change occurs during a phase change, there is no temperature change, hence the name Latent heat, meaning
Hidden heat.
The values of the latent heats associated with the various phase changes are not equal. Although the solid to liquid latent heat is
virtually constant with pressure, this is not the case for liquids to vapour. More detailed data on vapour / liquid latent heats is
given in thermodynamic tables or, in the case of water, Steam Tables. Some latent heats are given in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Latent heats
The equation to find the heat required to change the phase of a material is given by:
Q = M * hlv (2)
Where M = mass of material in kg

-1
hlv = Latent heat in kJ kg
Exothermic and Endothermic Heat
Every chemical reaction is accompanied by a change in energy: either with heat released or absorbed. In the brewing process,
the majority of reactions involve heat release. These are called:
‘Exothermic Reactions’
The most common exothermic reaction in the brewing process is fermentation. However the combustion of fuels is another
exothermic reaction having importance to most industrial processes, particularly in steam raising.
During fermentation the heat release is due to the conversion of sugar; with a high energy value, to alcohol and carbon dioxide;
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both having lower energy values. The quantity of heat released is approximately 1217 kJ kg of glucose fermented. For this
purpose it has been assumed that the fermentable material is glucose. The difference caused by the different sugars involved in
a brewery fermentation, is very small since the yeast converts most sugars to glucose in order to use them.
Examples of sensible heat latent heat and exothermic heat in a packaging plant
Sensible heat is used in packaging plants to heat bottle washer detergent tanks, tunnel pasteuriser tanks, large container wash
tanks, plate pasteurisers, glue, CIP tanks, product trim chillers plus heating boiler water.
Latent heat is absorbed converting water to steam in the boiler plus as the refrigeration load evaporating the refrigerant. Latent
heat is released condensing steam to water plus condensing refrigerant post compression.
Exothermic heat is used in the boiler when fuel is burnt. Latent heat can also be released when concentrated chemicals are
diluted egg dilution of caustic. This is especially evident if the chemicals are mixed in the wrong order i.e. water added to the
concentrated detergent rather than the correct way of adding the concentrated detergent to water.
Calculation of energy change associated with these forms of energy change
Sensible heat
Find the heat needed to raise the temperature of 500hl of water with a specific gravity of 1.000 from 20°C to boiling point at
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100° C, given that the specific heat is 4.19 kJ kg K .
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Density in SI units = 1.000 * 1000 = 1000 kg m
Volume in SI units = 500/10 = 50m³
Mass = 50 * 1000 = 50 000 kg
-1 -1
Cp = 4.19 kJ kg K
dT = 100 – 20 = 80°C or 80K
Q = 50 000 * 4.19 * 80 = 16 760 000 kJ
If this heating takes place in 30 minutes, find the average rate of heat input.
Time in SI units = 30 X 60 s = 1800 s
Rate of input = 16 760 000 /1800 = 9311.11 kJ/s

or 9311.11 kW
Latent Heat
Find the heat required to evaporate by boiling, 10 hl of water at atmospheric pressure. Calculate the power input if the
evaporation takes place over 1 hour at standard atmospheric conditions of 101.325 kPa, (1013.25 mbar).
Volume of water evaporated = 10 / 10 = 1 m³

-
Density of water = 1000 kg m ³
Mass evaporated = 1 * 1000 = 1000 kg
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Latent Heat at 1013.25 mbar = 2256.9 kJ kg
Heat required = 1000 * 2256,9 = 2 256 900 kJ (= 2 256.9 MJ)
Boiling time = 60 minutes = 60 * 60 = 3600 s

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Energy rate = 2 256 900 / 3600 = 626.9kJ s or 626.9 kW
See also Section 3.3.2 ‘Steam’ for the effects of pressure on the values of the Latent Heat.
Exothermic Heat
Calculate the energy release when if 60 kg of heavy fuel oil is burnt in the boiler of a packaging plant? Assume calorific value of
heavy fuel oil 41.37 MJ/kg.
What is the rate of energy release if the fuel is burnt in 1 hour?
Energy release = 60 * 41.37 MJ = 2482.2 MJ
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Heat release rate = 2482.2 * 1000/3600 kJ s
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= 689.5 kJ s or 689.5 kW

3.3.1.2 HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS:
Conduction, Convection and Radiation
Heat energy is transferred by three mechanisms. These are:

 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation
Summary
Conduction is the mechanism of energy transfer based on contact between adjacent atoms and molecules. It is considered that
heat energy results in excitation of the molecules, which is transmitted by molecule to molecule contact. Clearly, conduction
does require a medium for transmission. Good conductors are typically metals, especially copper and silver. Poor conductors are
called insulators, examples of which are ceramics and gases. A typical example of conduction is the mechanism by which heat is
transferred through a heat exchanger plate.
Convection occurs in fluid media, i.e. liquids and gases. Convection involves observable movement of the fluid transmitting the
heat energy from the heat transfer surface into the bulk of the fluid.
Convection can be subdivided into:

Natural convection, where the movement is caused by density differences occurring as a result of temperature differences. An
example is post fermentation cooling as a start to maturation.
Forced convection, where the movement is created by an external force such as a pump. An example of forced convection is in a
heat exchanger where the 2 fluids are pumped through the heat exchanger in order to create the required degree of turbulence.
Heat transfer during fermentation may be considered as ‘forced’ due to the movement created by the release of carbon dioxide
bubbles.
Radiation involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves. Radiation does not need a transfer medium. In fact the
presence of any medium hinders the radiant heat transfer process. Radiation is the mechanism by which the Earth receives
energy from the Sun across the vacuum of space. An example of radiant heat transfer in the brewery is the radiant heat ‘plaqu e’
heaters often used in areas such as loading docks, to keep personnel warm in otherwise cold conditions.
Mechanism of conduction and concept of thermal conductivity as a material property
Conduction is a mechanism of heat transfer dependent on contact through the material, by energy transfer at the molecular
level. The driving force is a temperature difference across the material. The conductive media may be liquid, solid or gas. The
property of a material to conduct heat is referred to as the:
Thermal Conductivity
The Thermal Conductivity is defined as the heat transmitted through 1 metre of the material over an area of 1 square metre with
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a temperature difference of 1K across the material. The units are watt metres per square metre per degree, Or W m m K . This
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resolves to W m K . Figure 3 shows a diagrammatic form of this definition.
Figure 3. Definition of Thermal Conductivity
The equation which governs heat transfer across a barrier by conduction comes from the definition of thermal conductivity and
is given by:
q = A * k/x * T (3)
Where
q = heat transfer rate in watts (W).
2
A = Heat transfer area in square metres (m ).
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k = Thermal conductivity of the material (W m K ).
x = Distance through which the heat is transmitted, (the thickness of the conductive path) in metres, (m).
T = Temperature difference across the heat transfer barrier.
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In Equation 3, the term ‘k/x’ is termed the conductance of the barrier and has units W m K .
Examples of thermal conductivity of materials (good and poor)
A list of some commonly encountered thermal conductivities appears in Figure 4. Note that there is a great similarity with
electrical conductivity, with metals such as gold, silver and copper being particularly good thermal conductors.
Poor conductivity is utilised to prevent heat losses and these materials are referred to as ‘insulators’. As with the electrical
analogy, gases, glass and ceramics are poor conductors and used as insulators. The best insulator is a perfect vacuum since there
are no molecules between which the energy may be transmitted either by conduction or convection. An example of this is the
Dewar flask. Vacuum is used as an insulator in applications such as cryogenic gas systems where the high costs are justified by
minimising losses due to heat in-leak. However, for this method to be effective, there must be a ‘near-perfect’ vacuum’ in the
insulating jacket.
Figure 4. Some Typical Thermal Conductivities
Note 1. There are minor differences in the values of Thermal Conductivity as published in various sources.
Note 2. The Thermal Conductivity does vary across the range of temperatures. However for the relatively narrow temperature
range of normal process conditions, they may be considered as being constant.
Note 3. Thermal conductivities of gases are temperature dependent (i.e. will vary with temperature). For example, steam has a
conductivity of 0.0186 at 10°C, 0.0217 at 60°C, 0.0249 at 100°C.
Note 4. Hydrogen has been included since it has a particularly high thermal conductivity for a gas.
Calculation of heat transfer though a flat slab of material.
Example
2
Find the heat transmitted by a stainless steel plate of 1 m area, if the temperature difference is 5°C and the plate thickness is 0.8
mm.
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x = 0.8 mm = 0.8 * 10 m
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k = 16.3 W m k
Applying equation 3
-3
q = 1 * 16.3/(0.8 * 10 ) * 5 watts
q = 101875 W = 101.875 kW
Note that in these examples, a first step is to convert data into SI units.

Example
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Find the heat gained by beer at –2°C, through 50 mm of poly-phenolic foam insulation of conductivity 0.040 W m K in an
external maturation vessel, 10 m high with a diameter of 3 metres. For simplicity, assume this to be a vertical cylinder with all
surfaces exposed to an ambient temperature of 25°C.
Area of circular vessel top =  * r²

2 2
=  * (3/2) = 7.07 m
2
Area of base (identical to top) = 7.07 m
Area of cylindrical section =  * d* l

2
=  * 3 * 10 = 94.25 m
2
Total surface area = 108.39 m
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Insulation thickness = 50 mm = 50/1000 m = 50 * 10 m
-3 -1 -1
k/x = 0.04/(50 * 10 ) = 0.8 W m K
Temperature difference = 25 + 2 = 27°C
q = 108.39 * 0.8 * 27 = 2341 watts

q = 2.341 kW
Special consideration for thick circular sections, such as insulated pipes.
In the example above, it has been assumed that the heat transfer area of the insulation is the same as the surface area of the
vessel. For large vessels, where the ratio of the effective overall diameter to the inside diameter is close to unity, (this is 1.033
above), it is an acceptable assumption. However when pipes are involved, where ratio of outside to inside diameter is much
greater (for example, a 100 mm diameter pipe insulated with 50 mm of insulation, will have a ratio of 2.0), this assumption may
lead to inaccuracies in the calculation. Note that a very thick walled pipe (not commonly encountered in brewery process
equipment) may be considered in exactly the same manner as a pipe with insulation.
Figure 5 shows a cross section through a 100mm diameter pipe insulated with 50 mm of insulation. Clearly, the heat transfer
area at the pipe surface is smaller than the heat transfer at the outside surface of the insulation layer. Therefore some ‘mean’
value must be used when calculating the heat transmission.
Figure 5. Heat Transfer through a Thick Walled Pipe
The use of mathematical integration gives a value referred to as the:
‘Log Mean Diameter ‘
This is given by the equation:
dlm = (d2-d1)/ln (d2/d1) (4)
Where
dlm = Log mean diameter
d1 = Inside or smaller diameter
d2 = Outside or greater diameter
The abbreviation ‘ln’ refers to the ‘Natural log’.
The log mean diameter may then be used to calculate the effective heat transfer area.
Calculating the log mean diameter is not a straightforward procedure and it is possible to incur errors. It is possible to make a
very good approximation using the:
‘Arithmetic mean diameter’.
This is given by:

dm = (d1+d2)/2 (5)
Where
dm = Mean diameter
d1 = Inside or smaller diameter
d2 = Outside or greater diameter
The differences in the results of the 2 calculations are very small and normally may be ignored; certainly when the diameter
ratios are under 2.0:1.
Figure 6 shows the ratio of the effective outside to inside diameters, the log mean and arithmetic mean diameters and the error
resulting from the use of arithmetic mean.
Figure 6. Comparison of arithmetic and log mean diameters
Mechanism of convection with the sub classifications of ‘Natural’ and ‘Forced’. Concept of the ‘Film Heat Transfer’ coefficient
(h) to be treated as a ‘conductivity factor’
Convection is the heat transfer process, which involves observable movement in the material involved. Since movement is a key
factor, convection can only take place in fluid systems i.e. liquids or gases.
Convection is subdivided into ‘Natural convection’ where the movement is caused by density difference resulting from the
heating effect, and ‘Forced convection’ where the movement is caused by an external force, such as a pump.
Concept of the ‘ Film Heat Transfer’ coefficient (h) to be treated as a ‘conductivity factor’
With convection, heat transfer is considered to occur across a thin layer at the solid to fluid interface. This is sometimes referred
to as the ‘boundary layer’. The ability of this layer to transfer heat is called the:
‘film heat transfer coefficient’

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It is denoted by the symbol ‘h’. The SI units are W m K . Note that the film heat transfer coefficient is a conductance in the
same way that the ‘k/x’ value in Equation 3 represents scaling and fouling conductances. In essence the assumption we make
about convective heat transfer is that the rate limiting step is the heat transfer through this boundary layer. Thus if we can
calculate the heat transfer through the boundary layer we can describe the heat transferred into the fluid by convection.
Concept of heat transfer across a film layer and the benefit of high turbulence (Reynolds Number). Reference to calculation
methods and influence of velocity.
In order to be able to carry out calculations on convective heat transfer this film coefficient needs to be estimated. The work of
several researchers was brought together to produce the Dittus-Boelter equations. These used a series of dimensionless groups
which had been developed by Reynolds, Prandtl and Nusselt.
The relationship was established was:

0.8 0.4
Nu = 0.023 * Re * Pr

Where:
Nu = Nusselt number
Re = Reynolds number
Pr = Prandtl number
Nusselt Number
Nu = h . d
k
h = film heat transfer coefficient (W/(m2 K)) (This is what we are interested in)
d = hydraulic diameter (m) of the flow channel and is almost always constant
k = thermal conductivity of the fluid (W/mK) and is virtually constant
Reynolds number
Re = d . v. ρ
μ
d = hydraulic diameter (m) of the flow channel
v = velocity (m/s)
ρ = density (kg/m2)
μ = viscosity (Pa s) i.e. (kg/(m s)
Velocity is the significant variable in any one system
Prandtl number
Pr = μ . Cp
k
μ = viscosity (Pa s) i.e. (kg/(m s)
Cp = specific heat (J/(kg K))
k = thermal conductivity of the fluid (W/mK)
If you look at the components of these numbers once the fluid to be used has been selected i.e. the density, viscosity, specific
heat and thermal conductivity of the fluid and diameter of the flow channel are all virtually constant then the only major factor
which can be changed to effect a change in the film heat transfer coefficient “h” is the velocity component which is in the
Reynolds number. Reynolds number is a measure of turbulence thus the greater the turbulence the bigger the value of “h” and
thus the higher the heat transfer rate.
For further reading Ref. McAdams ‘Heat Transmission’ and Kern ‘Process Heat Transfer’.
Candidates will not be asked to calculate the film heat transfer coefficient from the Dittus Boelter equations.
Forced Convection
Forced Convection relies on an external force, such as a pump to provide the movement necessary to achieve heat transfer. An
example of this mechanism is found in a plate heat exchanger, where the fluids are moved through adjacent passages, usually by
a pressure differential created by pumps. The flow causes turbulence within the fluid, which effectively transfers heat between
the plate surface and the main bulk of the flow.
Conditions in the passages of a plate heat exchanger are extremely turbulent created by both the high velocity and the pattern
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embossed into the plates. Consequently heat transfer is particularly good. Film transfer coefficients of up to 15 000 W m K can
be expected.
Natural Convection
In breweries, a typical example of natural convection, occurs during the post fermentation cooling phase. Beer in contact with
the cooling panels of the cylindro-conical vessel is cooled. Since, generally, liquid density increases with reducing temperature,
the beer close to the cooling surfaces becomes more dense than the surrounding beer and moves downwards in relation to the
bulk of the vessel contents. This beer is then replaced by more beer from the main bulk of the vessel. A circulation is then
established of colder beer flowing downwards at the vessel surface and warmer beer flowing upwards at the centre. This pattern
is shown in Figure 7. Natural convection will also occur in bright beer tanks with cooling panels. The beer is likely to be below its
temperature of maximum density i.e. 3.5 °C and thus any convection currents will be reversed with the coldest beer at the top of
the tank.

Figure 7. Natural convection during post fermentation cooling
Since the heat transfer performance depends on fluid velocity, initially with a large temperature difference between the beer
and the cooling panels, the convection currents are strong, therefore the heat transfer performance is at its greatest. As the
vessel temperature reduces, so does the temperature difference and the strength of the convection currents. A minimum is
reached at approximately 3.5°C, which is the point of maximum density of beer, also referred to as the ‘inversion temperature’.
At this point, because there is virtually no change in density, there are also no convection currents and heat transfer is at its
minimum. Below this temperature, convection currents are re-established but in the reverse direction: cooler beer being less
dense than warmer beer. Eventually the freezing point is reached which hinders further heat transfer.
Compared with forced convection, natural convection heat transfer is much slower as determined by the magnitude of the film
heat transfer coefficient. Typical natural film heat transfer coefficients in large vessels are
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in the range 50 to 250 W m K .
Figure 8 shows the variation in the heat transfer performance, as exemplified by the change in film heat transfer coefficient with
beer temperature, with a constant cooling jacket temperature. It should be noted that this performance curve is for one
particular design of vessel. The strength of the convection currents and therefore the heat transfer performance will depend
upon the vessel design, for example, vessel height in relation to diameter, and on the area of the cooling jackets.
There are methods for calculating the heat transfer due to natural convection. Ref. Mc Adams ‘Heat Transmission’ and Kern
‘Process Heat Transfer’.
The reversal of convection currents below the inversion temperature means that during an in-vessel cooling cycle, the point in
the vessel at which temperature is sensed for control purposes, must be changed.
Another example of ‘Natural Convection occurs during the tunnel pasteurisation of beer in bottles and cans (Figure 9).
Figure 8. Variation in heat transfer coefficient during cooling

Figure 9. Heat Transfer During Tunnel Pasteurisation
Calculation of heat transfer though multi-layer systems
In an actual application, the heat transfer system is usually a complex system of 3 or more components. Figure 10 shows a
typical system, in this case the heat transferred across a heat exchanger plate. The heat transfer mechanisms involved include:
 Convection up to and from the surfaces
 Conduction through the surfaces.
Figure 10. Heat transfer through a multi-component barrier

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The sum of these factors is referred to as the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient or ‘U’ value and the units are W m K .
The equation to calculate the heat transmitted through such a multi-component system is a modification of Equation 3 where ‘U’
has replaced the term k/x.
q = U*A*T 6
When summing conductances, in order to find the ‘U’ value, it is necessary to use the ‘Reciprocal sums’ (i.e. resistances)
technique:
1/U = 1/h1 + x/k + 1/h2 7
Scaling and fouling are often expressed as ‘resistances’, which numerically are the reciprocal of conductances. When including
these factors, they are added directly, (See factors r 1 and r2 in equation 11.8).
1/U = r1+ 1/h1 + x/k + 1/h2 +r2 8
Calculation of the overall heat transfer coefficient ‘U Value’ and calculation of heat transfer in a typical composite system
There are no limits to the number of factors which may be included in this equation. An example of a large number of
components is in the case of a building structure, where often 7 components are encountered, (see Figure 11).

Figure 11. Diagram of heat transfer through a typical building wall
In Figure 11, the heat transfer components are:

1 External film (heat transfer coefficient to outside air)
2 External brick, 100 mm.
3 Cavity filled with mineral fibre insulation, 50 mm.
4 Inner leaf of lightweight building block 100 mm.
5 Cement rendering 15 mm.
6 Plaster finish, 5 mm.
7 Internal film (heat transfer coefficient to inside air)
The overall heat transfer coefficient, or ‘U’ value, may be calculated as shown in Figure 12.
Figure 12. Calculation of a multi-component heat transfer coefficient
Note that the high resistance provided by the lightweight block and insulated cavity.
Example
Calculate the heat transmitted per square metre of the wall structure shown in Figure 12 when a temperature inside the building
is 18°C and the temperature outside is 0°C
Recalculate for the heat transmitted through a building constructed of a single metal skin of negligible resistance.
From Equation 6:
q = U * A * T
q = 0.44 * 1 * (18-0) = 7.92 watts
For a single metal skin of negligible resistance, the only resistance will be the external and internal skin resistances.
r = 0.06 + 0.12 = 0.18
-2
U = 1/r = 5.56 W m K
Q = 5.56 * 1 * (18-0) = 100.08 watts

Note that the external film resistance will vary according to prevailing conditions, for example wind velocity. Further details of
calculation methods and the properties of building materials can be found in the CIBSE Guide A-3 Thermal Properties of Building
Structures.
Boiling and condensation heat transfer as an extension to ‘Convection’ with its relevance to packaging processes
Boiling and condensation represent special cases of heat transfer. The major applications within packaging are within the boiler
for raising steam and similarly within clean steam generators.
Both process show extremely high turbulence at the surface where the boiling or condensation occur. Calculation processes are
available to predict these film coefficients, although most users resort to empirical data.
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Film coefficients around 5000 W m K are typical for both boiling, but are usually, significantly less than condensing film
coefficients; both will depend on the fluid.
Special case - Boiling Heat Transfer

Boiling can occur in two main forms. There is ‘nucleate’ boiling where bubbles of vapour are formed on the heat transfer surface.
Below the liquid boiling point, these bubbles detach themselves into the fluid, where they collapse and, in so doing, transfer
their heat into the bulk of the liquid. At the boiling point, the bubbles rise through the liquid and break on the surface.
In both cases this movement of bubbles away from the surface causes a high level of turbulence and consequential good heat
transfer.
Figure 13 shows the form of nucleate boiling for a fully wetted surface (a - Copper) and a less well-wetted surface (b – stainless
steel).
Figure 13. Nucleate Boiling
As the surface temperature is increases, say above 40°C over the liquid temperature, film boiling occurs.
Gas phase heat transfer is poor. Consequently, there is a definite reduction in the heat transfer performance as film boiling is
reached.
The onset of film boiling can be influenced by the surface properties of the heat transfer barrier. Stainless steel has a tenacious
oxide layer, which means that its surface may be considered as non ‘wettable’. Consequently, the onset of film boiling will occur
at lower temperatures than a surface which lacks this oxide layer and considered as wettable, such as copper.
The greatest inhibiting factor to heat transfer for stainless steel is the chromium oxide layer, since this suppresses nucleate
boiling formation due to surface vapour blinding. The vapour bubble footprint from a copper surface (Figure 13 a) is
characterised by the fact that the copper surface is readily wetted by the wort and the steam bubbles escape freely. A stainless
steel-wort-steam system is characterised by the fact that stainless steel is not wetted by the wort and the steam tends to form a
stable film over the surface (Figure 13 b). Thus the copper heating surface exhibits free boiling with bubbles rising from a fully
wetted surface, whereas the stainless steel heating surface becomes covered with a film of steam which prevents contact
between the water and the heating surface. Heat transfer from the stainless steel surface is therefore lower than from the
copper surface.
Figure 14 shows the film heat transfer coefficient against temperature difference between the surface and the boiling liquid for a
typical boiling process, showing the point at which film boiling starts. Typically, water boiling systems will have values for heat
-2
flux in the range 20 to 40 kW m .

Figure 14. Boiling Heat Flux with Temperature Difference
Brief explanation of radiation
As stated in the summary, radiation is a mechanism of heat transfer, attributed to electromagnetic waves, which does not need
a transmission medium. Radiation is the mechanism whereby the earth receives its external energy.
Basic Stefan-Boltzmann equation
It was found, by experiment, that the rate of radiant heat transfer depends on the difference in the fourth power of the absolute
temperatures, (Kelvin ‘K’). The general equation describing radiant heat transfer is based on the concepts of Stefan-Boltzmann
and is usually given as:
Radiant Heat Transfer equation
qr =  *  * A * (T14 - T24) 9
Where
qr = heat transfer rate by radiation
-8 -2 -4
 = Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.67 * 10 W m K
 = Emissivity of the surface
A = Heat transfer area (m²)
T1 & T2 = Temperatures of the hot and cold bodies in absolute temperature units, (K).
Apart from the temperature difference, radiant heat transmission depends on the property of the surface to emit radiant heat.
This is known as the ‘emissivity’.
Emissivity of various surfaces. Heat losses from vessels
Emissivities of typical surfaces can vary from 1, which is termed a ‘perfect emitter’ or a ‘black body radiator’, to zero, which is
termed a ‘perfect reflector’. However, most surfaces have emissivities in the range 0.8 to 0.95: even white paint which quickly
ages to this condition.
Polished metal surfaces have low emissivities/high reflectivity but can quickly ‘age’ by, for example oxidation, if not protected.
Figure 15 shows the emissivities of some common materials in both the ‘new’ and ‘oxidised’ or ‘aged’ condition.
Figure 15. Examples of emissivities

Areas where radiant heat transfer is relevant in the packaging plant
Generally, radiant heat is the least significant of the 3 heat transfer mechanisms. However, there are some instances where it is
significant.
In the combustion section of a boiler, where the temperatures are approximately 1200°C, heat is transferred from the flames to
the ‘furnace tube’ by radiation. In the following ‘smoke tube’ section, the heat is transmitted by convection.
Brew-house vessels, where a large areas are involved, can show a significant radiant heat losses. Although the heat radiant heat
loss per square metre is relatively low, the large areas mean that the losses are increased. This is made even worse if the vessels
are ‘tarnished’ or soiled with organic material. Other area where radiant losses could occur would be un-lagged hot CIP tanks
and hot melt glue installations.
An effective method of supplying comfort heating to personnel in cold exposed conditions, for example on a loading bay or in
packaging halls, is to provide radiant heating by means of radiant panels using either gas, electricity or steam as the heat source.
The panels are often painted black to maximise their emissivity. Radiant heat is absorbed by the person rather than heat the
workspace, therefore this form of heating is particularly effective in reducing heating costs for such open areas.
Sol-air temperatures as a means of calculation for heat gain of buildings and external equipment.
A major effect of radiant heat transfer is in the form of solar radiation. Solar energy can cause the external surfaces to become
remarkably hot, especially at times of few clouds and virtually no wind. Even in temperate areas, the surface temperature can
reach 53°C in the peak of summer. The effects of radiation can be simplified by translating the radiant heat energy into an
equivalent temperature. This is referred to as the ‘sol-air temperature’.
This is the temperature which a perfect emitter will reach if exposed to the solar radiation with no cloud or wind. Maximum sol-
air temperatures will depend on location. This needs to be incorporated into the design of insulation for items of plant such as
external bright beer tanks.
Radiant heat loss reduction
Area
Radiant energy (absorbed or emitted) will be linearly proportional to the area.
Emissivity
To minimise solar gains, equipment or buildings may be clad in low emissivity finishes or cladding, for example stainless steel,
polished aluminium or white paint. However it should be noted that many finishes will age rapidly so they will then provide little
or no significant reduction.
Surface temperature
Since the radiant heat transfer is governed by the fourth power equation, a small reduction in the surface temperature will make
a large difference in the radiant heat transfer. In most packaging applications, insulating hot surfaces, intended to reduce
convective heat losses and/or provide personnel protection, will have the effect of reducing the surface temperatures to the
point at which radiation is insignificant.
3.3.1.3 HEAT EXCHANGER SIZING:
Concept of the Heat Balance and heat transfer across a temperature gradient
A heat exchanger is a device, which allows heat to be transferred between fluids across a barrier. In packaging applications there
are many types of heat exchanger serving different duties. Of these, the plate heat exchanger has widespread use in food and
drink applications. A significant packaging application of heat exchange is the plate pasteuriser which is three plate heat
exchangers on one frame. The largest section is the regeneration section where the heat from the hot pasteurised product is
removed by incoming cold product. Some further cooling is generally necessary by refrigeration, the vast majority of heat is
transferred into the incoming product prior to passing it through a final heating section to bring it up to pasteurisation
temperature.
Principle of the Heat Balance
When examining any heat transfer system such as a heat exchanger, it is useful to keep in mind the principle of the Heat Balance
resulting from the law of Conservation of Energy.

The Heat Balance dictates that, for example in a heat exchanger, the heat energy gained by one fluid MUST EQUAL the heat lost
by the second fluid, assuming no energy losses. In practical situations there are always losses from the surface of the equipment,
which may or may not be significant.
A second obvious, but sometimes overlooked, point concerns heat and temperature differences. Heat can ONLY be transferred
from a higher temperature to a lower temperature. Heat can NEVER be transferred from a lower to a higher temperature. Heat
recovery in the regeneration section of a plate pasteuriser depends on there being the minimum practicable difference in
temperatures at the ‘Cold end’ of the ‘Cold product in to ‘Cooled pasteurised product ’ section. Sometimes this will be called the
‘Cold end T’ or ‘approach temperature’. Plate heat exchangers are able to operate with approach temperatures as low as 3°C
without requiring excessive numbers of plates. This makes for good heat recovery.
Example
This example uses the ‘regeneration section of a plate pasteuriser to demonstrate the Heat Balance. The conditions are shown
in Figure 16.
Figure 16
Heat lost from the pasteurised product in cooling from 75°C to 10°C
-1
Flow of pasteurised product = 300/(10*3600) = 0.008333 m³ s
-1
Mass flow = 0.008333 *1008 = 8.4 kg s
Heat loss = M * Cp * dT
-1
= 8.4 * 3.796 * (75 – 10) = 2072.62 kJ s or kW
-1
Flow of unpasteurised product = 300/(10*3600) = 0.008333 m³ s
-1
Mass flow = 0.008333 * 1008 = 8.4 kg s
Heat gain = M * Cp * dT
-1
= 8.4 * 3.796 * (67 – 2) = 2072.62 kJ s or kW
The Heat Balance is a valuable technique in finding an unknown value, for example the flow, or temperature of one fluid,
provided the other values are known.
Temperature Difference in Heat Exchangers
The equation for finding the heat transferred in a heat exchanger is that given in Equation 6, namely
q = U * A * T 6
In general a heat exchanger can be considered a device within which two or more fluid streams come into (more commonly)
indirect contact with one another with the purpose of exchanging heat from the hot stream to the cold stream. The passage of
the respective fluid streams is normally achieved through the provision of a number of channels formed from tubes or the gaps
between adjacent plates. Depending on the respective orientation of these flow channels, there is a number of variations as to
the flow direction of the fluids to one another.
This aspect of flow direction is best described by consideration of the following three scenarios where two fluids flow relative to
one another. Fluid 1 flows within a pipe and the other fluid, fluid 2, flows outwith the pipe. Principally three flow arrangements
are possible: namely co-current (or parallel) flow (Figure 17); counter-current flow; and cross flow (Figure 18). These are best
considered diagrammatically:
Figure 17. Co-current flow – the two fluid streams flow in the same direction

Figure 18. Counter-current flow – the two fluid streams flow in the opposite direction
Co-current vs. Counter current Flows

The relative merits of co-current or counter current flows lies in the temperature profiles of the two fluids during passage
through the exchanger. This is graphically shown in Figure 19:
Figure 19.
The temperature profiles shown above indicate principally two things:
1. In co-current flow, the cold fluid (fluid 1) exit temperature (T 1o) will always be less than the hot fluid exit temperature (T 2o),
Advantage: This can be useful if fluid 2 is temperature sensitive and you do not wish to raise its temperature too high.
Disadvantage: Thermally inefficient as the hot stream leaves the exchanger at a relatively high temperature.
2. In counter current, the cold fluid exit temperature (T 1o) can be greater than the hot fluid outlet temperature (T 2o),
Advantage: Thermally efficient as the hot stream is exhausted at a relatively low temperature.
In practice most heat exchangers operate with, both co-current, counter current and mixed flow present. Although we can still
generally express the dominant flow direction which is instrumental in considering the approximate temperature profiles which
the fluid streams will experience.
Temperature Driving Force

As can be seen from the temperature profiles above, the temperature of the fluid streams varies with position, hence if we wish
to consider the heat flow within the exchanger, via an AUΔT type expression, we are faced with a choice of which ΔT
(temperature driving force) to take.
Using the co-current exchanger profile as an example (Figure 20), our choice of ΔT could include the following:
1. The temperature difference between the streams at the inlet of the exchanger, ΔT1,
2. The temperature difference between the streams at the outlet of the exchanger, T2,
3. An arithmetic mean of ΔT1 and ΔT2.

Figure 20.
1. and 2. above are clearly wrong, as there could be a significant difference between ΔT1 and ΔT2 hence the calculation of rate of
heat transfer, Q would be incorrect.
Option 3 is more attractive, as an arithmetic temperature difference would in some way account for the variation in T, however
there is a more definitive parameter, called the logarithmic mean temperature difference, which we will now derive.
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference
Consider the general case of heat transfer within a simple exchanger (Figure 21). The streams have mass flowrates and specific
heat capacities denoted as follows:
G1 – mass flowrate stream 1, cp1 – specific heat capacity for stream 1.
G2 – mass flowrate stream 2, cp2 – specific heat capacity for stream 2.
Figure 21.
Consider a differential radial slice through the exchanger, which has heat transfer area dA.
Across this area dA, heat is transferred at a rate of dQ from the hot stream (stream 2) to the cold stream (stream 1).
By integrating the general expression of Q=AUΔT for heat transfer across the heat exchanger the following expression is
developed:
The abbreviation ‘ln’ denotes the Natural Log.

This is similar in nature to a general expression of Q=AUΔT, where the temperature driving force (termed the logarithmic mean
temperature difference, ΔTlm) is represented by,
Hence the rate of heat transfer within the exchanger is given by:
Q = AUΔTlm 10
Hint: it is very easy to get confused with which temperatures you take differences between and which differences you take the
ratio of, when calculating ΔTlm. You will find it very helpful to draw a simple temperature profile diagram with the 4 stream inlet
and outlet temperatures marked on it (Figure 22), i.e.,
Figure 22.
Mark the temperature differences at either end of the exchanger, signified by ΔT1 and ΔT2 above.
To find the ΔTlm, you need only calculate,
It is just as valid to switch ΔT2 and ΔT1, thus,
You should see a pattern in the way these expressions are written: i.e.,
Don’t mix up the order of things, e.g.

3.3.1.4 PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGNS:
The plate heat exchanger is by far the most widespread type of heat exchanger in the food processing industries. More recently,
it is gaining popularity in other industrial applications. Figure 23 shows a range of plate heat exchangers available from one
manufacturer. For brewery applications, a stainless steel frame is often preferred to the coated steel frames for reasons of
hygiene maintenance and appearance.
Figure 23. Range of plate heat exchangers (courtesy of Alfa Laval)
Construction
The plate heat exchanger comprises a collection of plates assembled within a frame. The two process fluids flow in the spaces
between the plates and are distributed along the length of the heat exchanger by means of circular passages cut into the corners
of the plates. The flow channels between the plates and the distribution passages are sealed by a gasket fixed to the face of each
plate. A seal is made between the gasket and the reverse face of the adjacent plate.
Figure 24 shows a typical assembly of plates within the frame and the clamping screws which maintain the plate pack in
compression and therefore maintain the seal.
Figure 25 shows the flow arrangements in a plate heat exchanger.

Figure 25. Flow arrangements in a plate heat exchanger
Figure 24. Plate heat exchanger components
The plate heat exchanger as a good example of forced convection with high velocity/turbulence
There is a high degree of induced turbulence in the fluids flowing in the passages, created by the high velocities, as a result of the
small space between the plates and the pattern embossed into the plate. Very high heat transfer coefficient (‘U value’) and a
degree of ‘self-cleaning’ are achieved under these conditions. This makes the plate heat exchanger a good example of forced
convection.
Construction of a plate heat exchanger and the function of plate patterns
Part of a heat exchanger plate showing the pattern embossed into the plate surface, the distribution ports cut into the corners of
the plate and the sealing gasket around the edge of the plate and around the distribution ports is seen in Figure 26.
Note the absence of a complete circular seal around the top left hand port. This is to enable fluid from this port, to flow across
the face of this plate to a corresponding port in the lower part of this plate. The flow may be vertical or diagonal across the plate
surface, depending upon the particular design.
Figure 26. A typical heat exchanger plate

Figure 27 shows a close-up view of the plates and edge sealing arrangement of the gasket.
Figure 1.
The importance of the sealing gasket and the ‘grid’ or ‘divider’ plates
In Figure 26 note that at the right hand corner there is a total gasket around the port. Additionally, there is a space between this
and the flow channel seal. In order to prevent cross contamination of the fluids, this space is vented to atmosphere by means of
two small grooves in the gasket.
Parallel and series passes to match flow and heat recovery requirements
Heat exchanger plates may be manufactured with any combination of open or closed corner ports. For example by the use of
blanked ports, the liquid may be directed to flow in a number of parallel channels. The number of parallel channels will be
determined by the flow.
Likewise, the use of plates with blanked ports, enables ‘blocks’ of parallel passes to be arranged in series. This increases the
‘Thermal length’ of the heat exchanger, essential for good heat recovery in duties such as wort coolers. A typical wort cooler
may have up to 8 series passes in the water cooling section to ensure a good recovery of heat.
Figure 28 shows the flow arrangement and plates needed to achieve such an arrangement of parallel and series flow channels.
Figure 28. Flow arrangement and plate types needed to achieve a change in flow direction
Uses of PHE in Beer Chilling and Pasteurisation
Plate heat exchanges (PHE) are used within packaging for chilling, pasteurisation (both tunnel and plate) and utilities including
refrigeration.

One advantage of co-current heat exchange occurs with beer chillers. Prior to maturation and filtration, beer is cooled to within
one or two degrees of its freezing point.
In a plate heat exchanger, the temperature change from the bulk of the secondary refrigerant, such as propylene glycol solution,
to the beer is approximately equally distributed across the two films and the heat exchanger plate. Freezing occurs when the
plate temperature on the beer side is below the freezing point of the beer. This is shown in Figure 29.
Figure 29. Temperature change across a heat exchanger plate
Figure 30 shows the temperature profile in a typical beer chiller arranged to have co-current flows. Beer at +5°C and secondary
refrigerant, for example glycol, are shown as entering at the ‘Left-hand’ side of the diagram. The ‘red’ line denotes the metal skin
temperature, which in this case reaches a minimum of –2.3°C.
Figure 30. Temperature profile of a Co-current beer chiller
By comparison, Figure 31 shows the same duty by in a counter current arrangement. Again, beer is shown as entering the heat
exchanger at the ‘left-hand’ side of the diagram, but being counter current, this is the position at which the secondary
refrigerant leaves the heat exchanger.
Figure 30. A counter-current beer chiller

Note that in this case, the minimum skin temperature is –3.6 °C which is either very close or below the freezing point of most
beers. With such an arrangement, there is a severe risk of freezing occurring.
Process and instrumentation arrangement
The plate pasteurisation process is an application of a plate heat exchanger containing three heat transfer stages. Figure 32
shows the flow diagram of such a process complete with the temperature control instrumentation.
Figure 32. A Three - Stage Plate Pasteuriser
1) Beer enters the centre, (heat recovery) section of the heat exchanger through an intermediate ‘grid’ or ‘divider’ plate. In this
section incoming beer is heated by outgoing beer. This serves several purposes: It is an extremely effective heat recovery
process. Recovery of heat will supply up to 96% of the requirements of the process; with rates of between 93% and 95 % being
typical. It minimises the refrigeration requirements to produce beer at packaging temperature.
2) The beer then passes through the second ‘grid’ or ‘divider’ plate and enters the heating section. In this section, the beer is
heated to the required pasteurisation temperature by means of low pressure steam or hot water.
3) The beer, at pasteurisation temperature, then enters the holding tube to be held for a given time. This achieves the
pasteurisation process by a combination of time and temperature.
4) The hot pasteurised beer then enters the heat recovery section of the heat exchanger through the second ‘grid’ or ‘divider’
plate where it is cooled by the incoming beer.
5) The cooled beer then passes through the first ‘grid’ or ‘divider’ plate and enters the chilling section where it is cooled further
by a secondary refrigerant to the temperature required for packaging.
Example

Typical approach temperatures in duties such as regeneration in plate pasteurisers
Typical approach temperatures are shown in Figure 33.
Figure 33. Typical Operating Temperatures for a Plate Pasteurisation Unit

Importance of heat recovery
The following shows the calculation of a typical heat recovery. Note that in this section, the flow rates and the specific heats of
the two streams are identical.
Heat recovered in the recovery section
q = M * Cp * (65.6 – 3) = 62.6 M Cp
Total heat requirements
q = M * Cp * (70.3 – 3) = 67.3 M Cp
Recovery rate = 62.6/67.3 = 93%
From this it can be seen that should this heat recovery not take place then not only would 93% more heat energy be required
but also in order to cool the beer to a temperature when it can be controllably packaged at least an equivalent volume of wat er
would be required which would not only increase the water use but also produce more warm effluent.
Typical fouling/scaling problems
During processing of any fluid, there is the ever present risk of foreign material being deposited on the heat transfer surfaces
and hindering the heat transfer process. A typical example is when water containing hardness salts, is heated. This causes
calcium and magnesium salts to be deposited on the heating surfaces. A domestic example is ‘Scale’ on the inside of a kettle.
The term ‘Scale’ has come to be used for deposits of inorganic material.
‘Fouling’ is the term generally used for organic material deposited in pipe-work and equipment. A typical example is the deposits
of protein and caramelised sugars coating the heat transfer surfaces of a wort kettle.
The overall effect of scaling and fouling is the same. Both types of deposit will tend to hinder heat transfer by forming a coating
of poor conductivity material on the heat transfer surfaces. In severe cases, the deposits can be sufficiently great as to hinder
flow and render the equipment almost useless.
A previous section deals with the method of calculating heat transfer through ‘multi-component’ barriers. Scaling and fouling are
considered as components in this mechanism.
When designing heat transfer equipment, the designer usually makes allowances for scale and fouling based on knowledge of
the particular duty, for example, local water quality and treatment methods. The result is equipment, which exceeds the
performance specification when newly installed, but gradually reduces in performance whilst in service, until such time as
cleaning is required. The overall effect should be that specified performance is maintained over an acceptable service period.
However the user must accept that cleaning is inevitable, especially in the case of wort kettles, which will require regular
cleaning. Inorganic material may be more difficult to remove and require more aggressive removal procedures such as acid de-
scaling in order to effect removal.
-2 -1
The effect of fouling and scaling may be expressed as a thermal conductance and given the symbol ‘h’ with units W m K .
However it is more conventional to express the effect of fouling and scaling as ‘thermal resistances’, (r). In both cases a suffix is
used to identify the conductance or resistance in question.
The scale could also be considered as a material of thickness ‘x’ and a thermal conductivity ‘k’. In this instance, the resistance ‘r’
could be calculated as x/k. Thermal conductance and resistance are thus mutual reciprocals, i.e.:
1/h1 = r1 and h1 = 1/r1

2 -1 -2 -1
Typical fouling resistances for beer and wort are 0.000 025 79 m K W . This is equivalent to a conductivity of 38 767 W m K .
The fact that resistances are very small numbers and conductivities very large numbers, should be noted as a safeguard against
errors.
Scaling and fouling are often expressed as ‘resistances’, which numerically are the reciprocal of conductances. When including
these factors, they are added directly, (See factors r 1 and r2 in equation 3.8.8).
1/U = r1+ 1/h1 + x/k + 1/h2 +r2 11
Heat transfer through a multi component barrier, for example across a heat exchanger plate with film coefficients and
conductivity through the plate and fouling layers

As stated previously, the high degree of turbulence generates a very high overall heat transfer coefficient,(‘U’ value) in a plate
-2 -1 -2 -1
heat exchanger; possibly as high as 8000 W m K , but 4500 to 6000 W m K is more usual for typical brewery applications.
Although stainless steel is the common plate material, has a poor thermal conductivity, the plate thickness of less than 1 mm
(typically 0.5 to 0.8 mm), means that this is of minor significance.
In a typical plate heat exchanger, the heat transfer components are as shown in Figure 34.
Figure 34. Heat transfer components in a plate heat exchanger
CIP techniques
Regular CIP with formulated detergents capable of preventing build up of scale and fouling is essential for good heat transfer.
CIP is often carried out hot with a flowrate of at least the product rate to ensure turbulent conditions.
Leakage protection in beer chillers
Technological developments have resulted in the plates for beverage PHE’s becoming thinner. The reduction in thickness
improves the rate of heat transfer through the plate plus reduces cost as there is less metal. The downside of these
developments is that the plate becomes more fragile and easier to fail. Plate failure can result in liquid passing from one side to
the other resulting in contamination. One solution to this is to use double walled plates which have a bleed chamber. Should one
wall fail then liquid will come out of a tell-tale hole rather than contaminate the fluid on the other side of the plate. A section of
this double walled plate is shown in Figure 35 and usage arrangement in Figure 36.
Figure 35.
Figure 36.

All plate heat exchangers which come into contact with product should be integrity checked at least every six months to ensure
the integrity of the plates. Integrity checking needs to be done with the pasteuriser offline. Methods include blanking off an
outlet and pressurising the inlet with water whilst the inlet and outlet on the other side if the plates are open to atmosphere and
monitoring any pressure drop which would be indicative of a leak. Another method is to use helium which with its small
molecule will pick up very small plate failures.
3.3.1.5 JACKETED VESSELS:
Heat transfer in jacketed vessels with steam or liquid, e.g. secondary refrigerants, in the jackets
So far, the transfer of heat has been a continuous process where all the temperatures have remained constant at any point in
the system with respect to time. This is referred to as ‘Steady State’ heat transfer.
In this section, the situation of ‘Unsteady State’ heat transfer will be investigated. Such a condition will arise, for example, in a
jacketed vessel in which the contents are being heated or cooled over a period of time.
The heat transfer medium flows in the jacket and is considered to undergo only a negligible change in temperature. If the heat
transfer medium were condensing steam at constant pressure, then there would be no temperature change.
Heat is transferred from the vessel contents, through the vessel wall and into the fluid in the jacket.
Figure 37 shows a typical jacketed vessel with an agitator; for example, a detergent mixing vessel. The effect of the agitator is to
ensure good turbulence at the vessel wall, irrespective of temperature difference. As a consequence of the agitation, the heat
transfer mechanism is ‘forced convection’, therefore the heat transfer coefficient will remain almost constant.
Figure 37. An agitated jacketed vessel
The equation relating the time taken for the vessel contents to change by a given temperature is given by the equation:
Ln ((Ts –T1)/(Ts-T2)) = (U A /M Cp) t 12
Where
Ts = Heating or cooling media temperature
T1 = Initial temperature of vessel contents
T2 = Final temperature of vessel contents
U = Heat transfer coefficient
A = Heat transfer area
M = Mass of liquid being heated
Cp = specific heat of fluid being heated
t = time
This equation is derived from the mathematical integration with respect to time, of the heat transfer process. For those wishing
to investigate the derivation of this equation, reference should be made to standard textbooks on heat transfer.
The situation is far more complex when the heating medium undergoes a change in temperature. However in many cases,
especially where the temperature change is small, a good approximation may be made by using the mean temperature.
Further complexity is encountered in the case of fermenting vessels during the cooling stage, where the heat transfer (‘U’ value)
actually changes with time. Vessel manufacturers have their own design information based on a combination of theoretical and
empirical data for vessels operating under various process conditions.
When specifying the cooling performance of a fermenting vessel. It is better to specify the cooling performance at, for example,
a given temperature. This fact may then be verified as part of the post-commissioning acceptance tests.
Fouling and cleaning
With jacketed vessels fouling and scale can form on either side of the heat transfer surface and will inhibit heat transfer.
Conditions either need to be maintained so that fouling or scale does not form or regular descaling or cleaning needs to take
place. If scale and fouling are allowed to form then for the desired level of heat exchange to take place in the dirty condition the
heat transfer area needs to be increased so the desired heat transfer rate is achieved.
Effect of non-condensable in the jacket
If the heat exchange fluid in the jacket is a gas egg steam and the steam is contaminated by other gases egg air then this air will
reduce the rate of heat transfer in the jacket because of its poor thermal properties. One way round this is to vent the jacket
with an air remover. This is illustrated in Figures 38 and 39.
Figure 38. Figure 39.

(courtesy of Spirax Sarco)
Approximate U values for different types of heat exchanger
It is common practice during the design of heat exchangers to roughly estimate the expected U-value for the processing of a
particular fluid. In this way approximate calculations can be made relating to preliminary exchanger sizing and as starting values
within and detailed thermal design. Figure 40 details some typical U values for different types of heat exchange with different
types of heat exchangers.
Figure 40. Typical U values for different types of heat exchange with different types of heat exchangers
3.3.1.6 SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS:
Shell and tube heat exchanger configurations
Heat exchangers were originally of the Shell and Tube design and this is still the preferred design for many applications especially
where high pressures are involved.

The Shell and Tube heat exchanger comprises of a circular section shell within which is a bundle of tubes. One fluid flows in the
tubes whilst the second flows over the tubes in the shell. In this design of heat exchanger (either liquid/liquid, gas/gas or
gas/liquid), baffles in the shell ensure the required velocity and hence turbulence of the fluid in the shell. They also ensure that
the fluid flows over the tubes at an even velocity and avoids either areas of short or excessively long contact time. For duties
where condensation or evaporation occurs, baffles on the shell side are not required.
Tube arrangements will depend on the application. The simplest is a single pass from one end to the other. However, multiple
passes can be arranged by having either ‘hairpin’ tubes or by having an arrangement of baffles within the header boxes at either
end of the heat exchanger. For example the shell and tube heat exchangers used as ‘flooded evaporators’ in refrigeration plants,
often have as many as 6 ‘tube passes’ and a complex baffle arrangements in each of the end covers.
Figure 41 shows a diagram of a basic shell and tube heat exchanger. Note that for simplicity, only a small number of tubes have
been shown. In practice, the tube bundle would take up virtually all of the shell diameter. Note also the baffles which direct the
shell fluid (red) over the tubes to maintain an even velocity profile. This particular heat exchanger has a single tube pass.
Figure 41. Shell and Tube heat exchanger
There are a large variety of designs and configurations of shell and tube exchangers, which are defined and classified by the
Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA). The figure below shows the key characteristics of a single shell pass and
single tube pass exchanger. So termed, because the fluid passes through the shell and within the tube bundle only once.
Construction details
Tube sheets
There are two tube sheets, one at either end of the tube bundle, which house the tubes that constitute the bundle. In order to
insert the tubes into the sheet a clearance gap exists between the outer diameter of the tubes and the tube sheet itself. In order
to close this gap to avoid inter-stream leakage, the tubes are either rolled or welded into the sheet.
Rolling involves inserting a tapered mandrel (also known as an arbor) into each tube and rotating the mandrel whilst forcing it
into the tube interior. This combination of forces plastically deforms the tube into the clearance gap, thereby sealing the gap.
This is shown in Figure 42.
Figure 42.
For greater mechanical strength and stiffness of the tube bundle, stiffening (or tie) rods can be inserted in place of certain tubes,
which consists of solid metal rods that are fixed with locking nuts on the outside of the tube sheets, as shown in Figure 43.
Figure 43.
Tubes
The tube bundle is constructed separately from the shell and consists of perhaps up to several hundred tubes, of up to 25mm
internal diameter, depending on the exchanger duty. The tubes come in standardised sizes, of external diameter, wall thickness
and tube length.
Typically the external diameter of the tubes is standardised, so that variable wall thicknesses can be accommodated within the
same tube sheet. Differing tube wall thicknesses allow for variations in the tube-side fluid pressure, i.e. high pressure fluids
require thicker tube walls.
Plain or finned tubes can be used depending on the desired heat transfer rates, as finned tubes offer enhanced heat transfer
coefficients and increased area.
Shell Side Baffles

Baffles on the shell-side of the exchanger are used to direct the shell-side fluid across the tube bundle to increase velocity and
hence heat transfer rate. These can take the form of either transverse baffles, i.e. across the axis of the shell (usually radial), or
longitudinal baffles (axial).
If higher shell-side heat transfer rates are required, then transverse baffles can be placed closer together, along the shell axis to
form a narrower flow path, thereby increasing the fluid velocity (and also pressure drop).
Different geometries are available and include, segmental, segmental & strip, disc & doughnut, and orifice. These are shown
schematically in Figures 44 to 47.
Figure 44. Segmental Baffle
Figure 45. Segmental & Strip Baffle

Figure 46. Disc & Doughnut Baffle
Figure 47. Orifice Baffle
Shell
This is generally a metal vessel with appropriate nozzles welded on to provide fluid supply and extract. For relatively small
exchangers (diameter<600mm) close tolerance pipe is usually used. However for exchangers of diameter>600mm, they are
usually rolled from plate. A variety of different shell designs are available for different operations, such as kettle reboilers and
these are well covered in TEMA.
The internal diameter of the shell should be such as to give a close fit with the tube bundle, in order to limit leakage of fluid
around the outside of the bundle. Obviously for good heat transfer, we wish the shell-side fluid to flow across and through the
tube bundle.
Advantages/Disadvantages
Advantages
 Very adaptable to most situations.
 Due to design being based on cylinders, the exchanger is capable of sustaining high pressures.
 Standard design codes are available.
Disadvantages
 Leakage between shell and tube side fluids can be costly to prevent.
 Difficult to clean the outside of the tube bundle if the shell-side fluid fouls.
 Relatively large volumes of fluid volume held within the exchanger can result in sluggish control response.
Applications
Refrigeration
Refrigeration evaporators and condensers.
There is increasing use of plate heat exchangers as both evaporators and as condensers (when supplied with cooling water), with
an associated improvement in plant performance and efficiency as measured by the Coefficient of Performance (COP).
Note that in the design of condensers and evaporator known as the ‘flooded evaporator’, the design differs from the purely
liquid heat exchanger. The tubes carry the secondary refrigerant such as propylene glycol solution and are immersed in the shell
containing liquid primary refrigerant such as ammonia. There are no baffles in the shell and the liquid (and tube bundle) occupy
approximately 80% of the height of the shell.
Steam Boilers
This is one application of the shell and tube heat exchanger principle. As with the refrigeration flooded-evaporator, the liquid
occupies only part of the shell height, with steam occupying the remainder.

Other Applications
Over recent years, plate heat exchangers have found applications where once only shell and tube types would have been
considered. The following examples are other areas where shell and tube heat exchangers may be found although plate heat
exchangers may be an alternative:
 Carbon dioxide liquefiers forming part of the CO2 recovery plant.
 Steam heated water ‘calorifiers’ for hot liquor systems, CIP centres, bottle washers & pasteurisers and general utility
water heating purposes.
 Boiler blow-down heat recovery. Water with a high solids content is rejected to drain through a heat exchanger to
pre-heat incoming boiler feed-water.
 Kettle vapour heat recovery. Low pressure steam from the copper may be used to heat cold water by passing it
through a heat exchanger.
 Refrigeration and air compressor oil coolers. Lubricating oil from refrigeration and air compressors is cooled by a
heat exchanger against cooling water before being returned to the compressor.
This list contains only 5 examples of the use of shell and tube heat exchangers in the brewery and packaging plant. This list
excludes external wort boiling which is a major application of the use of shell and tube heat exchangers. There are likely to be
many more, especially when associated with pre-assembled items of plant.
Figure 48 shows a series of small shell and tube heat exchangers which would be incorporated into equipment assemblies such
as oil coolers on compressors.
Figure 48. Shell and tube heat exchangers (courtesy of Bowman heat exchangers)
3.3.1.7 INSULATION:
Function of insulation
Insulation is an example where poor heat transfer is a virtue. The vast majority of insulation systems rely on the poor thermal
conductivity of air. However to prevent convection currents causing a pathway for the heat, it is necessary to immobilise the air
by way of a fibrous or porous structure. One example of a fibrous material used to provide insulation is the natural hair or fur of
animals. Widespread use is made of porous materials in the form of organic foams One exception to this use of air to effect
insulation is the use of vacuum insulation for low temperature duties such as cryogenic gas storage tanks and in some cases
liquid gas transfer lines.
Choice of materials based on temperature, duty, safety and environmental points
Insulation materials are selected on the following basis:
 Suitable for the temperatures and other conditions set by the application.
 Environmentally acceptable.
 No detrimental effect on the equipment.
 Ease of application.
 Acceptable cost.
 Have adequate mechanical strength.
 Have an acceptable fire performance.

With regard to temperature of application, the types of insulation systems necessary for process operation above and below
ambient temperature are different, as illustrated in Figures 49 and 50 showing the insulation system best suited to each
situation
Figure 49. Types of Insulation System for operating Above Ambient Temperature
Figure 50. Types of Insulation System for operating Below Ambient Temperature
Air is a very poor conductor of heat and good thermal insulation can be achieved by materials which trap very small pockets of
air within their structure. These pockets of air are so small that the convection currents are totally suppressed and eat can only
be transferred by conduction. The thermal insulating properties of such materials are destroyed if they become waterlogged, as
water is relatively a much better conductor than air.
For process plant operating above ambient temperature (Figure 49), the insulation system used should have an open pore
structure which will allow any water vapour in the insulation to permeate out. Fibrous insulations, such as glass wool, are
admirable materials for such a situation, as they simultaneously satisfy the dual requirements of excellent thermal insulation and
low resistance to water vapour permeation.
The function of the vapour barrier for cold duties

For process plant operating below ambient temperature (Figure 50), the material chosen must combine the properties of
excellent thermal insulation with a high resistance to water permeation, as in this case, the humidity in the surrounding
atmosphere will tend to permeate through the insulation and condense on the cold surface of the vessel or pipe. An insulation
with a closed pore structure, such as foamed plastic, is a suitable material for this situation and foamed plastics have now
virtually replaced cork.
As an additional safeguard to prevent water permeation into the insulation, the outer surface of it is covered in a material which
has a very high resistance to water permeation. This is known as a vapour barrier.
Suitability of Materials
Temperature
Particularly in the case of organic foams, the deciding factor is their temperature suitability. Polystyrene foam will melt at
temperatures in excess of 80°C and polyphenolic foams will degrade to a powder at temperatures over 120°C.
In low temperature duties, there must be consideration to the vapour permeability of the material. With a permeable material,
water vapour will migrate through the insulation to the equipment surface where condensation will occur. Under mild
conditions, the insulation will become saturated and loose some of its insulation properties. An extension to saturation is the
nuisance created by water dripping from the insulation onto floors etc. below the pipes or equipment. In refrigerated systems,
the condensed water would freeze on the equipment surface. The increased volume of the ice would then damage the insulation
and well as reduce the insulation effect.
To overcome this problem, foam insulations with a closed cell structure have a reduced permeability to water vapour over
fibrous materials. However all insulation systems on cold duties should include a vapour barrier, either applied to the insulation
as a coating, or included in the insulation during manufacture as a plastic or foil layer.
Figure 51 shows a prefabricated foil coated mineral fibre insulation applied to a cold water pipe. Note the self-sealing tape used
to ensure a continuous vapour seal along the length of the section.
Figure 51. Foil backed mineral fibre insulation (courtesy of Rockwool) Figure 52. (courtesy of Kingspan)
Mechanical Strength
Mechanical strength is another factor to be considered. The contact between the pipe or equipment and the support needs to
be insulated. Conventional foam insulation would be of insufficient strength for this purpose. However, higher density foam
inserts with a higher compressive strength are available. Figure 52 shows an insert in position before completion of the main
insulation.
Environmental Health Risks

It is well known that asbestos fibres represent a hazard to health, which clearly excludes asbestos from use. Many older
breweries will have asbestos in place on steam systems. The current policy is that where this insulation is in good condition, with
adequate external covering for example, plaster (Keenes cement), then the risks are minimal and there is no need for
replacement. However if and when maintenance is required then removal and disposal must be undertaken only by a licensed
contractor to the approved methods.
Older polyurethane foam insulation presents a potential toxic hazard in the event of fire when carbon monoxide and hydrogen
cyanide may be released.
Protection of stainless steel surfaces against possible chloride attack (No Detrimental Effect on the Equipment)
All insulation materials contain some chloride ions. There is a risk that these chloride ions could migrate to stainless steel
surfaces and cause chloride corrosion. The older fire inhibited polyurethane foams contained a chloro-organic fire retardant,
which made this risk particularly great, especially if the insulation became saturated at any time.
To overcome this problem, there should be a ‘chloride barrier’ either as a protective paint, applied to the equipment, or a
chloride barrier incorporated into the insulation. The risk is reduced further, by having an effective vapour barrier.

Ease of Application
With installation costs being of major significance, insulation materials are available manufactured in a form to ease installation.
Figure 53 shows mineral fibre insulation pre-cut to allow fitting around a pipe bend. The sections are then secured by wire mesh.
Figure 53. Method of fitting insulation to pipe bends
Figure 54. Fixing insulation to vessels or large pipes
Figure 54 shows the method of fixing a flat sheet of insulation to a large diameter pipe or vessel. Note that the insulation panel is
cut with mitred cuts on one side to facilitate fixing to the curved surface. Figure 55 shows a diagram of the fitting of a mitred cut
insulation panel to a large diameter pipe.
Figure 55. Diagram of the fitting of the insulation to a large diameter pipe
Typical multiple layer insulation systems
Insulation is rarely fitted in isolation. There are often several components to the system: each performing a separate function.
A typical insulation would comprise, starting from the equipment surface:

 Chloride barrier as a paint or foil
 Second insulation layer (if required) with joints staggered in relation to first layer.
 Vapour barrier as either an applied compound or an impervious membrane.
 Outer layer as protection against damage from the weather, animals (including birds) and personnel.
External protection of insulation material
The outer layer is often chosen for ‘appearance’, especially if the equipment is visible to the public. Polished aluminium or
stainless steel is often used although plastic and plastic coated steel are used in less observable areas.
Figure 56 shows a typical plant room with insulated pipes and valves clad in polished aluminium.

Figure 56. A typical view of insulated and clad pipework
Summary of insulation types and applications
Figure 57 provides a summary of the insulation types and applications in breweries and packaging plants.
Figure 57. Summary of insulation types and applications
Note: In some cases, the temperature limitation is set by any coating, for example the vapour seal material.
Vacuum Insulation
For extremely low temperatures, such as cryogenic gas storage tanks and pipe-work, vacuum jacketing is often used. Here, the
cost of the insulation is balanced by savings in product loss due to heat in-leak and vaporisation.
Vacuum insulation relies on the principle that the thermal conductivity is reduced by separating the molecules to the extent that
molecule to molecule conduction is almost zero.
Figure 58 shows a sectioned diagram of a vacuum insulated storage tank. Figure 59 shows a sectioned vacuum insulated pipe
showing the inner pipe for the cryogenic liquid and fitted with bellows to absorb any differential expansion. Typically, the
pressure in the jacket is reduced to the order of 10 Pa. (0.1 mm of mercury).

Figure 58. Diagram of a sectioned cryogenic storage tank
Figure 59. Diagram of a sectioned vacuum insulated pipe

Qualifications: Diploma in Beverage Packaging (Beer) Unit 3.3 Heat Transfer

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Diploma in Beverage Packaging (Beer)

PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TRANSFER

Learning Material © Institute of Brewing and Distilling 2013

SYLLABUS. 3.3.1.4 Plate heat exchanger designs:

2 Diploma in Beverage Packaging (Beer)

Forms of Heat Energy

‘Specific Heat’ (Cp)

The definition of Specific Heat is:

A list of some commonly encountered specific heats appears in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Specific heats

The general equation for sensible heat is therefore:

Cp = Specific heat at constant pressure.

Figure 2. Latent heats

Where M = mass of material in kg

Exothermic and Endothermic Heat

Calculation of energy change associated with these forms of energy change

Q = 50 000 * 4.19 * 80 = 16 760 000 kJ

Time in SI units = 30 X 60 s = 1800 s

Rate of input = 16 760 000 /1800 = 9311.11 kJ/s

Volume of water evaporated = 10 / 10 = 1 m³

Boiling time = 60 minutes = 60 * 60 = 3600 s

Dipl.Pack Revision Notes v2 October 2013 5

Conduction, Convection and Radiation

Heat energy is transferred by three mechanisms. These are:

Convection can be subdivided into:

Mechanism of conduction and concept of thermal conductivity as a material property

Figure 3. Definition of Thermal Conductivity

Examples of thermal conductivity of materials (good and poor)

Figure 4. Some Typical Thermal Conductivities

Calculation of heat transfer though a flat slab of material.

Dipl.Pack Revision Notes v2 October 2013 7

Area of circular vessel top =  * r²

Area of cylindrical section =  * d* l

q = 108.39 * 0.8 * 27 = 2341 watts

Special consideration for thick circular sections, such as insulated pipes.

Figure 5. Heat Transfer through a Thick Walled Pipe

The use of mathematical integration gives a value referred to as the:

‘Log Mean Diameter ‘

This is given by the equation:

dlm = (d2-d1)/ln (d2/d1) (4)

‘Arithmetic mean diameter’.

This is given by:

Figure 6. Comparison of arithmetic and log mean diameters

‘film heat transfer coefficient’

The relationship was established was:

Dipl.Pack Revision Notes v2 October 2013 9

10 Diploma in Beverage Packaging (Beer)

Figure 8. Variation in heat transfer coefficient during cooling

Dipl.Pack Revision Notes v2 October 2013 11

Calculation of heat transfer though multi-layer systems

Figure 10. Heat transfer through a multi-component barrier

1/U = 1/h1 + x/k + 1/h2 7

1/U = r1+ 1/h1 + x/k + 1/h2 +r2 8

12 Diploma in Beverage Packaging (Beer)

In Figure 11, the heat transfer components are:

Figure 12. Calculation of a multi-component heat transfer coefficient

Dipl.Pack Revision Notes v2 October 2013 13

Special case - Boiling Heat Transfer

Figure 13. Nucleate Boiling

14 Diploma in Beverage Packaging (Beer)

Brief explanation of radiation

Basic Stefan-Boltzmann equation