The DPSIR Framework

Peter Kristensen
National Environmental Research Institute, Denmark
Department of Policy Analysis
European Topic Centre on Water, European Environment Agency

Paper presented at the 27-29 September 2004 workshop on a comprehensive / detailed

assessment of the vulnerability of water resources to environmental change in Africa.

Background1
In recommendation to the European Environment Agency (EEA) on how they should proceed
with the development of a strategy for Integrated Environmental Assessment, RIVM2
proposed the use of a framework, which distinguished driving forces, pressures, states,
impacts and responses. This became known as the DPSIR framework and has since been
more widely adopted by the EEA, acting as an integrated approach for reporting, e.g. in the
EEA’s State of the Environment Reports. The framework is seen as giving a structure within
which to present the indicators needed to enable feedback to policy makers on environmental
quality and the resulting impact of the political choices made, or to be made in the future.

According to the DPSIR framework there is a chain of causal links starting with ‘driving
forces’ (economic sectors, human activities) through ‘pressures’ (emissions, waste) to ‘states’
(physical, chemical and biological) and ‘impacts’ on ecosystems, human health and functions,
eventually leading to political ‘responses’ (prioritisation, target setting, indicators).
Describing the causal chain from driving forces to impacts and responses is a complex task,
and tends to be broken down into sub-tasks, e.g. by considering the pressure-state
relationship.

1
Based on EEA 1998: Guidelines for Data Collection and Processing - EU State of the Environment
Report. Annex 3.
2
National Institute of Public Health and Environment, Bilthoven, Netherlands
The components of the DPSIR framework are defined in the following. Classes of data on the
past and present situations are listed after each definition.

Driving Forces
A ‘driving force’ is a need. Examples of primary driving forces for an individual are the need
for shelter, food and water, while examples of secondary driving forces are the need for
mobility, entertainment and culture. For an industrial sector a driving force could be the need
to be profitable and to produce at low costs, while for a nation a driving force could be the
need to keep unemployment levels low. In a macroeconomic context, production or
consumption processes are structured according to economic sectors (e.g. agriculture, energy,
industry, transport, households).

- Population (number, age structure, education levels, political stability)

- Transport (persons, goods; road, water, air, off-road)
- Energy use (energy factors per type of activity, fuel types, technology)
- Power plants (types of plants, age structure, fuel types)
- Industry (types of plants, age structure, resource types)
- Refineries/Mining (types of plant/minings, age structure)
- Agriculture (number of animals, types of crops, stables, fertilisers)
- Landfills (type, age)
- Sewage systems (types)
- Non-industrial sectors
- Land use

Pressures
Driving forces lead to human activities such as transportation or food production, i.e. result in
meeting a need. These human activities exert 'pressures' on the environment, as a result of
production or consumption processes, which can be divided into three main types: (i)
excessive use of environmental resources, (ii) changes in land use, and (iii) emissions (of
chemicals, waste, radiation, noise) to air, water and soil.

- Use of resources
- Emissions (per driving force for numerous compounds)
- direct emissions to air, water and soil
- indirect emissions to air, water and soil
- Production of waste
- Production of noise
- Radiation
- Vibration
- Hazards (risks)

States
As a result of pressures, the ‘state’ of the environment is affected; that is, the quality of the
various environmental compartments (air, water, soil, etc.) in relation to the functions that
these compartments fulfil. The ‘state of the environment’ is thus the combination of the
physical, chemical and biological conditions.

- Air quality (national, regional, local, urban, etc.)

- Water quality (rivers, lakes, seas, coastal zones, groundwater)
- Soil quality (national, local, natural areas, agricultural areas)
- Ecosystems (biodiversity, vegetation, soil organisms, water organisms)
- Humans (health)
- Soil use
Impacts
The changes in the physical, chemical or biological state of the environment determine the
quality of ecosystems and the welfare of human beings. In other words changes in the state
may have environmental or economic ‘impacts’ on the functioning of ecosystems, their life-
supporting abilities, and ultimately on human health and on the economic and social
performance of society.

Responses
A ‘response’ by society or policy makers is the result of an undesired impact and can affect
any part of the chain between driving forces and impacts. An example of a response related
to driving forces is a policy to change mode of transportation, e.g from private (cars) to public
(trains), while an example of a response related to pressures is a regulation concerning
permissible SO2 levels in flue gases.

Figure 2 depicts the complete DPSIR framework. In addition to defining the components of
DPSIR, it is useful to describe the various cause-effect relationships (because it is often
difficult to attribute ecosystem changes unambiguously to human pressures). NERI3 has
proposed a methodology in which environmental problems are defined and structured in such
a way that a clear relationship to pressures emerges. This often uses physical or chemical
state indicators as the target variable, while the associated changes in biological state
variables are treated as derived effects. A similar argument can be presented for the causal
links between the driving forces (i.e. the basic socio-economic development of the different
sectors of society) and the environmental pressures in terms of emissions, resource use and
land use.

Figure 2: Integrated Environmental Assessment in a DPSIR framework. From NERI

D P S I
Economy The Environment
Production Environmental
Relevant and Physical Bio- Eco-
Emissions impacts:
sectors production state: logical systems:
structures •Hydrology state: •Target indicator-
(sources): Use of response
•Landscape
natural •Marine •Impacts on other
Application •Availability
waters
• Agriculture
of resources of resources •Occur- policy issues
rence of •Fresh
• Industry technology including Chemical species waters
land state: Economic
• Energy •Forests
•Air quality impacts:
• Households Consump- •etc.
•Costs of
•Water
etc. tion quality abatement
•Soil quality •Economic
repercussions

Sector- Environ-
Macroeconomic
policy measures specific mental
policies policies
Setting of Prioritising
targets

Policies

3
National Environmental Research Institute, Denmark
Linking DPSIR elements
The DPSIR framework is useful in describing the relationships between the origins and
consequences of environmental problems, but in order to understand their dynamics it is also
useful to focus on the links between DPSIR elements (see Figure 3). For instance, the
relationship between the ‘D’ and the ‘P’ by economic activities is a function of the eco-
efficiency of the technology and related systems in use, with less ‘P’ coming from more ‘D’ if
eco-efficiency is improving. Similarly, the relationship between the Impacts on humans or
eco-systems and the ‘S’ depends on the carrying capacities and thresholds for these systems.
Whether society ‘Responds’ to impacts depends on how these impacts are perceived and
evaluated; and the results of ‘R’ on the ‘D’ depends on the effectiveness of the Response.

Figure 3: Indicators and information linking DPSIR elements.

Source: EEA 1999.

Driving Force - Pressure Relationships

The environmental pressures resulting from human activities (emissions, resource use and
land use) are a function of two types of variable: (i) the level of these activities, and (ii) the
technology applied in these activities. For example an emission of a given compound from an
economic activity is the product of the level of activity and an emission factor, which reflects
the technology of the process under scrutiny. Discharge of waste water from domestic
sources, for instance, depends on the size of the population and their consumption (activity)
and on the proportion of population connected to sewers and different kinds of waste water
treatment (technology).

The technology variables will be reflected by emissions factors, resource use factors or land
use factors. The variables accounting for the level of activities are of an economic nature,
because they reflect the level of production and consumption.

DPSIR framework in relation to water issues4

The aim of managing water resources is to safeguard human health whilst maintaining
sustainable aquatic and associated terrestrial ecosystems. It is, therefore, important to quantify
and identify the current state of, and impacts on, water environment and how these are
changing with time. In water assessment at global, regional, national and by river basins level
the following generic questions could be asked:

4
Based on the European Environment Agency's work on water
State of waters
• How is it? (Nutrients, pesticides, heavy metals, ecological quality..............)
• How much is there? (Runoff, availability, demands, water stress.........)
Time trends
• Getting better or worse?
• Within or outside agreed limits?
What is causing the problems?
Pressures on the environment
• Human - domestic
• Industrial
• Agricultural
State of Action on policies
• Are they working towards targets?

The DPSIR model can be used as an analytical framework for assessing water issues. This
allows a comprehensive assessment of the issues through examination of the relevant Driving
forces and Pressures on the environment, the consequent State of the environment and its
Impacts, and the Responses undertaken, and of the interlinkages between each of these
elements. A generic DPSIR framework for water is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: A generic DPSIR framework for water

Responses
Water use restrictions
Alternative supplies
Driving Industry
Subsidised water prices
Improved information
Forces Energy Demand side management
Agriculture Voluntary agreements
Aquaculture Regional conflicts
Households Waste water treatment
Tourism Ban on products
Climate Reservoirs
Geology

!
Pressures
Climate change Loss of habitats/species
Point source pollution Ill health
Diffuse source pollution Droughts/floods
Water abstraction Water quantity Desertification
Physical intrusions Groundwater status Salinisation
Ecological status: Loss of amenity
chemical Coastal erosion
physical Non-indigenous species
biological Eutrophication
Acidification
State
Impacts

The state of water is determined by natural factors such as geology and climate and also by
the pressures exerted by human activities. Many of the pressures and the underlying driving
forces are common to all or a number of the issues. For example, agriculture is a significant
driving force in terms of ecological quality, nutrient and organic pollution, hazardous
substances and water quantity.

DPSIR frameworks in relation to specific water issues

In the following the DPSIR framework is illustrated by more specific conceptual frameworks
in relation to water quantity and organic pollution and eutrophication.
Water quantity
The following storyline and DPSIR framework (Figure 5) can be used to describe the issue of
water quantity. Water availability problems occur when the demand for water exceeds the
amount available during a certain period. Freshwater shortages occur frequently in areas with
low rainfall and high population density and in areas with intensive agricultural or industrial
activity.

There are large spatial and temporal differences in the amount of water available (state).
These differences are expected to change due to climate changes. Other pressures on water
quantity arise from the main sectoral users of water such as agriculture, households, energy
production and industry. The seasonal demand from tourism is a significant pressure.

The impacts of over-abstraction of available water include decreases in groundwater levels

that in turn can lead to impacts on associated aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems such as
wetlands. In addition, over-abstraction of groundwater can lead to the intrusion of saltwater
into coastal aquifers.

Measures (responses) to increase the amount of available water include the construction of
storage reservoirs to safeguard supplies when other sources are stressed. Other measures are
aimed at reducing or controlling the demand for water including water pricing, water-saving
devices and reduction of water leakage in distribution systems.

Figure 5: DPSIR conceptual framework for assessing water quantity resources

Responses

Driving Industry Overall reservoir stocks

Forces Energy Water prices
Agriculture Water use efficiency
Aquaculture Water leakage
Households
Tourism
Climate

!
Pressures
Climate change
Total abstractions
Sectoral water use:
agriculture, industry Freshwater shortage,
households, tourism Modification of streamflows
Saltwater instrusion
Available water Groundwater levels

State
Impacts

Organic pollution and eutrophication

The effects on the aquatic environment of organic pollution, caused by discharges from waste
water treatment plants, industrial effluents and agricultural run-off, include reduced river
water chemical and biological quality, as well as impaired biodiversity of aquatic
communities and microbiological water quality. Increased industrial and agricultural
production, coupled with more of the population being connected to sewerage systems will
result in increases in discharges of organic waste and nutrients into surface water.
The overloading of seas, coastal waters, lakes and rivers with nutrients (nitrogen and
phosphorus) can result in a series of adverse effects known as eutrophication. In severe cases
of eutrophication, massive blooms of planktonic algae occur. Some blooms are toxic. As dead
algae decompose, the oxygen in the water is used up; bottom-dwelling animals die and fish
either die or leave the affected area. Increased nutrient concentrations can also lead to changes
in the aquatic vegetation. The unbalanced ecosystem and changed chemical composition
make the water body unsuitable for recreational and other uses such as fish farming, and the
water becomes unacceptable for human consumption. The main source of nitrogen pollution
is run-off from agricultural land, whereas most phosphorus pollution comes from households
and industry.

The DPSIR framework for assessing eutrophication and pollution from organic matter is
shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Assessment of progress in meeting policy objectives for eutrophication and organic
pollution

Responses

Driving
Industry Measures to reduce non-point sources
Forces Agriculture – livestock (agricultue)
density and fertiliser use Waste water treatment
Households – (households and industry)
waste water treatment

!
Pressures

Discharges from point source

Atmospheric deposition
Loads to coastal waters Nitrogen and
Nitrogen balance phosophorus in rivers,
lakes and marine waters
Nitrate in groundwater
Organic matter in rivers
Chlorophyll in lakes and marine
waters
State
Exceedance of standards for
drinking water and bathing waters
Secchi depth in lakes
Low oxygen in bottom layers of marine
waters
Harmful phytoplankton in coastal
waters
Impacts
Other causal chain frameworks
In the following is listed other examples of use of causal chain

GIWA causal chain analyses5

The Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA) is using causal chain analyses as an
important tool for their assessments. Causal chain analyses are used to identify and better
understand the causal chains between perceived problems and their societal root causes.

The GIWA causal chain analyses cluster into five major problem areas of concern for the
aquatic environment:

Freshwater shortage
Modification of stream flow - Pollution of existing supplies - Changes in the water
table
Pollution
Microbiological - Eutrophication - Chemical - Suspended solids - Solid wastes -
Thermal - Radio nuclide - Spills
Habitat and community modification
Loss of ecosystems - Modification of ecosystems or ecotones, including community
structure and/or species composition
Unsustainable exploitation of fisheries and other living resources
Over-exploitation - Excessive by-catch and discards - Destructive fishing practices -
Decreased viability of stock through pollution and disease - Impact on biological and
genetic diversity
Global change
Changes in hydrological cycle - Sea level change - Increased uv-b radiation as a
result of ozone depletion - Changes in ocean CO2 source/sink function

The causal chain is an assessment of the linkages between problems and their underlying
(root) causes. It includes immediate causes, sector activities/intermediate causes, and the root
causes i.e., human activities leading to the creation of the problem (Figure 7).

Figure 7: Example of a GIWA causal chain analysis model.

5
See http://www.giwa.net/caus_iss/causual_chain_analyses.phtml
South Africa
South Africa used the DPSIR framework for identifying core indicators for inland waters.6

Inland water systems are affected by two main drivers, natural (e.g. climate) and
anthropogenic (e.g. development). These drivers cause certain pressures on inland waters,
which result in impacts on freshwater resources, either by changing the quantity of ground
and/or surface water, and/or by changing the quality of ground and/or surface water.

The main drivers of change on inland waters and the main areas of impact of these drivers
were presented in the 1999 State of Environment Report for South Africa (DEA&T, 1999)
and are presented below (Figure 8).

Six identified issues of concern were further unpacked into possible causes, how the issue is
reflected and management actions, i.e. (DPSIR framework). The issues identified were:
Environmental Issues pertaining to Inland Waters:
1. Limited freshwater resources (surface and ground water)
2. Changing freshwater quality (surface and ground water)
3. Degradation and loss of freshwater ecosystem integrity
4. Flood and drought management of inland water resources
Socio-Economic & Political Issues pertaining to Inland Waters:
5. Inadequate and Inequitable distribution of services (reflected on inland waters)
6. Conflicting interests over water sharing (national and international) (reflected on inland
waters). With the two marked in bold as the main issues.
Figure 9 illustrate the DPSIR conceptual framework for issue 1: limited freshwater resources.

Figure 8: Diagram showing the main driving forces affecting South Africa's inland water
resources (modified from DEA&T, 1999).

6
See http://www.environment.gov.za/soer/indicator/Inland_Water.htm &
http://www.environment.gov.za/soer/indicator/docs/Volume1.pdf
Figure 9: Conceptual DPSIR framework for issue 1: Limited freshwater resources.

References and further readings

Hidden