9 Energy Consumption in Buildings

9.
Energy Consumption in Buildings

9-1. ANNUAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION
In Chap. 8, we discussed various aspects of heating and cooling of buildings. The coverage included human body and thermal
comfort, design conditions for heating and cooling, sol-air temperature, and certain components of heating and cooling load of
buildings, including heat gain from people, lights, and appliances and heat transfer through walls. In this chapter, we continue
to discuss the analysis of buildings for energy efficiency by covering the calculation of annual energy consumption, some
methods of energy savings, and various heating and cooling systems used in buildings.
In the thermal analysis of buildings, two quantities of major interest are (1) thesize or capacity of the heating and the cooling
system and (2) the annual energy consumption. The size of a heating or cooling system is based on themost demanding
situations under the anticipated worst weather conditions, whereas the average annual energy consumption is based on
average usage situations under average weather conditions. Therefore, the procedure for calculating annual energy usage is
quite different from that of calculating design heating or cooling loads (Çengel and Ghajar, 2020).
An analysis of annual energy consumption and cost usually accompanies the design heat load calculations and plays an
important role in the selection of a heating or cooling system. Often a choice must be made among several systems with the
same capacity but different efficiencies and initial costs. More efficient systems usually consume less energy and money per
year, but they cost more to purchase and install. The purchase of a more efficient but more expensive heating or cooling
system can be economically justified only if it saves more in the long run on energy costs than its initial cost differential.
The impact on the environment may also be an important consideration in the selection process: A system that consumes less
fuel pollutes the environment less, and thus reduces all the adverse effects associated with environmental pollution. But it is
difficult to quantify the environmental impact in an economic analysis unless a price is put on it.
One way of reducing the initial and operating costs of a heating or cooling system is to compromise thethermal comfort of
occupants. This option should be avoided, however, since a small loss in employee productivity due to thermal discomfort can
easily offset any potential gains from reduced energy use. The U.S. Department of Energy periodically conducts comprehensive
energy surveys to determine the energy usage in both residential and nonresidential buildings and in the industrial sector. Two
reports (DOE/EIA-0246 and DOE/EIA-0318) indicate that the national average natural gas usage by all commercial buildings in
the United States is 70,000 Btu/ft2 ⋅year, which is worth about $1.0/ft2 or $10/m2 per year. The reports also indicate that the
average annual electricity consumption of commercial buildings due to air conditioning is about 12 kWh/ft 2 ⋅yr, which is worth
about $1.50/ft2 or $15/m2 per year. Therefore, the average cost of heating and cooling of commercial buildings is about
$25/m 2 per year. This corresponds to $500/yr for a 20 m2 floor space, which is large enough for an average office worker. But
noting that the average salary and benefits of a worker are no less than $50,000 a year, it appears that the heating and cooling
cost of a commercial building constitutes about 1 percent of the total cost (Fig. 9-1). Therefore, even a 1 percent loss in
productivity due to thermal discomfort may cost the business owner more than the entire cost of energy. Likewise, the loss of
business in retail stores due to unpleasant thermal conditions will cost the store owner many times what he or she is saving
from energy. Thus, the message to the HVAC engineer is clear:
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Figure 9-1 The heating and cooling cost of a commercial building constitutes about 1 percent of the
total cost. Therefore, thermal comfort and thus productivity should not be risked to conserve
energy.
In the design of heating and cooling systems of commercial buildings, treat the thermal comfort conditions as design
constraints rather than as variables. The cost of energy is a very small fraction of the goods and services produced, and
thus, do not incorporate any energy conservation measures that may result in a loss of productivity or loss of revenues.
When trying to minimize annual energy consumption, it is helpful to have a general idea about where most energy is used. A
breakdown of energy usage in residential and commercial buildings is given in Fig. 9-2. Note that space heating accounts for
most energy usage in all buildings, followed by water heating in residential buildings and lighting in commercial buildings.
Therefore, any conservation measure dealing with them will have the greatest impact.
Figure 9-2 Breakdown of energy consumption in residential and commercial buildings. (U.S.
Department of Energy.)
For existing buildings, the amount and cost of energy (fuel or electricity) used for heating and cooling of a building can be
determined by simply analyzing the utility bills for a typical year. For example, if a house uses natural gas for space and water
heating, the natural gas consumption for space heating can be determined by estimating the average monthly usage for water
heating from summer bills, multiplying it by 12 to estimate the yearly usage, and subtracting it from the total annual natural gas
usage. Likewise, the annual electricity usage and cost for air conditioning can be determined by simply evaluating the excess
electricity usage during the cooling months and adding them up. If the bills examined are not for a typical year, corrections can
be made by comparing the weather data for that year to the average weather data.
For buildings that are at the design or construction stage, the evaluation of annual energy consumption involves the
determination of (1) the space load for heating or cooling due to heat transfer through the building envelope and infiltration, (2)
the efficiency of the furnace where the fuel is burned or the COP of cooling or heat pump systems, and (3) theparasitic energy
consumed by the distribution system (pumps or fans) and the energy lost or gained from the pipes or ducts (Fig. 9-3). The
determination of the space load is similar to the determination of the peak load, except the average conditions are used for the
weather instead of design conditions. The space heat load is usually based on the average temperature difference between the
indoors and the outdoors, but internal heat gains and solar effects must also be considered for better accuracy. Very accurate
results can be obtained by using hourly data for a whole year and by making a computer simulation using one of the
commercial building energy analysis software packages.
Figure 9-3 The various quantities involved in the evaluation of the annual energy consumption of a
building.
The simplest and most intuitive way of estimating the annual energy consumption of a building is the degree-day (or degree-
hour) method, which is a steady-state approach. It is based on constant indoor conditions during the heating or cooling season
and assumes that the efficiency of the heating or cooling equipment is not affected by the variation of outdoor temperature.
These conditions will be closely approximated if all the thermostats in a building are set at the same temperature at the
beginning of a heating or cooling season and are never changed, and a seasonal average efficiency is used (rather than the full-
load or design efficiency) for the furnaces or coolers.
You may think that anytime the outdoor temperature T o drops below the indoor temperature T i at which the thermostat is set,
the heater will turn on to make up for the heat losses to the outside. However, the internal heat generated by people, lights, and
appliances in occupied buildings as well as the heat gain from the sun during the day will be sufficient to compensate for the
heat losses from the building until the outdoor temperature drops below a certain value. The outdoor temperature above which
no heating is required is called the balance point temperature T balance (or the base temperature) and is determined from (Fig. 9-
4)
Q̇gain
K overall(Ti − Tbalance) = Q̇gain → Tbalance = Ti −
K overall
(9-1)
Figure 9-4 The heater of a building will not turn on as long as the internal heat gain makes up for
the heat loss from a building (the balance point outdoor temperature).
where Koverall is the overall heat transfer coefficient of the building in W/°C or Btu/h⋅°F. There is considerable uncertainty
associated with the determination of the balance point temperature, but based on observations of typical buildings, it is usually
taken to be 18°C in Europe and 65°F (18.3°C) in the United States for convenience. The rate of energy consumption of the
heating system is
K overall
Q̇heating = (Tbalance − To)+
ηheating
(9-2)
where ηheating is the efficiency of the heating system, which is equal to 1.0 for electric resistance heating systems, COP for the
heat pumps, and combustion-equipment efficiency (about 0.6 to 0.95) for furnaces. If Koverall , T balance, and ηheating are taken to
be constants, the annual energy consumption for heating can be determined by integration (or by summation over daily or
hourly averages) as
+
∫ [Tbalance − To(t)] dt ≅ overall DDheating
K overall K
Qheating,year =
ηheating ηheating
(9-3)
where DD heating is the heating degree-days. The + sign above the parenthesis indicates that only positive values are to be
counted, and the temperature difference is taken to be zero when T o > T balance. The number of degree-days for a heating season
is determined from
∑
DDheating = (1 day) days (Tbalance − To,avg,day)+ (°C-day)
(9-4)
where T o, avg, day is the average outdoor temperature for each day (without considering temperatures above T balance), and the
summation is performed daily (Fig. 9-5). Similarly, we can also define heating degree-hours by using hourly average outdoor
temperatures and performing the summation hourly. Note that the number of degree-hours is equal to 24 times the number of
degree-days. Heating degree-days for each month and the yearly total for a balance point temperature of 65°F are given in
Table 9-1 for several cities. Cooling degree-days are defined in the same manner to evaluate the annual energy consumption for
cooling, using the same balance point temperature.
Figure 9-5 The outdoor temperatures for a day during which the heating degree-day is 25°F-day.
Table 9-1 Average Winter Temperatures and Number of Degree-Days for Selected Cities in the United States (ASHRAE, 2008)
Average Degree-days, °F-day

winter temp.
Stat °F °C July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Marc April May June Yearl
e h y
and total
stati
on
Alab 54.2 12.7 0 0 6 93 363 555 592 462 363 108 9 0 2551
ama,
Birm
ingh
am
Alas 23.0 5.0 245 291 516 930 1284 1572 1631 1316 1293 879 592 315 10,8
ka, 64
Anc
hora
ge
Ariz 58.1 14.8 0 0 0 25 231 406 471 344 242 75 6 0 1800

ona,
Tucs
on
winter temp.
e h y
and total
stati
on
Calif 53.4 12.2 82 78 60 143 306 462 508 395 363 279 214 126 3015
orni
a,
San
Fran
cisc
o
Colo 37.6 3.44 6 9 117 428 819 1035 1132 938 887 558 288 66 6283
rado,
Denv
er
Flori 60.1 15.9 0 0 0 28 198 360 375 286 202 86 0 0 1485

da,
Talla
hass
ee
Geor 51.7 11.2 0 0 18 124 417 648 636 518 428 147 25 0 2961
gia, 8
Atla
nta
Haw 74.2 23.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

aii,
Hon
olulu
Idah 39.7 4.61 0 0 132 415 792 1017 1113 854 722 438 245 81 5809
o,
Bois
e
Illino 35.8 2.44 0 12 117 381 807 1166 1265 1086 939 534 260 72 6639
is,
Chic
ago
India 39.6 4.56 0 0 90 316 723 1051 1113 949 809 432 177 39 5699
na,
India
napo
lis
Iowa 43.0 1.10 0 9 108 369 867 1240 1435 1198 989 483 214 39 6951
,
Siou
x
City
Kan 44.2 7.11 0 0 33 229 618 905 1023 804 645 270 87 6 4620
sas,
Wich
ita
winter temp.
e h y
and total
stati
on
Kent 44.0 6.70 0 0 54 248 609 890 930 818 682 315 105 9 4660
ucky
,
Loui
svill
e
Loui 56.2 13.8 0 0 0 47 297 477 552 426 304 81 0 0 2184

sian
a,
Shre
vepo
rt
Mary 43.7 6.83 0 0 48 264 585 905 936 820 679 327 90 0 4654
land,
Balti
mor
e
Mas 40.0 4.40 0 9 60 316 603 983 1088 972 846 513 208 36 5634
sach
uset
ts,
Bost
on
Mich 34.8 1.89 6 22 138 431 813 1163 1262 1142 1011 579 273 69 6909
igan,
Lans
ing
Minn 28.3 −1.7 22 31 189 505 1014 1454 1631 1380 1166 621 288 81 8382
esot 2
a,
Minn
eapo
lis
Mon 34.5 1.72 6 15 186 487 897 1135 1296 1100 970 570 285 102 7049
tana,
Billin
gs
Nebr 38.8 4.11 0 6 75 301 726 1066 1237 1016 834 402 171 30 5864
aska
,
Linc
oln
Nev 53.5 12.2 0 0 0 78 387 617 688 487 335 111 6 0 2709
ada, 8
Las
Veg
as
winter temp.
e h y
and total
stati
on
New 35.2 2.11 6 28 132 415 744 1153 1271 1140 1004 570 248 45 6756
York,
Syra
cuse
Nort 50.4 10.5 0 0 6 124 438 691 691 582 481 156 22 0 3191
h 6
Caro
lina,
Char
lotte
Ohio 37.2 3.22 9 25 105 384 738 1088 1159 1047 918 552 260 66 6351
Clev
elan
d
Okla 48.3 9.39 0 0 15 164 498 766 868 664 527 189 34 0 3725
hom
a,
Still
wate
r
Pen 38.4 3.89 0 9 105 375 726 1063 1119 1002 874 480 195 39 5987
nsyl
vani
a,
Pitts
burg
h
Ten 50.5 10.6 0 0 18 130 447 698 729 585 456 147 22 0 3232
ness
ee,
Me
mph
is
Texa 55.3 13.3 0 0 0 62 321 524 601 440 319 90 6 0 2363

s,
Dalla
s
Utah 38.4 3.89 0 0 81 419 849 1082 1172 910 763 459 233 84 6052
, Salt
Lake
City
Virgi 49.2 9.89 0 0 0 136 408 698 738 655 533 216 37 0 3421
nia,
Norf
olk
winter temp.
e h y
and total
stati
on
Was 36.5 2.83 9 25 168 493 879 1082 1231 980 834 531 288 135 6665
hing
ton,
Spo
kane
Quantities may be converted to degree-days based on degrees °C by dividing by 1.8. This assumes 18°C corresponds to 65°F.
Expressing the design energy consumption of a building for heating as Q̇ design = K overall(Ti − To)design/ηheating and
comparing it to the annual energy consumption gives the following relation between energy consumption at designed
conditions and the annual energy consumption (Table 9-2):
Q̇heating,year DDheating
=
Q̇design (Ti − To)design
(9-5)
Table 9-2 The Ratio of Annual Energy Consumption to the Hourly Energy Consumption at Design Conditions at Several
Locations for Ti = 70°F [From Eq. (9-5)]
City T o, design °F-days Ratio
Tucson 32°F 1800 1137
Las Vegas 28°F 2709 1548
Charleston 11°F 4476 1821
Cleveland 5°F 6351 2345
Minneapolis −12°F 8382 2453
Anchorage −18°F 10,864 2963
where (T i − T o ) design is the design indoor—outdoor temperature difference.
When heating degree days are available for a given location, the amount of energy consumption for the entire winter season
can be determined from
K overall
Energy consumption = DDheating
ηheating
(9-6)
The amount of fuel consumption corresponding to this energy consumption can be determined by using heating value of the
fuel as
Energy consumption
Fuel consumption =
Heating value of fuel
(9-7)
If the heating is accomplished by a heat pump, ηheating needs to be replaced by heating COP of the heat pump. Also, in this case,
energy is consumed in the form of electricity. That is,
K overall
Electricity consumption = DDheating
COPheating
(9-8)
If we are calculating cooling energy consumption, we need to use cooling degree days and cooling COP of the air conditioner:
K overall
Electricity consumption = DDcooling
COPcooling
(9-9)
In above equations, the overall heat loss coefficient Koverall of the building can be determined from winter design temperatures
and design heating load of the building:
Q̇design = UAΔTdesign = UA(Ti − To)design = K overall(Ti − To)design
(9-10)
Here, T o is the design temperature of the location, and it represents a selected minimum winter temperature at which the
heating equipment can provide adequate heat to the building so that indoors can be maintained at the comfort temperature.
The outdoor design temperature is usually selected to provide adequate heat to the building for 97.5 percent of the winter
period, and thus it is referred to as 97.5% winter design temperature. This 97.5% winter design temperature is commonly listed
in tables for various cities. This temperature is used to calculate required capacity of the heating system for use in the proper
selection of the size of the heating equipment. We normally take design indoor temperature T i to be 25°C or 77°F. In Eq. 7-12,
Q̇design represents the design heating load or capacity of the heating unit corresponding to winter design conditions.
Despite its simplicity, remarkably accurate results can be obtained with the degree-day method for most houses and single-
zone buildings using a hand calculator. Besides, the degree-days characterize the severity of the weather at a location
accurately, and the degree-day method serves as a valuable tool for gaining an intuitive understanding of annual energy
consumption. But when the efficiency of the HVAC equipment changes considerably with the outdoor temperature, or the
balance point temperature varies significantly with time, it may be necessary to consider several bands (or "bins") of outdoor
temperatures and to determine the energy consumption for each band using the equipment efficiency for those outdoor
temperatures and the number of hours those temperatures are in effect. Then the annual energy consumption is obtained by
adding the results of all bands. This modified degree-day approach is known as the bin method, and the calculations can still be
performed using a hand calculator.
The steady-state methods become too crude and unreliable for buildings that experience large daily fluctuations, such as a
typical, well-lit, crowded office building that is open Monday through Friday from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. This is especially the case
when the building is equipped with programmable thermostats that utilize night setback to conserve energy. Also, the efficiency
of a heat pump varies considerably with the outdoor temperatures, and the efficiencies of boilers and chillers are lower at part
load. Further, the internal heat gain and necessary ventilation rate of commercial buildings vary greatly with occupancy. In such
cases, it may be necessary to use a dynamic method such as the transfer function method to predict the annual energy
consumption accurately. Such dynamic methods are based on performing hourly calculations for the entire year and adding the
results. Obviously they require the use of a computer with a well-developed and hopefully user friendly program. Very accurate
results can be obtained with dynamic methods since they consider the hourly variation of indoor and outdoor conditions as well
as the solar radiation, the thermal inertia of the building, the variation of the heat loss coefficient of the building, and the
variation of equipment efficiency with outdoor temperatures. Even when a dynamic method is used to determine the annual
energy consumption, the simple degree-day method can still be used as a check to ensure that the results obtained are in the
proper range.
Example
EXAMPLE 9-1 Comparison of Monthly Heating Bills
You probably noticed that the heating bills are highest in December and January because the temperatures are the lowest in
those months. Imagine that you have moved to Cleveland, Ohio, and your roommate offered to pay the remaining heating
bills if you pay the December and January bills only. Should you accept this offer?
SOLUTION It makes sense to accept this offer if the cost of heating in December and January is less than half of the
heating bill for the entire winter. The energy consumption of a building for heating is proportional to the heating degree-
days. For Cleveland, they are listed in Table 9-1 to be 1088°F-day for December, 1159°F-day for January, and 6351°F-day
for the entire year (see Table 9-3).
Table 9-3 Monthly Heating Degree-Days for Cleveland, Ohio, and the Yearly Total (Example 9-1)
Degree-days
Month °F-days °C-days
July 9 5
August 25 14
September 105 58
October 384 213
November 738 410
December 1088 604
January 1159 644
February 1047 582
March 918 510
April 552 307
May 260 144
June 66 37
Yearly total 6351 3528
Therefore, the ratio of December—January degree-days to the annual degree-days is
DDheating, Dec–Jan (1088 + 1159)°F-day

= = 0.354
DDheating, annual 6351°F-day
which is less than half. Therefore, this is a good offer and should be accepted.
Example
EXAMPLE 9-2 Annual Heating Cost of a House
Using indoor and outdoor winter design temperatures of 70°F and 8°F, respectively, the design heat load of a 3000-ft2
house in Salt Lake City, Utah, is determined to be 72,000 Btu/h (Fig. 9-6). The house is to be heated by natural gas that is to
be burned in an 80 percent efficient furnace. If the unit cost of natural gas is $1.15/therm, estimate the annual gas
consumption of this house and its cost.
Figure 9-6 Schematic for Example 9-2.
SOLUTION The rate of gas consumption of the house for heating at design conditions is
Q̇design, load 70,000 Btu/h

Q̇design = = = 87,500 Btu/h = 0.875 therm/h
ηheating 0.80
The annual heating degree-days of Salt Lake City are listed in Table 9-1 to be 6052°F-day. Then the annual natural gas
usage of the house can be determined from Eq. (9-5) to be
DDheating 6052°F-day 24 h
Qheating,year = Q̇design = ( ) (0.875 therm/h) = 2050 therm
(Ti − To)design (70 − 8)°F 1 day
whose cost is
Annual fuel cost = Annual energy consumption × Unit cost of fuel

= (2050 therm/yr)($1.15/therm) = $2358/yr
Therefore, it will cost $2358 per year to heat this house.
Example
EXAMPLE 9-3 Annual Energy Consumptions for Different Heating Systems
Consider a house with an overall heat loss coefficient ofKoverall = 0.5 kW/°C and a heating degree days of 2500°C-days.
Determine the annual heating energy consumptions for the following heating systems.
a. Coal heater, ηheating = 0.75, Heating value of coal = 30,000 kJ/kg
b. Natural gas heater, ηheating = 0.85
c. Heat pump, COP = 2.5
d. Resistance heater, ηheating = 1
e. Geothermal, ηheating = 1
SOLUTION The annual heating energy consumption for each heating system is determined as follows:
a. Coal heater, ηheating = 0.75, Heating value of coal = 30,000 kJ/kg
K overall
ηheating
0.5 kJ/s ⋅ °C 24 × 3600 s
= (2500°C-days) ( )
0.75 1 day
= 1.44 × 108 kJ
Energy consumption 1.44 × 108 kJ

Coal consumption = = = 4800 kg
Heating value of fuel 30,000 kJ/kg
b. Natural gas heater, ηheating = 0.85
K overall
ηheating
0.5 kW/°C 24 h 3412.14 Btu/h 1 therm
= (2500°C-days) ( )( )( )
0.85 1 day 1 kW 100,000 Btu
= 1204 therms
c. Heat pump, COP = 2.5
K overall
COP
0.5 kW/°C 24 h
= (2500°C-days) ( )
0.5 1 day
= 12,000 kWh
d. Resistance heater, ηheating = 1
K overall
ηheating
0.5 kW/°C 24 h
= (2500°C-days) ( )
1 1 day
= 30,000 kWh
e. Geothermal, ηheating = 1
K overall
ηheating
0.5 kJ/s ⋅ °C 24 × 3600 s 1 MJ
= (2500°C-days) ( )( )
1 1 day 1000 kJ
= 108,000 MJ (or 30,000 kWh)
For a cost comparison, the cost of energy for each system can be obtained by multiplying energy consumption by the unit
price of energy.
9-1-1. Changing Thermostat Setting to Save Energy

Some simple practices can result in significant energy savings in residential buildings while causing minimal discomfort. The
annual energy consumption can be reduced by up to 50 percent by setting the thermostat back in winter and up in summer,
and setting it back further at nights (Table 9-4). Reducing the thermostat setting in winter by 4°F (2.2°C) alone can save 12 to
18 percent; setting the thermostat back by 10°F (5.6°C) alone for 8 h on winter nights can save 7 to 13 percent. Setting the
thermostat up in summer by 4°F (2.2°C) can reduce the energy consumption of residential cooling units by 18 to 32 percent.
Cooling energy consumption can be reduced by up to 25 percent by sunscreening and by up to 9 percent by attic ventilation
(ASHRAE, 2001).
Table 9-4 Approximate Percent Savings from Thermostat Setback from 65°F for 14 h per Night and for Entire Weekends
(National Frozen Food Association)
Degree-days Amount of setback, °F (or °C)
°F-days °C-days 5°F (2.8°C) 10°F (5.6°C) 15°F (8.3°C) 20°F (11.1°C)
1000 556 13% 25% 38% 50%
2000 1111 12 24 36 48
3000 1667 11 22 33 44
4000 2222 10 20 30 40
5000 2778 9 19 28 38
6000 3333 8 16 24 32
7000 3889 7 15 22 30
8000 4444 7 13 19 26
9000 5000 6 11 16 22
10,000 5556 5 9 14 18
You may be wondering why percent savings given in Table 9-4 decrease as the degree-days increase for the same amount of
setback. That is, the same amount of thermostat setback results in greater savings in a city with a mild winter than in a city
with a colder winter. This can be explained as follows:
The rate of heat loss from a house in winter can be expressed as
Q̇ = K overall(Ti − To)
The amount of heating and thus the fuel consumption in a given house is proportional to the temperature difference between
the indoors and the outdoors T i − T o . Assuming an indoor temperature of 80°F, and using the average winter temperatures in
Table 9-1, this temperature difference in Tucson, Arizona, is
Tucson, AZ: Average winter temperature = 58°F, DD = 1800°F-days (Table 9-1)

Ti − To = 80 − 58 = 22°F
The same temperature difference in Cleveland, Ohio, is
Cleveland, OH: Average winter temperature = 37°F, DD = 6351°F-days (Table 9-1)

Ti − To = 80 − 37 = 43°F
If the thermostat setting is lowered by 10°F to 70°F, the new values of the temperature difference in these cities will be
Tucson: T i − To = 70 − 58 = 12°F
Cleveland: T i − To = 70 − 37 = 33°F
The percentage decrease in temperature difference due to thermostat setback is
(Ti − To)before − (Ti − To)after 22°F − 12°F

Tucson: Percent savings = × 100 = × 100 = 45.5%
(Ti − To)before 22°F
(Ti − To)before − (Ti − To)after 43°F − 33°F
Cleveland: Percent savings = × 100 = × 100 = 23.3%
(Ti − To)before 43°F
These percentages represent percent energy savings in heating costs during the setback periods. The savings listed inTable 9-
4 is about 24 percent for a location with 2000°F-days (similar to Tucson) and about 16 percent for a location with 6000°F-days
(similar to Cleveland). The percent savings in Table 9-4 are lower than the calculated values because the values in Table 9-4
are not for the entire winter season but only for thermostat setback for 14 h per night and all weekend. Clearly, there is more
potential savings from thermostat setback in Tucson than in Cleveland. However, the energy and cost savings for a given
winter season will be much higher in Cleveland (DD = 6351°F-days) than in Tucson (DD = 1800°F-days) because 6351/1800 =
3.5 times more energy is consumed to keep the indoors warm in Cleveland. Note that the value for degree-days is a direct
measure of the amount of heating required in a given city.
A similar analysis can be done for the comparison of percent savings in winter versus summer in a given city. For example, the
winter and summer design temperatures in Atlanta are 22°F and 92°F, respectively (from Table 8-3). We use these
temperatures for outdoor conditions for comparison purposes. If the thermostat setting is lowered from 75°F to 70°F in winter
and if it is increased from 70°F to 75°F in summer, the percent savings can be estimated to be
Winter:
(Ti − To)before − (Ti − To)after (75 − 22)°F − (70 − 22)°F

Percent savings = × 100 = × 100 = 9.4%
(Ti − To)before (75 − 22)°F
Summer:
(Ti − To)before − (Ti − To)after (92 − 70)°F − (92 − 75)°F

Percent savings = × 100 = × 100 = 22.7%
(Ti − To)before (92 − 70)°F
Therefore, for Atlanta's climatic conditions, the same thermostat change of 5°F in summer provides more than double the
percent energy savings as in winter. However, the amount saved may be greater in winter, depending on the relative amounts of
energy consumed in winter and summer.
Example
EXAMPLE 9-4 Savings Due to Thermostat Setting Change in Winter and in Summer
Energy savings measures to be implemented on a university campus include setting thermostats down in winter by 4°C
from 26°C and up in summer by 3°C from 21°C in all buildings. The average outdoor temperatures are 4°C in winter and
32°C in summer. The annual heating cost for the campus is $400,000, and the annual cooling cost is $80,000. Estimate
savings due to the changes in thermostat settings in winter and in summer.
SOLUTION Noting that the amount of energy consumed for heating and cooling is proportional to the temperature
difference between the indoors and the outdoors, the percent savings in winter and in summer are
(Ti − To)before − (Ti − To)after (26 − 4)°C − (22 − 4)°C

Percent savings (winter) = × 100 = × 100 =
(Ti − To)before (26 − 4)°C
(Ti − To)before − (Ti − To)after (33 − 21)°C − (33 − 24)°C
Percent savings (summer) = × 100 = ×
(Ti − To)before (33 − 21)°C
The corresponding cost savings in winter and in summer are
Heating cost savings = Fraction saved × Annual cost = (0.182)($400,000/yr) = $72,800/yr

Cooling cost savings = Fraction saved × Annual cost = (0.25)($80,000/yr) = $20,000/yr
Even though a greater percentage of cooling cost is saved in summer, actual cost savings are much greater in winter
because of the higher cost of heating on this campus.
9-1-2. Programmable Thermostats

9-1-2. Programmable Thermostats
Changing thermostat settings for certain times of the day and the week saves substantial amounts of energy and money in
heating and cooling costs, but this measure requires the use of programmable thermostats, also known as programmable
controllers or timers. Programmable thermostats incorporate various clocks for different areas to be heated or cooled with
different temperature setting needs. The temperature is increased and decreased at the proper times automatically, depending
on the clock schedule entered into the system. The cost of a programmable thermostat is relatively small when all areas in the
facility require a single setback schedule.
Programmable thermostats can be set so that the working environment is properly heated in winter and cooled in summer.
When night setback is used in winter, the thermostat increases the temperature setting shortly before the start of a workday.
This way, people's thermal comfort is not compromised. Also, programmed temperature settings should not interfere with the
quality of processes or products in industrial facilities. It is important that these programmable thermostats be checked and
properly maintained. A power failure can wipe out the thermostat settings, and the system may start controlling the
temperatures according to an unintended schedule.
9-2. HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS

So far in this chapter, we have discussed the main concepts related to heating and cooling of buildings. Now, we start covering
basic heating and cooling systems used in buildings. Boilers are commonly used to provide space and water heating in
buildings, and they are discussed in Chap. 5. Other systems, such as heat pumps used for both cooling and heating of
buildings, evaporative coolers, and electric heaters, are discussed in the remainder of this chapter.
Heat pumps are generally more expensive to purchase and install than other heating systems, but they save money in the long
run in some areas because they lower the heating bills. Despite their relatively higher initial costs, the popularity of heat pumps
is increasing. About one-third of all single-family homes built in the United States are heated by heat pumps.
Remember from Chap. 3 that the COP of a heat pump in the heating mode is defined as the heating effect divided by the work
input COP = QH/Win. The COP of a heat pump in the cooling mode (called an air conditioner) is defined as the cooling effect
divided by the work input COP = QL/Win.
The most common energy source for heat pumps is atmospheric air (air-to- air systems), although water and soil are also
used. The major problem with air-source systems is frosting, which occurs in humid climates when the temperature falls below
2 to 5°C. The frost accumulation on the evaporator coils is highly undesirable since it seriously disrupts heat transfer. The coils
can be defrosted, however, by reversing the heat pump cycle (running it as an air conditioner). This results in a reduction in the
efficiency of the system. Water-source systems usually use well water from depths of up to 80 m in the temperature range of 5
to 18°C, and they do not have a frosting problem. They typically have higher COPs but are more complex and require easy
access to a large body of water such as underground water. Ground-source systems are also rather involved since they require
long lengths of tubing placed deep in the ground where the soil temperature is relatively constant. The COP of heat pumps
usually ranges between 1.5 and 4, depending on the particular system used and the temperature of the source. Recently
developed heat pumps that use variable-speed electric motor drives are at least twice as energy efficient as their predecessors.
Both the capacity and the efficiency of a heat pump fall significantly at low temperatures. Therefore, most air-source heat
pumps require a supplementary heating system such as electric resistance heaters or an oil or gas furnace. Since water and
soil temperatures do not fluctuate much, supplementary heating may not be required for water-source or ground-source
systems. However, the heat pump system must be large enough to meet the maximum heating load.
Heat pumps and air conditioners have the same mechanical components. Therefore, it is not economical to have two separate
systems to meet the heating and cooling requirements of a building. One system can be used as a heat pump in winter and an
air conditioner in summer, and it is just referred to as a heat pump. This is accomplished by adding a reversing valve to the
cycle, as shown in Fig. 9-7. As a result of this modification, the condenser of the heat pump (located indoors) functions as the
evaporator of the air conditioner in summer. Also, the evaporator of the heat pump (located outdoors) serves as the condenser
of the air conditioner. This feature increases the competitiveness of the heat pump. Such dual-purpose units are commonly
used in apartment units and motels.
Figure 9-7 A heat pump can be used to heat a house in winter and to cool it in summer.
Heat pumps are most competitive in areas that have a large cooling load during the cooling season and a relatively small
heating load during the heating season, such as in the southern parts of the United States. In these areas, the heat pump can
meet the entire cooling and heating needs of residential or commercial buildings. The heat pump is least competitive in areas
where the heating load is very large and the cooling load is small, such as in the northern parts of the United States.
Example
EXAMPLE 9-5 Choosing the Most Economical Air Conditioner
Consider a house whose annual air-conditioning load is estimated to be 40,000 kWh in an area where the unit cost of
electricity is $0.09/kWh. Two air conditioners are considered for the house. Air conditioner A has a seasonal average COP
of 2.5 and costs $2500 to purchase and install. Air conditioner B has a seasonal average COP of 5.0 and costs $4000 to
purchase and install (Fig. 9-8). If all else is equal, determine which air conditioner is a better buy by calculating the simple
payback period.
SOLUTION The unit that will cost less during its lifetime is a better buy. The total cost of a system during its lifetime (the
initial cost, operation, maintenance, etc.) can be determined by performing a life-cycle cost analysis. A simpler alternative is
to determine the simple payback period.
The COP of an air conditioner is defined as the cooling effect divided by the work (or electricity) input, COP =QL/Win. Solving
for electricity input, Win = QL/COP. Applying this formula, the energy and cost savings of the more efficient air conditioner in
this case are determined as
Energy savings = (Annual energy usage of A) − (Annual energy usage of B)
Annual cooling load Annual cooling load
= −
COPA COPB
1 1
= (Annual cooling load) ( − )
COPA COPB
1 1
= (40,000 kWh/yr) ( − )
2.5 5.0
= 8000 kWh/yr
Cost savings = Energy savings × Unit cost of energy = (8000 kWh/yr)($0.09/kWh) = $720/yr
The simple payback period is
Price differential $1500

Payback period = = = 2.08 yr
Annual cost savings $720/yr
Therefore, the more efficient air conditioner will pay for the $1500 cost differential in this case in about two years. A cost-
conscious consumer will have no difficulty in deciding that the more expensive but more efficient air conditioner B is clearly
a better buy in this case since air conditioners last at least 15 years. But the decision would not be so easy if the unit cost of
electricity at that location was $0.03/kWh instead of $0.09/kWh, or if the annual air-conditioning load of the house was just
10,000 kWh instead of 40,000 kWh.
9-2-1. Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems

Ground-source heat pump systems are also known as geothermal heat pumps because they use the heat from underground in
their operation. They have higher COPs than ordinary air-source heat pumps because ground is at a higher temperature than
ambient air in winter (heating mode) and at a lower temperature than ambient air in summer (cooling mode). Table 9-5 shows
how the ground temperature changes with depth in different seasons of the year. The ground temperature increases with depth
in winter (see January data) and decreases with depth in summer (see July data). It is clear that the ground temperature is
more stable than air temperature throughout the year. It is essentially constant below a certain depth of about 10 m. It starts
increasing again at a depth greater than about 60 m.
Table 9-5 Variation of Ground Temperature with Depth in a Location for Different Months of the Year (Schöffengrund-
Schwalbach, 1989)
Ground temperature, °C
Depth, m January April July October
2 6 5 15 14
4 8 5 10 12
6 9 6 8 11
8 9 7 8 9
10 10 8 8 9
12 10 9 9 9
14 10 9 9 9
16 9 9 9 9
When a ground-source heat pump operates in heating mode, heat is absorbed from the ground atT L, which is higher than the
temperature of the ambient air. Heat is supplied to the indoors at T H by the heat pump. In the cooling mode, heat is absorbed
from the indoors at T L and rejected to the ground at T H, which is at a lower temperature than the ambient air (Fig. 9-9).
Figure 9-9 The Operation of a Ground-Source Heat Pump in Winter and in Summer.
Now, let us compare performances of an air-source heat pump and a ground-source heat pump with the following data in winter
operation:
Air-source, TL = 0°C, TH = 25°C

Ground-source, TL = 10°C, TH = 25°C
We calculate the Carnot COPs of these heat pumps for comparison purposes to be
TH 298 K
Air-source: COPHP,Carnot = = = 11.9
TH − TL 298 K − 273 K
TH 298 K
Ground-source: COPHP,Carnot = = = 19.9
TH − TL 298 K − 283 K
The maximum COP of the ground-source heat pump is 67 percent greater than that of the air-source heat pump. Even though
actual COP values will be significantly lower than the calculated COPs shown here, the comparison is still applicable in actual
cases. Despite their much higher initial cost as compared to air-source units, ground-source heat pump units are installed in
much greater numbers due to their higher COPs. The actual COP of ground-source heat pumps ranges between about 3 and 5,
while the actual COP of air-source heat pumps ranges between about 1.5 and 3.
Ground-source heat pumps can be classified according to the configuration of piping and heat source as follows:
Horizontal-loop heat pump: This type involves horizontal underground piping in 1.2 to 2.0 m depths (Fig. 9-10). It is suitable
when there is sufficient area for pipe burial, such as the relatively large backyard of a house.
Vertical-loop heat pump: This is also called a borehole loop heat pump. Vertical piping in 10- to 250-m depths is used F ( ig.
9-11). It can be installed as a small field wherever vertical drilling is practical. This type of heat pump was selected to meet
the heating and cooling requirements of a medium-sized university campus with several buildings. Vertical piping is more
expensive than horizontal piping for a given heat transfer surface area. These systems require virtually no regular
maintenance, and they are safe. However, the capacity is limited per borehole, and the ground temperature is relatively low.
A borehole heat pump application in Sweden involves 33 boreholes each 160 m deep, and the capacity is 225 kW. Another
example in Istanbul involves 208 boreholes with an average depth of 88 m. The system provides heating in winter and
cooling in summer with a capacity of 1 MW (Sanner, 2008).
Groundwater wells heat pump: Underground water is circulated through the evaporator of the heat pump unit (Fig. 9-12).
Heat is transferred from the water to the refrigerant flowing in the evaporator. The cooler water leaving the evaporator is
dumped back to the ground at a different location. The water well is located in 5- to 50-m depths. These systems can
provide high capacities with relatively low cost. The temperature of the water is relatively high as compared to the
horizontal-loop and borehole heat pumps. An aquifer is needed for sufficient water yield. The wells need to be maintained,
and water quality should be monitored.
Figure 9-10 Schematic of horizontal-loop ground-source heat pump.
Figure 9-11 Schematic of vertical-loop ground-source heat pump.
Figure 9-12 Schematic of groundwater wells ground-source heat pump.
Ground-source heat pumps can also be classified in terms of the fluid type circulating in the evaporator and the condenser.
Usually water or brine is circulated to transfer heat from the ground to the refrigerant in the evaporator by means of a
horizontal-loop or borehole heat exchanger. A circulation pump is located in the horizontal or vertical piping to circulate the
water between the ground and the evaporator. For example, a heat pump is called a water-to-air heat pump if water is circulating
through the evaporator and air is circulating through the condenser. It is called a water-to-water heat pump if the heat pump is
used to produce hot water by circulating water through the condenser and underground water is circulated in the evaporator. A
borehole heat pump may be modified such that a heat pipe is used in place of a borehole heat exchanger. The ground circuit
may also be designed such that refrigerant coming out of the expansion valve flows through the piping in the ground, picking up
heat and evaporating before entering the compressor. In this configuration, heat is directly transferred from the ground to the
refrigerant without the use of another fluid such as water or brine.
Early ground-source heat pumps date back to 1945, when a horizontal-loop heat pump was installed in Indianapolis. The pipes
were placed in a garden. A groundwater well heat pump was installed in Portland, Oregon, in 1948 with 2.4 MW of heating
capacity. The temperature of the underground water was 18°C. In Europe, the first groundwater heat pump was used around
1970, and the first borehole heat pump was installed around 1980. The number of heat pumps and ground-source units sold in
Europe has increased dramatically in recent years. For example, the number of new geothermal heat pumps increased from
4000 in 2000 to 17,000 in 2015 in Germany (Sanner, 2017). The number of ground-source units worldwide exceeds 4.2 million
(equivalent number of 12-kW units) with an installed capacity of about 50 GW. The leading countries in heat pump installations
are the United States, China, Sweden, Germany, and France (Gehlin, 2015).
Example
EXAMPLE 9-6 An Air-Source Heat Pump
A house in Cleveland, Ohio, is equipped with an air-source heat pump system that is used for space heating in winter. The
seasonal COP of the heat pump in winter is estimated to be 1.5. The design heating load of the house is calculated to be 19
kW for an indoor temperature of 25°C (Fig. 9-13). The unit cost of electricity is $0.12/kWh. Determine the annual electricity
consumption and its cost for this house.
The annual heating degree-days of Cleveland, Ohio, is 3528°C-days, and the 97.5 percent winter design temperature of
Cleveland is −15°C.
SOLUTION The annual heating degree-days of Cleveland, Ohio, is 3528°C-days. The 97.5 percent winter design
temperature of Cleveland is −15°C. The overall heat loss coefficient Koverall of the house is determined from
Q̇design = UAΔTdesign = UA(Ti − To)design = K overall(Ti − To)design
Substituting,
Q̇design 19 kW
K overall = = = 0.475 kW/°C
(Ti − To)design [25 − (−15)]°C
Then the annual electricity consumption of the house for heating is determined to be
0.475 kW/°C 24 h
(3528°C-days) ( ) = 26,813 kWh
K overall
Electricity consumption = DDheating =
COP 1.5 1 day
The cost of this electricity consumption is
Heating cost = Electricity consumption × Unit cost of electricty

= (26,813 kWh)($0.12/kWh) = $3217
Example
EXAMPLE 9-7 A Ground-Source Heat Pump
Reconsider Example 9-6. (a) If the house in Cleveland is heated in winter by a ground-source heat pump with a seasonal
COP of 3.5, determine the annual electricity consumption and its cost for this house. (b) If the house in Cleveland is heated
in winter by a natural gas furnace that is 88 percent efficient, determine the annual natural gas consumption and its cost in
winter. The unit cost of natural gas is $1.10/therm.
SOLUTION
a. The annual electricity consumption of the house for heating is determined to be
0.475 kW/°C 24 h
(3528°C-days) ( ) = 11,491 kWh
K overall
Electricity consumption = DDheating =
COP 3.5 1 day
The cost of this electricity consumption is
Heating cost = Electricity consumption × Unit cost of electricity = (11,491 kWh)($0.12/kWh) = $13
b. The annual natural gas consumption of the house for heating is determined to be
K overall
Gas consumption = DDheating
ηfurnace
0.475 kW/°C 24 h 3412.14 Btu/h 1 therm
= (3528°C-days) ( )( )( )
0.88 1 day 1 kW 100,000 Btu
= 1559 therm
The cost of this natural gas consumption is
Heating cost = Gas consumption × Unit cost of natural gas
= (1559 therm)($1.10/therm) = $1715
9-3. EVAPORATIVE COOLERS

Conventional cooling systems operate on a refrigeration cycle, and they can be used in any part of the world. But they have a
high initial and operating cost. In desert (hot and dry) climates, we can avoid the high cost of cooling by using evaporative
coolers, also known as swamp coolers.
Evaporative cooling is based on a simple principle: As water evaporates, the latent heat of vaporization is absorbed from the
water body and the surrounding air. As a result, both the water and the air are cooled during the process. This approach has
been used for thousands of years to cool water. A porous jug or pitcher filled with water is left in an open, shaded area. A small
amount of water leaks out through the porous holes, and the pitcher "sweats." In a dry environment, this water evaporates and
cools the remaining water in the pitcher (Fig. 9-14).
Figure 9-14 Water in a porous jug left in an open, breezy area cools as a result of evaporative
cooling.
You have probably noticed that on a hot, dry day the air feels a lot cooler when the yard is watered. This is because water
absorbs heat from the air as it evaporates. An evaporative cooler works on the same principle. The evaporative cooling process
is shown schematically and on a psychrometric chart in Fig. 9-15. Hot, dry air at state 1 enters the evaporative cooler, where it
is sprayed with liquid water. Part of the water evaporates during this process by absorbing heat from the airstream. As a result,
the temperature of the airstream decreases and its humidity increases (state 2). In the limiting case, the air leaves the
evaporative cooler saturated at state 2′. This is the lowest temperature that can be achieved by this process.
Figure 9-15 Evaporative cooling.
The evaporative cooling process is essentially identical to the adiabatic saturation process since the heat transfer between the
airstream and the surroundings is usually negligible. Therefore, the evaporative cooling process follows a line of constant wet-
bulb temperature on the psychrometric chart. (Note that this will not exactly be the case if the liquid water is supplied at a
temperature different from the exit temperature of the airstream.) Since the constant-wet-bulb-temperature lines almost
coincide with the constant-enthalpy lines, the enthalpy of the airstream can also be assumed to remain constant. That is
Twb ≅ constant
(9-11)
h ≅ constant
(9-12)
during an evaporative cooling process. This is a reasonably accurate approximation, and it is commonly used in air-conditioning
calculations.
As an example, consider a city in summer with an ambient temperature of 38°C and a relative humidity of 30 percent. From the
psychrometric chart (Fig. A-18), we read the wet-bulb temperature of air at this state as 23.7°C. This is the minimum
temperature this ambient air can be cooled to by an evaporative cooler since an evaporative cooling process follows a constant
wet-bulb temperature line on the psychrometric chart. If we assume an effectiveness of 90 percent for the evaporative cooler,
the actual temperature of air at the evaporative cooler exit will be
T1 − T2,actual 38°C − T2,actual

ε= → 0.90 = → T2,actual = 25.1°C
T1 − T2,ideal 38°C − 23.7°C
Therefore, air can be realistically cooled to 25.1°C by an evaporative cooler. The evaporative cooling process produces cool air
when the air is hot and dry. For example, if the air were at 38°C with a relative humidity of 70 percent, the minimum temperature
that could be obtained during an evaporative cooling process would be 32.8°C. The evaporative cooling process can be used
alone when appropriate, or it can be incorporated into a conventional cooling system to reduce electricity consumption
(McQuiston and Parker, 1994).
9-4. ELECTRIC HEATERS
Electric resistance heaters are commonly used in many parts of the world, including the United States, Canada, and Europe, for
space heating of buildings. This is strongly discouraged from a second law of thermodynamics point of view because the
electricity (or work) is the highest-quality form of energy, and it should not be used for low-quality applications such as heating.
It makes thermodynamic and economic sense to use a low-temperature heat source such as geothermal water (if available), a
heat pump, or a boiler using natural gas or coal as the fuel for heating purposes.
The conversion efficiency of an electric resistance heater may be defined as
Q̇heat
ηelectric =
Ẇ electric
(9-13)
where Q̇ heat is the rate of useful heat released to the space to be heated and Ẇ electric is the rate of electrical energy
consumed. The conservation of energy principle requires that all the electrical energy consumed be converted to heat. That is,
the conversion efficiency of all electric resistance heaters is 100 percent. The performance of an electric resistance heater can
also be expressed similar to heat pumps using the coefficient of performance (COP) since both devices use electricity as the
input energy. In this case, we have
Q̇heat
COPelectric =
Ẇ electric
(9-14)
This is the same equation as Eq. (9-13), and it indicates that an electric resistance heater may be considered to be a heat pump
with a COP of 1. This corresponds to a heat pump operation with the minimum COP. For example, the cost of heating a room
using a heat pump with an average COP of 3 is one-third of the cost of heating the same room with an electric resistance heater.
Electric heaters can differ by name, style, and operating principles. Some heaters just heat the air around them by convection,
and a fan attached to the heater is used to distribute the heated air. Some buildings are equipped with electrical resistance
heating, and the occupants can easily turn it on and off and set rooms to the desired temperatures. Some heaters have a
radiator shape, where heating oil in the radiator is heated by electricity. The surface temperatures of these radiators are
relatively low, making them safer for users. Other heaters heat a filament to much higher temperatures, thus allowing more of
the heat to be transferred to the room by radiation and less by natural convection. These heaters are called radiant heaters, and
they heat the surrounding surfaces by radiation. This makes them suitable for outdoor heating. The use of radiant heaters is
becoming more widespread as more countries and states pass laws banning smoking in all public buildings. Some restaurants
and coffee shops offer outside dining in winter with local heating provided by radiant heaters. Some of these heaters are
marketed as high-efficiency heaters. However, all electric resistance heaters convert electricity to heat, and therefore their
efficiency is 100 percent (Fig. 9-16).
Figure 9-16 All electric resistance heaters convert electricity to heat, and therefore their efficiency
is 100 percent.
Some claim that using electric resistance heaters for space heating is a thermodynamically perfect process because of the 100
percent efficiency and because they do not pollute the environment because there is no combustion process involved. The
claim about emissions would be true only if the electricity were produced by renewable energy sources such as wind, hydro,
solar, or geothermal. However, most electricity is produced by steam power plants burning coal or natural gas. A typical thermal
efficiency of an existing steam power plant is about 35 percent, meaning that only 35 percent of the heat content of the fuel is
converted to electricity in the plant. When this electricity is used for space heating, this corresponds to an overall conversion
efficiency (ηoverall = ηthermal × ηelectric ) of 35 percent from the fuel (say natural gas) to the space heating. A better alternative is
to use this natural gas directly for space heating in a boiler with a typical efficiency of 90 percent. In this case, the heat of
natural gas is converted to space heating with 90 percent efficiency, which is less costly and involves fewer emissions than
electric resistance heating.
Boilers are commonly used for space heating of buildings in all parts of the world. Natural gas, coal, fuel oil, diesel fuel, LPG
(liquefied natural gas), wood pellets, and even electricity may be used as a fuel. As the fuel is burned in the burner section of the
boiler, the heat from the combustion gases is transferred to another fuel (air or water) to be circulated in the house or building.
Hot air or water produced in the boiler releases its heat to the space, cools down in the process, and returns to the boiler for
reheating. Air vents are used to circulate the hot air, while a piping system and a group of radiators are used to circulate hot
water and release its heat to the space. Hot air is usually supplied at temperatures between 50°C and 90°C and experience a
temperature drop of about 20°C in the building.
The boilers used in industrial and building applications are covered inChap. 5. The boiler efficiencies and ways of improving
boiler efficiencies are also discussed. The cost of space heating with boilers can be minimized by increasing boiler efficiency
and by using the most economical fuel. The heating cost depends on the boiler efficiency, the heating value of the fuel, and the
unit price of the fuel. In general, these parameters vary with system, fuel, and location. The method discussed in Chap. 5 can be
used to calculate the fuel cost for different boilers. Coal is the most economical fuel in most cases, followed by natural gas,
even though natural gas boilers have higher efficiencies than coal-fired boilers. The high unit cost of diesel fuel and LPG
sometimes make these fuels more expensive than electricity when used in a boiler for space heating.
Example
EXAMPLE 9-8 Heating Costs of Various Heating Options
A building is currently heated by a natural gas boiler. The cost of space heating during the entire winter is calculated to be
$50,000. Determine the heating cost of this building for the following alternatives:
Natural gas boiler: ηboiler = 0.90, Unit price of fuel = $1.25/therm (1 therm = 100,000 Btu = 105,500 kJ)
Coal boiler: HHV = 27,500 kJ/kg, ηboiler = 0.72, Unit price of fuel = $0.20/kg
Diesel boiler: HHV = 45,500 kJ/kg, ηboiler = 0.88, Unit price of fuel = $1.50/kg
Electric resistance heater: Unit price of electricity = $0.090/kWh
Heat pump: COP = 2.2, Unit price of electricity = $0.090/kWh
SOLUTION These alternatives can be compared by calculating the unit energy cost (UEC) for each case fromEq. (5-49) in
Chap. 5, in $ per gigajoule (GJ) of heat supplied to the building.
Unit price of fuel $0.20/kg 106 kJ

UECcoal = = ( ) = $10.10/GJ
HHV × ηboiler (27,500 kJ/kg)(0.72) 1 GJ
Unit price of fuel $1.25/therm 106 kJ
UECnatural gas = = ( ) = $13.16/GJ
HHV × ηboiler (105,500 kJ/therm)(0.90) 1 GJ
Unit price of fuel $1.50/kg 106 kJ
UECdiesel = = ( ) = $37.46/GJ
HHV × ηboiler (45,500 kJ/kg)(0.88) 1 GJ
Unit price of fuel $0.090/kWh 106 kJ
UECelectric = = ( ) = $25/GJ
HHV × ηelectric (3600 kJ/kWh)(1.0) 1 GJ
Unit price of fuel $0.090/kWh 106 kJ
UECheat pump = = ( ) = $11.36/GJ
HHV × COPheat pump (3600 kJ/kWh)(2.2) 1 GJ
The total cost of heating in the case of the natural gas boiler is $50,000. The amount of useful heat supplied to the building
during that winter is determined from
Heating cost $50,000

Amount of heat = = = 3799 GJ
UECnatural gas $13.16/GJ
Using this value, the heating cost for other alternatives are determined to be
Heating costcoal = UECcoal × Amount of heat = ($10.1/GJ)(3799 GJ) = $38,400

Heating costdiesel = UECdiesel × Amount of heat = ($37.46/GJ)(3799 GJ) = $142,300
Heating costelectric = UECelectric × Amount of heat = ($25/GJ)(3799 GJ) = $95,000
Heating costheat pump = UECheat pump × Amount of heat = ($11.36 GJ)(3799 GJ) = $43,200
The heating cost is the lowest in the case of a coal boiler and the highest in the case of a diesel boiler. Electricity is the
highest-quality form of energy, and consequently it is expected to be the most expensive one. However, its unit energy cost
is less than the cost of diesel due to the high price of diesel.
9-5. REFERENCES
9-5. REFERENCES
ASHRAE, Handbook of Fundamentals, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta,
GA, 2001.
ASHRAE, Handbook: HVAC Systems and Equipment, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Atlanta, GA, 2008.
Çengel YA and Ghajar AJ, Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals and Applications, 6th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 2020.
Gehlin S, Feel Green—Not Blue, IEA Heat Pump Centre, Boras, Sweden, 2015, 33(3), 3.
Holland FA, Watson FA, and Devotta S, Thermodynamic Design Data for Heat Pump Systems, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1982.
McQuiston FC and Parker JD, Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning, 4th ed., New York: Wiley, 1994.
National Frozen Food Association/U.S. Department of Energy, "Reducing Energy Costs Means a Better Bottom Line."
Sanner B, Ground Source Heat Pumps, Development and Status, Groundhit Final Workshop, Berlin, Germany, May 5, 2008,
European Geothermal Energy Council, Brussels.
Sanner B, Ground Source Heat Pumps—History, Development, Current Status and Future Prospects, 12th IEA Heat Pump
Conference, Rotterdam, Holland, 2017.
Schöffengrund-Schwalbach GSHP test plant (1985–89).
9-6. PROBLEMS
ANNUAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION
9-1 How does the procedure for calculating annual energy use differ from that for calculating design heating or cooling
loads?
9-2 Is it possible for a building in one city to have a higher peak heating load but lower energy consumption for heating in
winter than an identical building in another city? Explain.
9-3 Can we determine the annual energy consumption of a building for heating by simply multiplying the design heating
load of the building by the number of hours in the heating season? Explain.
9-4 Considerable energy can be saved by lowering the thermostat setting in winter and raising it in summer by a few
degrees. As the manager of a large commercial building, would you implement this measure to save energy and cut costs?
9-5 How are the amount and cost of energy (fuel and electricity) used for heating and cooling an existing building
determined? If a house uses natural gas for space and water heating, how can you determine the natural gas consumption
for space heating?
9-6 What quantities are involved in the evaluation of the annual energy consumption of a building that is at the design or
construction stage?
9-7 What is the degree-day method used for? What assumptions are involved?
9-8 What is the balance point temperature? Is it normally below or above the temperature of indoors? Why?
9-9 Someone claims that the °C-days for a location can be converted to °F-days by simply multiplying °C-days by 1.8. But
another person insists that 32 must be added to the result because of the formula T(°F) = 1.8T(°C) + 32. Which person do
you think is right?
9-10 Consider city A and city B. The degree-day in city A is 2000°C-day and that in city B is 3000°C-day. For which city will
the percent fuel savings be greater for a 5°C temperature setback in both cities? Why?
9-11 The indoors of a building is maintained at 25°C both in winter and in summer. The average outdoor temperature is
5°C in winter and 35°C in summer. Now the temperature setting is lowered by 3°C in winter and increased by 3°C in
summer. How do you compare the percent fuel savings in winter with the percent electricity savings in summer? Why?
9-12 The indoor temperature of a building is maintained at 25°C both in winter and in summer. The average outdoor
temperature is 5°C in winter and 35°C in summer. Now the temperature setting is lowered by 3°C in winter and increased by
3°C in summer. How do you compare the percent fuel savings and cost of fuel savings in winter with the percent electricity
savings and cost of electricity savings in summer?
9-13 What is the number of heating degree-days for a winter day during which the average outdoor temperature was 10°C,
and it never went above 18°C?
9-14 What is the number of heating degree-days for a winter month during which the average outdoor temperature was
54°F, and it never went above 65°F?
9-15 Suppose you have moved to Syracuse, New York, in August, and your roommate, who is short of cash, offered to pay
the heating bills during the upcoming year (starting January 1) if you pay the heating bills for the current calendar year until
December 31. Is this a good offer for you?
9-16 Consider a family in Atlanta, Georgia, whose average heating bill has been $600 a year. The family now moves to an
identical house in Denver, Colorado, where the fuel and electricity prices are also the same. How much do you expect the
annual heating bill of this family to be in their new home?
9-17 Using indoor and outdoor winter design temperatures of 70°F and −10°F, respectively, the design heat load of a
2500-ft 2 house in Billings, Montana, is determined to be 83,000 Btu/h. The house is to be heated by natural gas that will be
burned in a 95 percent efficient, high-efficiency furnace. If the unit cost of natural gas is $1.10/therm, estimate the annual
gas consumption of this house and its cost.
9-18 An office building in the Reno, Nevada, area (3346°C-days) is maintained at a temperature of 20°C at all times during
the heating season, which is taken to be November 1 through April 30. The work hours of the office are 8 a.m. to 6 p.m.
Monday through Friday, and there is no air conditioning. An examination of the heating bills of the facility for the previous
year reveals that the facility used 3530 therms of natural gas at an average price of $1.15/therm and thus paid $4060 for
heating. There are five thermostats in the facility to control the temperatures of various sections. The existing manual
thermostats are to be replaced by programmable ones to reduce the heating costs. The new thermostats are to lower the
temperature setting shortly before closing hour and raise it shortly before the opening hour. The thermostats will be set to
7.2°C during the off-work hours and to 20°C during the work hours. Determine the annual energy and cost savings as a result
of installing five programmable thermostats. Also, determine the simple payback period if the installed cost of each
programmable thermostat is $325.
9-19 The design heating load of a new house in Cleveland, Ohio, is calculated to be 65,000 Btu/h for an indoor
temperature of 72°F. If the house is to be heated by a natural gas furnace that is 90 percent efficient, predict the annual
natural gas consumption of this house, in therms. Assume the entire house is maintained at indoor design conditions at all
times.
9-20 For inside and outside design temperatures of 22°C and −12°C, respectively, a home located in Boise, Idaho, has a
design heating load of 38 kW. The house is heated by electric resistance heaters, and the cost of electricity is $0.06/kWh.
Determine how much money the homeowner will save if she lowers the thermostat from 22°C to 14°C from 11 p.m. to 7
a.m. every night in December.
9-21 The December space heating bill of a fully occupied house in Louisville, Kentucky, that was kept at 22°C at all times
was $110. How much do you think the December space heating bill of this house would be if it still were kept at 22°C but
there were no people living in the house, no lights were on, no appliances were operating, and there was no solar heat gain?
9-22 For an indoor temperature of 22°C, the design heating load of a residential building in Charlotte, North Carolina, is
determined to be 28 kW. The house is to be heated by natural gas, which costs $1.20/therm. The efficiency of the gas
furnace is 80 percent. Determine (a) the heat loss coefficient of the building, in kW/°C, and (b) the annual energy usage for
heating and its cost.
9-23 In a typical residential building, most energy is consumed for
a. Space heating and water heating
b. Space heating and lighting
c. Water heating and refrigerators
d. Refrigerators and lighting
e. Lighting and air conditioning
9-24 In a typical commercial building, most energy is consumed for
a. Space heating and water heating
b. Space heating and lighting
c. Water heating and refrigerators
d. Refrigerators and lighting
e. Lighting and air conditioning
9-25 For buildings that are at the design or construction stage, the evaluation of annual energy consumption does not
involve
a. Heat transfer through the building envelope
b. Efficiency of furnace
c. COP of cooling or heat pump system
d. Cost of fuel and electricity
e. Energy consumed by the distribution system
9-26 The balance point temperature is usually taken to be
a. 12°C
b. 15°C
c. 18°C
d. 20°C
e. 23°C
9-27 The average outdoor temperature in a location in a given day is 3°C. The heating degree-day in that day is
a. 12°C-day
b. 15°C-day
c. 18°C-day
d. 20°C-day
e. 23°C-day
HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS
9-28 Describe why frosting occurs in air-source heat pumps. Why is this a problem? How can this problem be tackled?
9-29 Why are ground-source heat pumps more efficient than air-source heat pumps? What is the disadvantage of ground-
source heat pumps?
9-30 Consider two identical air conditioners operating in the same environment in summer. Air conditioner A maintains a
space at 20°C, while air conditioner B maintains the space at 25°C. Which air conditioner consumes more electricity for the
same rate of heat removal from the space? Why?
9-31 Consider two identical heat pumps, both maintaining a room at the same temperature in winter. Heat pump A
operates in an ambient at 5°C, while heat pump B operates in an ambient at 10°C. Which heat pump consumes more
electricity for the same rate of heat supply to the room? Why?
9-32 Most air-source heat pumps require a supplementary heating system such as electric resistance heaters. Why? How
about water-source or ground-source heat pumps?
9-33 Consider a split air conditioner that operates as a heat pump in winter and as an air conditioner in summer. Do you
recommend using this air conditioner in (a) a mild climate with a large cooling load and a small heating load or (b) a cold
climate with a large heating load and a small cooling load. Why?
9-34 Describe advantages and disadvantages of vertical-loop heat pump systems.
9-35 Consider an air-source heat pump that operates between the ambient air at 0°C and the indoors at 20°C. The working
fluid refrigerant-134a evaporates at −10°C in the evaporator. The refrigerant is saturated vapor at the compressor inlet and
saturated liquid at the condenser exit. The refrigerant condenses at 39.4°C. Heat is lost from the indoors at a rate of 48,000
kJ/h. Determine (a) the power input and (b) the COP. (c) Also, determine the COP if a ground-source heat pump is used with
a ground temperature of 15°C and the evaporating temperature in this case is 5°C. Take everything else the same. What is
the percent increase in COP when a ground-source heat pump is used instead of the air-source heat pump?
For an air-source heat pump, the properties of R-134a at the compressor inlet and exit and at the condenser exit are
obtained from R-134a tables, respectively, to be h1 = 244.51 kJ/kg, h2 = 287.42 kJ/kg, h3 = 107.37 kJ/kg.
For a ground-source heat pump, the properties of R-134a at the compressor inlet and exit and at the condenser exit are
obtained from R-134a tables, respectively, to be h1 = 253.34 kJ/kg, h2 = 281.31 kJ/kg, h3 = 107.37 kJ/kg.
9-36 Consider a building whose annual air-conditioning load is estimated to be 120,000 kWh in an area where the unit cost
of electricity is $0.10/kWh (Fig. P9-36). Two air conditioners are considered for the building. Air conditioner A has a
seasonal average COP of 3.2 and costs $5500 to purchase and install. Air conditioner B has a seasonal average COP of 5.0
and costs $7000 to purchase and install. If all else is equal, determine how long it will take for air conditioner B to pay for its
price differential from the electricity it saves.
Figure P9-36
9-37 Repeat Prob. 9-36 if the seasonal COP of air conditioner B is 3.8.
9-38 A house in Cleveland, Ohio, is equipped with a heat pump system that is used for space heating in winter. The
seasonal COP of the heat pump in winter is estimated to be 1.5. The design heating load of the house is calculated to be
65,000 Btu/h for an indoor temperature of 75°F. The unit cost of electricity is $0.12/kWh. Determine the annual electricity
consumption and its cost for this house.
9-39 Reconsider Prob. 9-38. (a) If the house in Cleveland is heated in winter by a ground-source heat pump with a
seasonal COP of 3.5, determine the annual electricity consumption and its cost for this house. (b) If the house in Cleveland
is heated in winter by a natural gas furnace that is 88 percent efficient, determine the annual natural gas consumption and
its cost in winter. The unit cost of natural gas is $1.10/therm.
9-40 A building is equipped with a heat pump system that is used for space heating in winter and cooling in summer. The
seasonal COPs of the heat pump in winter and summer are estimated to be 2.2 and 2.8, respectively. The design heating
load of the house is calculated to be 750,000 kJ/h for an indoor temperature of 25°C. The unit cost of electricity is
$0.09/kWh. The figure for annual heating degree-days in this location is 2400°C-days, and the 97.5 percent winter design
temperature is −9°C. The figure for cooling degree-days is 1100°C-days. Determine the annual electricity consumption and
its cost for heating and cooling of this house. Assume the same overall heat loss coefficient for winter and summer.
9-41 Reconsider Prob. 9-40. (a) The existing air-source heat pump system is to be replaced by a ground-source heat pump
system. The seasonal COPs of this ground-source heat pump in winter and summer are estimated to be 4.0 and 3.5,
respectively. Determine the annual electricity consumption and its cost for heating and cooling of this house. (b) It is
estimated that the cost for installation of the ground-source heat pump is $40,000. Determine the simple payback period of
this investment in comparison to the existing air-source heat pump system.
9-42 The management of a new building is considering two options for space heating and cooling of the building:
Option A: Space heating in winter by a natural gas boiler whose average efficiency is 85 percent. Cooling in summer by an
air-source air conditioner whose seasonal COP is 2.2.
Option B: A ground-source heat pump that provides heating in winter and cooling in summer. The seasonal COP for both
winter and summer operation is 3.5.
The heating period is 3000 h and the cooling period is 2000 h. The unit costs of natural gas and electricity are $1.20/therm
and $0.11/kWh, respectively. The average heating load in winter is 60 kW, and the average cooling load in summer is 30 kW.
a. Determine the energy consumption and monetary cost for heating and cooling of this building for each option.
b. A cost analysis indicates that the initial cost of option B is greater than that of option A by $15,000. Determine how long
it will take for option B to pay for its price differential from the energy it saves.
9-43 Heat pumps can be driven by electricity or by a heat engine converting the heat of a fuel to work output (i.e., internal
combustion engine, gas-turbine engine). When comparing heat pump systems driven by different energy sources, it is
appropriate to use a primary energy ratio (PER) as the ratio of useful heat delivered by the heat pump to the primary energy
input (Holland et al., 1982). Therefore, it may be expressed as PER = ηth × COP where ηth is the thermal efficiency of the heat
engine and COP is the coefficient of performance of the heat pump.
A heat pump is driven by a natural gas—fired internal combustion the engine, and it supplies heat to a building at a rate of
115,000 kJ/h. The engine has a thermal efficiency of 36 percent, and it consumes 2 kg of natural gas in one hour. The
heating value of natural gas is 50,050 kJ/kg. Determine the primary energy ratio.
9-44 Consider the following heating systems and determine the primary energy ratio in each case using its definition in
Prob. 9-43.
a. Heat pump is driven by an internal combustion engine withηth = 0.28, COP = 2.2
b. Heat pump is driven by a gas-turbine power plant withηth = 0.30, COP = 3.6
c. A natural-gas furnace with an efficiency of 0.85
9-45 The COP of a heat pump is 2.5 in cooling mode. For the same amounts of heat absorptionQL and heat rejection QL,
what is the COP of this heat pump in heating mode?
a. 1.25
b. 1.5
c. 2.0
d. 2.5
e. 3.5
9-46 The operation of a ground-source heat pump in winter involves heat absorption from the ground in the
a. Evaporator
b. Condenser
c. Compressor
d. Expansion valve
e. None of these
9-47 The operation of a ground-source heat pump in summer involves heat rejection to the ground in the
a. Evaporator
b. Condenser
c. Compressor
d. Expansion valve
e. None of these
9-48 Which one is not a type of ground-source heat pump systems?
a. Horizontal loop
b. Vertical loop
c. Borehole loop
d. Cascade
e. Groundwater wells
9-49 A horizontal-loop heat pump involves horizontal underground piping in __________ depths.
a. 0.2–1 m
b. 1.2–2 m
c. 2–3 m
d. 3–6 m
e. 10–20 m
EVAPORATIVE COOLERS
9-50 What is the principle of an evaporative cooling process?
9-51 What are the advantages and disadvantages of evaporative coolers compared to conventional cooling systems?
9-52 What is the lowest temperature that can be achieved in an evaporative cooling process? What properties remain
constant during such a process?
9-53 Consider a location where the ambient air is at 1 atm and 40°C with a relative humidity of 20 percent. Determine the
minimum temperature the air can be cooled by an evaporative cooler.
9-54 Repeat Prob. 9-53 for a relative humidity of 50 percent.
9-55 Ambient air is at 1 atm and 95°F with a relative humidity of 35 percent in a location. The air is cooled to 76°F by an
evaporative cooler. What is the effectiveness of this evaporative cooler?
9-56 A room is cooled in summer by an evaporative cooler. Ambient air at 1 atm, 33°C, and 30 percent relative humidity
with a flow rate of 20 m3 /min enters an evaporative cooler with an effectiveness of 90 percent. The cool air leaving the
evaporative cooler enters the room and leaves the room at 28°C.
a. Determine the rate of cooling provided to the room, in Btu/h, by this evaporative cooler.
b. Determine the amount of electricity and money saved during a 30-day period if this evaporative cooler is replacing an air
conditioner with a COP of 3. The unit price of electricity is $0.11/kWh. Assume the data described in this problem
represent average conditions during the entire 30 days.
9-57 A house is cooled in summer by the combination of an evaporative cooler and an air conditioner. Consider a summer
day operation during which the ambient air at 37°C, 1 atm, and 25 percent relative humidity is cooled by the evaporative
cooler with an effectiveness of 80 percent. The cool air produced by the evaporative cooler is mixed with a cooler air
produced by the air conditioner with an average COP of 2.5 before being directed to the house. The average rate of heat
input to the house in that day is estimated to be 24,000 Btu/h while the air conditioner consumes electricity at an average
rate of 1.8 kW. The unit price of electricity is $0.13/kWh. Determine
a. The air temperature at the exit of the evaporative cooler.
b. The fraction of cooling supplied to the house by the evaporative cooler.
c. The amount of electricity and money saved during that day (24-h period) due to evaporative cooler.
9-58 What is the best climate for the use of evaporative coolers?
a. Cold and dry
b. Cold and humid
c. Hot and humid
d. Hot and dry
9-59 What property remains constant during an evaporative cooling process?
a. Dry-bulb temperature
b. Relative humidity
c. Wet-bulb temperature
d. Specific humidity
e. None of these
ELECTRIC HEATERS
9-60 Why is using electric heaters for space heating not recommended from thermodynamic and economic points of
view?
9-61 What is the conversion efficiency of an electric heater? What is the COP of an electric heater?
9-62 Someone claims that the conversion efficiency of an electric heater cannot be 100 percent because this process
must involve some losses, making the efficiency less than 100 percent. Do you agree? Why?
9-63 What are radiant heaters? For what applications are they suitable? Why?
9-64 Someone claims that using electric resistance heaters for space heating is a pollution-free process because there is
no combustion process involved. Do you agree? Explain.
9-65 An oil radiator driven by electrical energy is used to heat an office. The heater draws 40 kWh of electricity during a
10-h period.
a. Determine the amount of heat supplied to the office during this period.
b. Define and determine the COP and conversion efficiency for this heater.
9-66 A house is heated by a 4.8-kW electrical resistance heater, which operates at full power about 75 percent of the time
during the entire winter season. The winter season is taken as the entire months of December, January, and February. If the
unit price of electricity is $0.09/kWh, determine the amount of electricity consumption and its cost due to heating this house
in winter.
9-67 A house in Las Vegas, Nevada, is equipped with an electric heater. The design heating load of the house is calculated
to be 34,500 Btu/h for an indoor temperature of 75°F. The unit cost of electricity is $0.12/kWh. Determine the annual
electricity consumption and its cost for heating this house in winter. The figure for annual heating degree-days in Las Vegas
is 2709°F-days. The 97.5 percent winter design temperature for Las Vegas is 28°F.
9-68 Consider a house that is heated by electric heaters in winter. The homeowner spends $2700 to heat the house in a
particular winter season.
a. If this house was heated by a heat pump with a seasonal COP of 3.3, determine the amount of money the homeowner
would spend for heating. The unit price of electricity is $0.10/kWh.
b. If this house was heated by a coal boiler with an average efficiency of 65 percent, determine the amount of money the
homeowner would spend for heating. The heating value of coal is 25,000 kJ/kg, and its unit price is $0.18/kg.
9-69 A building is currently heated by a natural gas boiler. The cost of space heating during the entire winter is calculated
to be $10,000. Determine the heating cost of this building for the following alternatives:
Natural gas boiler: ηboiler = 0.90, Unit price of fuel = $1.25/therm
Coal boiler: HHV = 12,000 Btu/lbm, ηboiler = 0.60, Unit price of fuel = $0.12/lbm
Propane boiler: HHV = 21,500 Btu/lbm, ηboiler = 0.88, Unit price of propane = $0.65/lbm
Diesel boiler: HHV = 19,600 Btu/lbm, ηboiler = 0.84, Unit price of diesel = $0.75/lbm
Electric resistance heater: Unit price of electricity = $0.12/kWh
Heat pump: COP = 2.5, Unit price of electricity = $0.12/kWh
9-70 A heat pump with a COP of 3 replaces an electric resistance heater in a house. If the heat pump consumes 3 kW of
electricity, what was the electricity consumption in the case of the electric heater?
a. 1 kW
b. 2 kW
c. 3 kW
d. 6 kW
e. 9 kW
9-71 House A is heated by a natural gas boiler whose efficiency is 80 percent. House B is heated by electric heater, and
the electricity is produced by a natural gas—burning power plant whose thermal efficiency is 40 percent. The same amount
of heat is delivered to each house. If house A spends $30 in a given day for heating, the corresponding heating cost in
house B is
a. $80
b. $60
c. $40
d. $30
e. $15
9-72 House A is heated by a natural gas boiler whose efficiency is 75 percent. House B is heated by an electric heater.
House C is heated by a heat pump whose COP is 2. The electricity for houses B and C is produced by a natural gas—burning
power plant whose thermal efficiency is 50 percent. The same amount of heat is delivered to each house. The heating cost
is lowest in
a. House A
b. House B
c. House C
d. Houses A and B
e. Houses A and C
9-73 Consider space heating of a building by a boiler burning a fossil fuel. The heating cost does not directly depend on
a. Boiler size
b. Boiler efficiency
c. Heating value of fuel
d. Unit price of fuel

9 Energy Consumption in Buildings

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9 Energy Consumption in Buildings

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9.

Energy Consumption in Buildings

Average Degree-days, °F-day

Ariz 58.1 14.8 0 0 0 25 231 406 471 344 242 75 6 0 1800

Flori 60.1 15.9 0 0 0 28 198 360 375 286 202 86 0 0 1485

Haw 74.2 23.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Loui 56.2 13.8 0 0 0 47 297 477 552 426 304 81 0 0 2184

Texa 55.3 13.3 0 0 0 62 321 524 601 440 319 90 6 0 2363

City T o, design °F-days Ratio

Tucson 32°F 1800 1137

Las Vegas 28°F 2709 1548

Charleston 11°F 4476 1821

Cleveland 5°F 6351 2345

Minneapolis −12°F 8382 2453

Anchorage −18°F 10,864 2963

where (T i − T o ) design is the design indoor—outdoor temperature difference.

Q̇design = UAΔTdesign = UA(Ti − To)design = K overall(Ti − To)design

EXAMPLE 9-1 Comparison of Monthly Heating Bills

Month °F-days °C-days

October 384 213

November 738 410

December 1088 604

January 1159 644

February 1047 582

March 918 510

April 552 307

May 260 144

Yearly total 6351 3528

Therefore, the ratio of December—January degree-days to the annual degree-days is

DDheating, Dec–Jan (1088 + 1159)°F-day

EXAMPLE 9-2 Annual Heating Cost of a House

Q̇design, load 70,000 Btu/h

Annual fuel cost = Annual energy consumption × Unit cost of fuel

Therefore, it will cost $2358 per year to heat this house.

EXAMPLE 9-3 Annual Energy Consumptions for Different Heating Systems

a. Coal heater, ηheating = 0.75, Heating value of coal = 30,000 kJ/kg

b. Natural gas heater, ηheating = 0.85

c. Heat pump, COP = 2.5

d. Resistance heater, ηheating = 1

a. Coal heater, ηheating = 0.75, Heating value of coal = 30,000 kJ/kg

Energy consumption 1.44 × 108 kJ

b. Natural gas heater, ηheating = 0.85

c. Heat pump, COP = 2.5

d. Resistance heater, ηheating = 1

9-1-1. Changing Thermostat Setting to Save Energy

Degree-days Amount of setback, °F (or °C)

1000 556 13% 25% 38% 50%

The rate of heat loss from a house in winter can be expressed as

Tucson, AZ: Average winter temperature = 58°F, DD = 1800°F-days (Table 9-1)

The same temperature difference in Cleveland, Ohio, is

Cleveland, OH: Average winter temperature = 37°F, DD = 6351°F-days (Table 9-1)

The percentage decrease in temperature difference due to thermostat setback is

(Ti − To)before − (Ti − To)after 22°F − 12°F

(Ti − To)before − (Ti − To)after (75 − 22)°F − (70 − 22)°F

(Ti − To)before − (Ti − To)after (92 − 70)°F − (92 − 75)°F

(Ti − To)before − (Ti − To)after (26 − 4)°C − (22 − 4)°C

The corresponding cost savings in winter and in summer are

Heating cost savings = Fraction saved × Annual cost = (0.182)($400,000/yr) = $72,800/yr

9-1-2. Programmable Thermostats

9-2. HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS

EXAMPLE 9-5 Choosing the Most Economical Air Conditioner

Figure 9-8 Schematic for Example 9-5.

The simple payback period is

Price differential $1500