Administration in Social Work

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Management Style, Job Satisfaction, and Service

Effectiveness

Anthony J. Grasso DSW

To cite this article: Anthony J. Grasso DSW (1994) Management Style, Job Satisfaction, and
Service Effectiveness, Administration in Social Work, 18:4, 89-105, DOI: 10.1300/J147v18n04_05

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 Management Style, Job Satisfaction,
and Service Effectiveness
Anthony J. Grasso, DSW

Management in social work agencies has undergone dramatic

changes in the past decade. More and more the politics of choice,
resulting in fewer resources allocated to meet rising social service
needs, have created internal organizational conflicts between direct
service practitioners and administrators regarding what constitutes
the best interests of the client. Most often these conflicts are dis-
cussed as a choice between quantitative versus qualitative altema-
tives in serving a client population. From the direct service practi-
tioner's perspective, too often client service decisions reflect a
manager's concern for eficiency at the expense of good service to
clients. Under the daily burden of trying to balance external ac-
countability requirements with professional service values, admin-
istrators are confronted with difficult decisions that have far reach-
ing consequences both for staff and clients. With little empirical
evidence to shed light on how to proceed, administrators are forced
to do the best they can in what is often an unreasonable situation.
In choosing a course of action, the administrator is offered advice
from expert consultants who promote different strategies for im-
proving organizational functioning. Rarely is this advice based on a
real understanding of how decisions that may improve administra-
tive operations affect other organizational subsystems, and most
importantly, client services (Grasso, 1993). Of the models offered,
the dominant one used in western management and encouraged by
computerization promotes the control of the worker as the best

Dr. Grasso is Assistant Professor. School of Social Work. Universitv of Neva-

da-Las Vcgas, Las Vcgas, NV 89154.
Adrninislration in Social Work, Vol. 18(4) 1994
@ 1994 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. 89
90 ADMINISTRATION IN SOCIAL WORK

method for improving organizational effectiveness (Braverman,

1974; Grasso & Epstein, 1992). Others promote the notion that a
supervisor's management style has a positive effect on worker job
satisfaction, and thus, agency performance (McNeely, Feyerherm, &
Johnson, 1986; Barber, 1986; Grasso, Savas, & Deshaies, 1993). To
date, however, little has been done in human service agencies that
offers insight into how administrative style affects worker satisfac-
tion, and in tum affects service effectiveness.

ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE, PRODUCTIVITY,

EFFECTIVENESS, AND SERVICE EFFECTNENESS
Organizational effectiveness has been discussed in the literature
under many names (Georgopoulos, 1986). Because of this, most
social work administrators tend to think that organizational perfor-
mance, productivity, and effectiveness are different names used to
describe a single concept; or are names given to different but "in-
terrelated" asDects of the same conceDt. This confusion has caused
problems for developing an understanding of organizational pro-
cesses and how they relate to an organization's success or the as-
sessment of an org&ization9s wonh.-SO, for example, when a study
reports that management style is related to improved organizational
performance, without a broader understanding of the distinctions
between the concepts of productivity, performance, and effective-
ness, the reader is left to surmise that the way managers supervise
their subordinates influences the achievement of the organization's
primary objectives.
Generally speaking, productivity relates to the activity or effort
the organization expends in achieving its primary objectives, per-
formance relates to the functioning of the organization in achieving
its primary objectives, and effectiveness relates to achievement of
organizational outcomes. The tendency to collapse the concepts of
productivity and performance into the concept of organizational
effectiveness results from two assumptions about organizational
processes.
The first assumption that' productivity is linearly related to orga-
nizational outcomes is derived from studies of organizations using
exact technologies. Lawrence and Lorsch (1967) point out that in
 Anthony J . Grasso 91

studies of organizations using an exact technology, activity or pro-

ductivity is linearly related to achievement of the organization's
primary objectives. Where the merging of the concepts of produc-
tivity and effectiveness may be appropriate for cardboard box
manufacturing, this is clearly not appropriate for the study of hu-
man service agencies. And yet, in most human service agencies
worker activity is used at worst as a real measure and at best as a
proxy measure for organizational effectiveness.
The second assumption that organizational functioning and the
achievement of its primary objectives are interrelated comes from
studies on the sociaVpsychological attributes of organizations.
Georgopoulos and Tannenbaum (1957) stated,"In discussions of
general organizational theory, the multifaceted concept of effec-
tiveness includes a notion that an organization should achieve its
objectives without incapacitating its mean and resources and
withoutplacing undue strain upon its members. This conception of
effectiveness subsumes the idea of organizational performance"
(p. 536). In studies which use this definition of organizational
effectiveness ,as in the example above, when a supervisor's man-
agement style is reported to be related to worker job satisfaction, a
measure of organizational performance connected to the idea of
strain on organizational members, the reader needs to understand
that management style or job satisfaction may or may not be re-
lated to achieving an organization's primary objectives. Without
this understanding, administrators can falsely believe that orga-
nizational effectiveness, performance, and productivity are one
and the same.
In an attempt to clear up confusion for assessing organizational
functioning in social service agencies, the concept of service effec-
tiveness has been introduced as the most useful measure (Patti,
1985). In his now classic discussion on' why service effectiveness
should be the principal concern of social work management, Patti
(1987) points out that:

Changing people andlor the social conditions in which they

live is the raison &&re of the human service agency, not the
acquisition of resources, the efficient utilization of resources,
or the satisfaction and development of staff. (p. 9)
92 ADMINISTRATION IN SOCIAL WORK

Although he argues that they are important in their own right, con-
cerns for efficiency, the social/psychological aspects of organiza-
tions and resource procurement should be subservient to the orga-
nization's fundamental objective, service effectiveness.
More recently, studies .in social service settings have looked at
issues related to worker satisfaction. They have investigated the
effect of uncertainty caused by organizational restructuring on job
satisfaction (McNeely, Feyerherm, & Johnson, 1986); workers' sat-
isfaction with organizational bureaucracy (York & Henley, 1986);
and job features related to job satisfaction (Barber, 1986). To date,
however, few studies have attempted to look at management or
management style and job satisfaction in a human service agency
(Howell, 1979; Patti, 1977; Steeger, Manners, & Woodhouse, 1976;
Wolk, Way, & Bleeke, 1982). One recent study analyzed the rela-
tionship between management style and job satisfaction in an orga-
nization where a Human Relations management theorv and the
organization's technology were value synt&ic (Malka, 1589). This
study was conducted at multiple human service organizations in
Israel and reported a strong relationship between a manager's man-
agement style and job satisfaction.
The primary purpose of the current study was to investigate how
management style and job satisfaction are related to service effec-
tiveness. More specifically, the author looks at the relationships
between management style, job satisfaction, and organizational
sub-unit service effectiveness over a two-year period in a large
Midwest child and family service agency.

Agency Setting

The two-yeas study was conducted at Boysville of Michigan, the

State's largest private agency serving troubled adolescents and fam-
ilies. Although Boysville primarily operates multiple residential
treatment settings located across the state with one setting in Ohio,
it has in the past decade expanded its service programs to include an
intensive family therapy program for all youth in placement, spe-
cialized foster care for youth unable to return to their natural family,
an intensive home-based family service program, and an indepen-
dent living program. While a growing number of Boysville youth
are neglected-abused, most are adjudicated delinquents with serious
behavioral, social, and educational problems.

METHODOLOGY
In this study of management style, job satisfaction and program
effectiveness, a two-year replicated cross-sectional design was
used. This design was selected since a replicated cross-sectional
study can easily be used in the natural setting with little disruption
to ongoing agency processes (Epstein & Tripodi, 1977). In this
study, groups of individuals were examined at two time intervals
using the same measurements with findings analyzed for changes in
the relationship between the dependent and independent variables.
The use of this type of method eliminates some possible confound-
ing of the findings resulting from using treatment team level scores
in analyzing the data where findings remained consistent over time.

Instruments

Supervisory management style, the first independent variable,

was measured using Likert's (1967) Management Survey Instru-
ment (MSI)which reports staff perceptions of their supervisor's
management style. Job Satisfaction, the dependent variable in the
first part of the analysis and an independent variable in the second
part, was measured using the Job Description Index (JDI) (Smith,
Kendall & Hulin, 1969). The JDI was selected since it is recog-
nized as the most widely used standardized measure of job satis-
faction and has been reported on in hundreds of organizational job
satisfaction studies. Additionally, it allows for comparing job sat-
isfaction sub-scores to program effectiveness (DeMeuse, 1985;
Smith et al., 1987). Service effectiveness, the dependent variable,
was measured by treatment team using four specific program out-
come measures. These included: percent of families completing
most or all of the family treatment goals; percent of successful
program completions; percent of clients being placed in a less-re-
strictive setting after service completion; and an average three-
month post placement follow-up score that looks at work and/or
school functioning, living situation, and police contacts. Addition-
94 ADMINISTRATION IN SOCIAL WORK

ally, one measure of worker activity, average number of face-to-

face family contacts, was included as a team productivity measure.
The inclusion of the activity measure allowed for looking at the
relationship between supervisor management style, job satisfac-
tion, and instrumental worker activity that may or may not be
related to service effectiveness.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

As a standard part of the agency's annual review of worker
concerns, in September of 1989 and 1990 a shortened version of the
47 item MSI and the full 72 item JDI were administered. Items were
selected from Likert's original scale that were of most interest to
agency leadership thus reducing the intrusiveness of the assessment
process (Fallen, 1985). Respondents' were given a three-part ques-
tionnaire in their team meetings without their supervisor present.
Once completed, the questionnaires were sent in a sealed envelope
to the agency's research department for data entry and analysis. To
ensure anonymity, workers' questionnaires were identified by clock
number only.
In the first part of the questionnaire, staff were asked to assess
their supervisor's management behavior on an 8 point scale looking
at both how they currently perceive their supervisor's management
style and how they would like it to be. For scoring purposes, points
1 and 2 indicated a System I or an exploitative management style,
points 3 and 4 indicated a System 2 or an authoritative management
style, points 5 and 6 indicated a System 3 or consulrative manage-
ment style and points 7 and 8 indicated a System 4 or participative
management style. The later classification, participative, which
Likert viewed as the most effective approach, was expected to be
related with higher job satisfaction of team members, and thus,
better service effectiveness (Likert, 1961). A full description of the
shortened scale is described elsewhere (Grasso et al., 1993).
On the second part of the survey (JDI scale) staff were asked to
respond by answering Y(es), N ( o ) or ? to questions on their work,
supervisor, pay, promotion and co-workers. For scoring purposes, a
Y(es) to a positive or a N(o) to a negative item scored three (3) points;
a ? for cannot decide to any item was scored as one (1) point; and a
 Anthony J . Grasso 95

Y(es) to a negative or N(o) to a positive item was scored as a zero

(0).
All scores were then translated into average overall team score
for both the management style and job satisfaction indexes. In the
campus-based and group home programs, treatment teams con-
sisted of a group worker, a family worker and three to four child-
care staff. In the foster care and home-based programs, treatment
teams consisted of all workers in a particular region reporting to a
single supervisor. The third section of the questionnaire used a
different measure of overall worker job satisfaction, the JIG scale
(Lronson, Smith, Brannick, Gibson, & Paul, 1989). This measure
was dropped from the analysis since in a previous study it proved
less sensitive to changes in overall worker satisfaction than using a
summation score of the JDI scales (Grasso et al., 1993).
Subunit program effectiveness, the dependent variable, was derived
by taking the 1989-90 year-end closing data from the existing com-
puterized program evaluation information system (Grasso & Epstein,
1989). The existing data base contains information on clients who
exited the program in 1989-90. This information was used to
construct treatment team effectiveness scores which were then
joined to the team survey response scores. Although this method
does not completely control for periodic changes in individual team
membership, the use of overall team service effectiveness and sur-
vey scores reduced some instability caused by staff turnover. Addi-
tionally, the use of the replicated cross-sectional design added cred-
ibility to relationships among variables that remained consistent
over the two years of the study.
In general, it was hypothesized that: the more participatory a
supervisor was perceived by a team, the higher the team would rate
their job satisfaction; that is, perceived management style would be
positively and significantly related to job satisfaction but that nei-
ther supervisor management style nor job satisfaction would be
positively related to organizational sub-unit program effectiveness.
Drawing on the work of York and Henley (1986) who concluded
that more bureaucratic approaches help organizations achieve orga-
nizational goals, it was additionally hypothesized that more exploit-
ative supervisor management styles would be positively and signifi-
cantly related to higher average team face-to-face family worker
96 ADMINISTRATION IN SOCIAL WORK

contacts. More specifically, the study was designed to answer the

following questions.

Study Questions

1. Is team-perceived supervisory management style related to

team job satisfaction?
2. Are team-perceived supervisory management style and job
satisfaction related to treatment team service effectiveness?
3. Are more exploitative team-perceived supervisory manage-
ment styles related to the treatment team activity measure?
4. Do the relationships between treatment team perceptions of
supervisory management style, job satisfaction and service ef-
fectiveness differ over time?

Study Population

The study included 189 respondents in 1989 assigned to 31 treat-

ment teams and 247 respondents in 1990 assigned to 39 treatment
teams. There were only minor variances on staff characteristics
between the 1989 and 1990 respondents. The breakdown of staff
characteristics are as follows: 85.7% of the respondents were White
and 14.3% Black; 62.3% of the respondents were male and 37.7%
were female. The mean age of the respondents was 31.2 years with
a minimum of 21.1 and a maximum of 58.2. The mean salary of the
respondents was $18,385 with a minimum of $8,960 and a maxi-
mum of $34,480. The grade level of respondents was 9.1% with a
Master's degree (5.2% MSW); 54.5% had a BA or BS degree; 5.2%
had an Associate's degree; and 31.2% had no college degree. The
mean number of years the respondents were employed at the agency
was 3.1 with a minimum of less than one year and a maximum of
12.6 years.
Study of background characteristics of clients completing ser-
vices in 1989-90 revealed that the mean age of clients at intake was
15.7 years. The youngest client at intake was 12.5 years old, and the
oldest was 17.6 years old. The racial composition showed that
63.6% were Black, 33.7% were White, 2.4% were Spanish Ameri-
can, and .4% American Indian. The gender of the population was
 primarily male, with 79.8% male and 20.2% female. The family
information showed that 25.6%were from families with married
parents, 54.7%from single parent families, 10.8%from extended
families, 3.9%from foster families, and 2%from adoptive families.
Looking at their juvenile court records, it was found that the mean
number of adjudications was about 2, with the minimum 0 and the
maximum 40; the mean number of previous placements was about 3,
with the minimum beiig 0 and the maximum 52; and the mean
number of felonies was 1. with the minimum 0 and the maximum 23.

MANAGEMENT STYLE, JOB SATISFACTION,

AND SERVICE EFFECTIVENESS

Before looking at the two years of information on the relation-

ships between management style, job satisfaction and service effec-
tiveness, an analysis of the independent measures of team supervi-
sory management style and team job satisfaction was conducted.
The average treatment team consisted of about 6 to 8 members.
Over the two years of the study, the average number of team mem-
bers who returned completed questionnaires to the agency research
department for analysis was 5.64. Table I presents, by year, the
correlational analysis of the team mean current management style
score with the team JDI mean score.

TABLE I. Correlations by Year for Team Mean Overall Satisfaction Scores

with the Team Mean Perceived Current Management Style

11 Team Mean 11
Overall Job Satisfaction

Team Mean Current

Management Style

Number of valid observations pairwise:

1989 N = 2 8
1990 N = 3 9
All results are significant at p < ,001
98 ADMINISTRATION IN SOCIAL WORK

Information on this table indicates that, as expected, higher team

supervisory management scores are significantly associated with
team job satisfaction as measured by JDI scon: (1989, r = .65, p <
.001; 1990, r = .51, p < .001). These findings strongly suggest that,
as expected, there is a positive relationship between team supervi-
sory management style and overall team job satisfaction. And that,
although there were reported differences in the strengths of the
relationships over the two years of the study, these relationships
remain significant at a minimum r = .51, p < .001 level (Grasso et
al., 1993).
Next, the associations among the different measures of service
effectiveness (the dependent variable), were reviewed. Additional-
ly, the team productivity measure of worker activity based on the
average number of face-to-face family contacts was included in the
analysis of the dependent measures. Table I1 presents a correlational
analysis of the 1989-90 team service effectiveness information
which included: the percent of successful program completions; the
percent of families completing most or dl of the family aeatment
goals; the average number of family contacts, the percent of clients
being placed in a less-restrictive setting after service completion;
and the average three month post placement follow-up score.
Information from this table shows that team percent of successful
completions was associated with the percentage of families com-

TABLE II. Correlations for Team Productivity and Effectiveness Measures

(1989-90)

1. Successful Completions
2. Family Goal Completion
3. Less Restrictive Settings
4. Post Placement Score
5. Family Contacts

Number of valid observations pairwlse: 27

"* results are significant at p < ,001
" results are significant at p < .O1
 Atlrhotry J. Grasso 99

pleting all or most of the family treatment goals (r = .66, p < .001);
the percent of clients being placed in a less-restrictive setting (r =
.51, p < .001); the average three month post placement follow-up
score (r = .70, p < .001); and with the average number of family
contacts (r = .48, p < .01). In addition to being significantly
associated with the team percent of successful completions, the
percentage of families completing all or most of the family treat-
ment goals was also associated with the percent of clients being
placed in a less-restrictive setting (r = .59, p < .001); the average
three month post placement follow-up score (r = .60, p < .001); and
with the average number of family contacts (r = .51, p < .01). This
information indicates that team percents of successful completions
and families completing all or most of the family treatment goals
were significantly associated with the three other dependent mea-
sures. And, that although the productivity measure of the team
average number of family contacts was significantly associated
with the team percents of successful program completions (r = .48)
and families completing treatment goals (r = .51), the associations
were not as strong at the p < .O1 level as with the other two mea-
sures, post placement adjustment scores (r = .70 and r = .60, respec-
tively) and clients being placed in less restrictive settings (r = .51
and r = .59, respectively) all at the p < .001 level.
In looking at the associations among variables, management
style and service effectiveness were f i s t studied. Table III presents,
by year, the correlational analysis of the average team supervisory
management style scores with the team service effectiveness mea-
sures.
Information from this table shows that in 1989 and 1990 there
were no statistically significant relationships between supervisory
management style and the team percent o f s u c c e ~ s f u l ~ ~ r o ~ r a m
completions; the percent of families completing most or all of the
family treatment goals; the average number of family contacts, the
percent of clients being placed in a less-restrictive setting after
service completion; and the average three-month post placement
follow-up score. This information supports the original position that
there would be no relationship between supervisory management
stvle and service effectiveness. However, it also shows that there is
no relationship between supervisory management style and the
100 ADMINISTRATION IN SOCIAL WORK

TABLE Ill. Correlations for Supervisory Management Style with Team

Productivitv and Effectiveness Measures

1
K I

I I. ~upervisoly~ g tstyle
. I
2. Successful Completions
3. Family Goal Completion
4. Family Contacts -.05
5. Less Restrictive Settings
6. Post Placement Score -.02

instrumental activity of the workers measured by the average num-

ber of team family contacts. This would indicate that more exploit-
ative supervisory management styles do not necessarily result in
greater worker productivity. Interestingly enough, although super-
visory management style is strongly associated with a sociallpsy-
chological aspect of organizations, worker satisfaction, it has no
relationship to either service effectiveness or productivity.
After determining that supervisory management style was not
related to treatment team service effectiveness or productivity, the
associations among the sociaVpsychological organizational aspect
of worker satisfaction and service effectiveness and productivity
was studied. Table IV presents, by year, the correlational analysis of
the average overall team worker satisfaction score with team per-
cent of successful program completions; the percent of families
completing most or all of the family treatment goals; the average
number of family contacts, the percent of clients being placed in a
less-restrictive setting after service completion; and the average
three month post placement follow-up score.
Information from this table shows that in 1989 there were no
statistically significant relationships between team worker satisfac-
tion and team percent of successful program completions; the per-
cent of families completing most or all of the family treatment
goals; the average number of family contacts; the percent of clients
being placed in a less-restrictive setting after service completion;
 At~thonyJ . Grasso I01

TABLE IV. Correlations of Team Worker Satisfaction with Team Productivity

and Effectiveness Measures

I 1989 1990
I
1. Team Worker Satisfaction
2. Successful Completions - .25 - .33
3. Family Goal Completion .23 - .26
4. Family Contacts - .29 - .28
5. Less Restrictive Settings .12 - .43'
6. Post Placement Score - .42 - .26
1989 N = 24
1990 N = 27
results are signllicant at p < .O1

and the average three month post placement follow-up score. How-
ever, in 1990 there was a statistically significant negative relation-
ship between overall team worker satisfaction and the percent of
clients being placed in a less-restrictive setting after service
completion (r = - .43, p < .01). Also, in both years, although all but
one of the relationships between the independent and dependent
variables were not significant, most of the associations in 1989 and
all of the associations in 1990 were unexpectedly in a negative
direction.
To try to understand the dynamics of the negative associations
among team worker satisfaction and the productivity and service
effectiveness measures, the sub-dimensions of the JDI were studied.
Tables V and VI present, by year, the correlational analysis of the
JDI team worker satisfaction sub-dimensions with the team percent
of successful program completions; the percent of families complet-
ing most or all of the family treatment goals; the average number of
family contacts, the percent of clients being placed in a less-restric-
tive setting after service completion; and the average three month
post placement follow-up score.
Information from this table shows that in 1989 team worker
satisfaction with pay was negatively associated with team percent
of successful program completions (r = -60, p < .001). That is,
102 ADMINISTRATION IN SOCIAL WORK

TABLE V. Correlations of 1989 Team Worker Satisfaction Sub-scale Scores

with Team Productivity and Effectiveness Measures

1989
1 2 3 4 5
1. Work
2. Pay
3. Promotions
4. Supervision
5. Coworkers .19 .09 -.24 .15 .04

1 = Family Goal Completion

2 = Family Contacts
3 = Post Placement Score
4 = Less Restrictive Senings
5 = Successful Completions
" results are significant at p < ,001

TABLE VI. Correlations of 1990 Team Worker Satisfaction Sub-scale

Scores with Team Productivity and Effectiveness Measures

I 1990

I 1 2 3 4 5

1. Work .10 .16 .19 .OO .lo

2. Pay -.31 -.I4 -.26 -.43' -.30
3. Promotions -.21 -.24 -.21 -.28 -.I2
4. Supervision -.I3 -.20 .01 -.32 -.I8
5. Coworkers -.I2 -.44' -.32 -.31 -.36

1 = Farnlly Goal Completion

2 = Famlly Contacts
3 = Post Placement Score
4 = Less Restrictive Settings
5 = Successful Completlons
results are significant at p c .O1
 Atrlkottg J. Grasso 103

teams who reported higher satisfaction with pay had lower success-
ful program completions.
Additionally, Table VI shows that in 1990 team worker satisfac-
tion with pay was negatively associated with the percent of clients
being placed in a less-restrictive setting after service completion (r =
- 43, p < .01). Also in 1990, team worker satisfaction with cowork-
ers was negatively associated with the average number of family
contacts (r = - -44, p < .01). The previous two tables provide
support for the position that the social/psychological organizational
aspect of worker satisfaction is not positively associated with ser-
vice effectiveness and productivity; however, they also raise some
important additional questions. One possible explanation for the
negative association between team worker satisfaction with pay and
service effectiveness measures may relate to other conditions effect-
ing agency operations. In a previous study (Grasso et al., 1993), the
conditions surrounding the agency's inability to provide pay in-
creases for almost two years are discussed. This lack of a pay
increase may have had a more severe negative effect on longer-term
employees who have the most experience working with clients and
who are likely to be more effective than it did on new employees
whose satisfaction with pay was unaffected by a lack of a pay
increase in the preceding two years. The negative association be-
tween team worker satisfaction with co-workers and lower activity
may be an artifact of newer home-based programs requirement for
greater family contact. That is, in recently established programs
workers may be less satisfied with team members as new teams
work out relationships and competencies. The fact that these newer
programs required greater family contact may in part explain this
finding.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This study considered the relationship between treatment team
supervisory management style, job satisfaction, and service effec-
tiveness in a family treatment and child care agency. It was found
that although supervisory management style is positively associated
with worker satisfaction, a sociaVpsychological aspect of the orga-
nization, neither are positively associated with service effective-
104 ADMINISTRATION I N SOCIAL WORK

ness. Also, it was found that System I or more exploitative supervi-

sory management styles do not result in higher worker productivity.
In looking at these findings, one should be drawn to ask: "If
supervisory leadership and worker satisfaction do not, what condi-
tions do effect service effectiveness?" Answers to this question will
require a different approach to studying service effectiveness that
supports a multivariant analysis strategy. This more inclusive ana-
lytical approach to studying service effectiveness must include, in a
single evaluative model, data on organizational properties, staff and
client characteristics, and treatment approaches employed in the
organization (Grasso & Epstein, 1993). It is the contention of this
author that a new developmental approach to organizational man-
agement that encourages critical thinking through an inforrnation-
based reflective process may improve service effectiveness (Gras-
so, 1993). However, without future studies that focus needed
research on additional issues of service effectiveness, this too re-
mains only speculation.

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