The Size of an Earthquake

● Intensity of Shaking
(Robert Mallet, 1857)
● Calculation of Earthquake Magnitude
(Charles Richter, 1935)
● In 1857, Robert Mallet produced isoseismal
lines based on quantified damage levels.
● In 1902 an Italian seismologist and
volcanologist, G. Mercalli, developed an
intensity scale
● H.O. Wood and Frank Neumann modified tis
scale which is now widely used as the
abridged Modified Mercally Intensity Scale
 Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale
Magnitud Descriptio Mercalli Average earthquake effects Average
e n Intensity frequency of
occurrence
(estimated)
Less than Micro I Microearthquakes, not felt, or felt rarely by Continual/sev
2.0 sensitive people. Recorded by seismographs. eral million per
[15] year

2.0–2.9 Minor I to II Felt slightly by few to many people. No Over one

damage to buildings. million per
year
3.0–3.9 II to IV Often felt by at least some people, but very Over 100,000
rarely causes damage. Shaking of indoor per year
objects can be noticeable.
4.0–4.9 Light IV to VI Noticeable shaking of indoor objects and 10,000 to
rattling noises. Many people to everyone feel 15,000 per
the earthquake. Slightly felt outside. year
Generally causes none to slight damage.
Moderate to significant damage very unlikely.
Some falling of objects.
5.0–5.9 Moderate VI to VIII Can cause moderate to major damage to 1,000 to 1,500
poorly constructed buildings. At most, none to per year
slight damage to all other buildings. Felt by
everyone. Deaths can depend on the effects.
6.0–6.9 Strong VII to Can be damaging/destructive in populated areas in 100 to 150
X regions of any size. Damage to many to all buildings. per year
Earthquake-resistant structures survive with slight to
moderate damage. Poorly-designed structures receive
moderate to severe damage. Felt in wider areas; likely
to be hundreds of miles/kilometers from the epicenter.
Can be damaging of any level further from the
epicenter. Strong to violent shaking in epicentral area.
Death toll between none and 25,000.
7.0–7.9 Major VIII to Causes damage to many to all buildings over areas. 10 to 20 per
XII Some buildings partially or completely collapse or year
[16] receive severe damage. Well-designed structures are
likely to receive damage. Felt in enormous areas.
Death toll is usually between none and 250,000.
8.0–8.9 Great Major damage to poorly-designed buildings and most One per year
structures, likely to be destroyed. Will cause moderate (rarely none,
to heavy damage to normal and earthquake-resistant two, or over
buildings. Damaging in big areas. Possible total two per year)
destruction. Definitely felt in unusually large regions.
Death toll is usually between 100 and one million;
however some earthquakes this magnitude have killed
none.
9.0– Severe damage to all or most buildings One per 5 to 50 years
9.9 with massive destruction. Damage and
shaking extends to distant locations.
Ground changes. Death toll usually
between 1,000 and several million.

10.0 or Massive X to Colossal damage/devastation across None per year

over XII enormous areas. Destroys all buildings (unknown, extremely
fairly easily and quickly. Will be felt at rare, or impossible/may
extremely distant from the epicenter not be possible)
(thousands of miles away, worldwide).
Death toll can easily exceed over 25,000
people. Large ground changes. Effects will
last for an extremely long time. An
earthquake of this magnitude has never
been recorded.
Isoseismal Map for the 1968 Illinois Earthquake

Obtained from
wikipedia
● Difficulties with the Modified Mercalli Scale
– It fits construction conditions in California!
– Wrong intensity assignment to buildings in
different towns
● Alternative Intensity scales are developed for
Japan and Russia.
 Methods to record Earthquakes

➲ Seismograph
➲ Accelerometer

Lateral: direction 1 Lateral: direction 2 Vertical

Obtained from Bruce A. Bolt
 Methods to record Earthquakes

m ÿ

=
c v  ẏ− ẏ Base  k  y− y Base 

F =m a
ẏ− ẏ Base −k 
−c v  y− y Base =m ÿ
̇ 

Obtained from
Earthquakes by Bruce A. Bolt
 Earthquake Magnitude
● It is independent of population density and type
of construction.
It is originated by K. Wadati in Japan (1931)
● Later it is developed by Charles Richter (1935)
It is based on a similar procedure that is used to grade the size
of stars.
M L =log 10 ( D)−log 10 ( D 0 (δ) )
D
M L =log10 ( )
D 0 (δ)

where D is the wave amplitude in μ m 100 km away from the epicenter.

and D 0 (δ) depends on the epicentral distance
● Problem:
None of the recording stations may be 100 km away
from an epicenter.
● Solution:
Richter developed a method to account for the
epicentral distance (next slide)

● Question:
Is the magnitude reliable?
● Answer:
“I did the work to provide a purely instrumental scale
for rough separation of large, medium, and small
shocks.” by Charles Richter.
 Earthquake Magnitude
● It is correlated with the severity of an
earthquake
● It is used to identify the cause of vibrations. It
can be used to differentiate among nuclear
explosions and naturally occuring Eqs.
● The magnitudes of previous Eqs are used as a
prediction.
Calculation of the Richter Magnitude, ML

Obtained from
Earthquakes by
Bruce A. Bolt
● Largest recorded Eqs
– 2011 Japan, ML = 8.9
– 1960 Chile earthquake - - > ML = 8.25
– 1964 Alaska earthquake - - > ML = 8.6
● Smallest recorded excitation
– Fall of a brick fromthe table - - > ML = -2
● Problem
ML > 6.5 saturation occurs ! ?
 Is the Richter Magnitude Dependable?

● P wave magnitude - - > mb

● Surface wave magnitude - - > Ms

Example: Alaska Earthquake, 1964

ML = 8.6 (Based on the largest amplitude )

Ms = 8.6 (Based on the largest amplitude of S-wave)
mb = 6.5 (Based on the largest amplitude of P wave )
Energy in Earthquakes

Energy realeased by MS=6 is

equivalent to 30 x Energy
released by MS=5.
 Seismic Moment

2 M0
M w = log 10 ( )−6.0 or
3 1N m
2 M0
M w = log10 ( )−10.7
3 1 dyn cm

M 0=μ S d

Where,  is the shear strength of the faulted rock,

“S” is the area of the fault, and “d” is the average
displacement on the fault.
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/topics/measure.php