EARTHQUAKE DESIGN CONCEPTS

RENUKA KUBER WAZALWAR

 Content

• Earthquakes & its effects on buildings

• Earthquake zones in India
• Architectural Design consideration
• Construction Detailing for earthquake resistance.
• References –
Earthquake tips By C V R Murthy
Earthquake Resistance Buildings By Ar. Sunil Toye
 EARTHQUAKE
Earthquake- An earthquake is
sudden, rapid shaking of the
earth caused by release of the
energy stored in the rocks.
Effect of shaking of the Earth
Energy released from the
source of disturbance, inside
the earth is transferred to
adjacent land/water to vibrate.
Impact of earthquakes
(a)Life & society: Fatalities Ripple action of wave
(b) Property(building, structures, & their contents): loss of property
(c) Civic Amenities: health centers, Hospitals, schools….
(d) Lifeline facilities: Bridges, transportation network, power supply…
(e) Heritage: Loss to heritage buildings…
(f) Economy & development: Industrial damage
……………………..virtually everything!!!!!
 PLATE TECTONICS
• The convective flows of Mantle material cause the Crust and some
portion of the Mantle, to slide on the hot molten outer core.
• This sliding of Earth's mass takes place in pieces called Tectonic
Plates.
• The surface of the Earth consists of 7 major tectonic plates and 12
smaller ones.
• These plates move in different directions and at different speeds
from those of the neighboring ones.

Major Tectonic Plates of the Earth

 CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES
• Rocks are made of elastic material, and so elastic that strain
energy is stored in them during the deformations that occur
due to the gigantic tectonic plate actions that occur in the
Earth.
• The material contained in rocks is also very brittle. Thus,
when the rocks along a weak region in the Earth's Crust
reach their strength, a sudden movement takes place there
opposite sides of the fault (a crack in the rocks where
movement has taken place) suddenly slip and release the
large elastic strain energy stored in the interface rocks.
For example, the energy released
during the 2001 Bhuj (India)
earthquake is about 400 times (or
more) that released by the 1945 Atom
Bomb dropped on Hiroshima!!
CAUSES OF
EARTHQUAKES
The sudden slip at the fault
causes the earthquake....
a violent shaking of the Earth
when large elastic strain
energy released spreads out
through seismic waves that
travel through the body and
along the surface of the Earth. Earth scientists know this as
After the earthquake is over, the Elastic Rebound Theory.
the process of strain build-up The material points at the
at this modified interface fault over which slip occurs
between the rocks starts all usually constitute an oblong
over again (Fig. 6). 3-dimensional volume, with its
long dimension often running
into tens of kilometers.
•
TYPES OF EARTHQUAKES AND FAULTS
Most earthquakes in the world occur along the boundaries of the tectonic
plates and are called Interplate Earthquakes. (e.g., 1897 Assam (India)
earthquake).
• A number of earthquakes also occur within the plate itself away from the
plate boundaries are called Intra-platEarthquakes.(e.g., 1993 Latur)
• In both types of earthquakes, the slip generated at the fault during
earthquakes is along both vertical and horizontal directions (called Dip Slip)
and lateral directions (called Strike Slip) with one of them dominating
sometimes.

Types of faults Interplate boundries

 SEISMIC WAVES
• Large strain energy released during
an earthquake travels as seismic
waves in all directions through the
Earth's layers, reflecting and
refracting at each interface.
• These waves are of 2 types - body
waves & surface waves; the latter
are restricted to near the Earth's
surface . Motion caused by body & surface waves

• Body waves consist of Primary

Waves (P-waves) and Secondary
Waves (S -waves), and surface
waves consist of Love waves and
Rayleigh waves. Arrival of seismic waves at site.
TECTONIC PLATES
 TERMINOLOGY
Focus :The point on the fault where slip starts is the Focus or Hypocenter.
Epicenter: Point vertically above this on the surface of the Earth is the Epicenter.
Focal Depth :The depth of focus from the epicenter, called as Focal Depth, is an
important parameter in determining the damaging potential of an earthquake.
Most of the damaging earthquakes have shallow focus with focal depths less than about 70km.
Epicentral distance: Distance from epicenter to any point of interest.
Magnitude : Magnitude is a quantitative measure of the actual size of the earthquake
found out by Professor Charles Richter.
The Richter Scale is obtained from the seismograms and accounts for the dependence of waveform
amplitude on epicentral distance. For instance, one can measure the size of an earthquake by the
amount of strain energy released by the fault rupture. This means that the magnitude of the earthquake
is a single value for a given earthquake.

Intensity: Intensity is an indicator of severity

of shaking generated at a given location.
Intensity is a qualitative measure of the actual shaking
at a location during an earthquake, and is assigned as
Roman Capital Numerals.
There are many intensity scales. 2 commonly used ones
are the Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) Scale
and the MSK Scale.
Basic terminology
 AMOUNT OF ENERGY RELEASED DURING
DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF RICHTER SCALE
EARTHQUAKE
Intensity of earthquake Energy release (amount of
(Richter scale TNT)
1.0 170 grams

2.0 6 kilograms

3.0 179 kilograms

4.0 5 metric tons

5.0 179 metric tons

6.0 5643 metric tons

7.0 1,79,100 metric tons

7.5 One megaton

8.0 5,64,300 metric tons

BASIC DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MAGNITUDE VERSUS INTENSITY
• Magnitude of an earthquake is a Intensity is an indicator of the severity of
measure of its size. shaking generated at a given location.
Clearly, the seventy of shaking is much Two commonly used ones are the
higher near the epicenter than farther Modified Mercalli Intensity (MM!) Scale and
away. Thus, during the same MSK Scale. Both scales are quite similar
earthquake of a certain magnitude,
and range from I (least perceptive) to XII
different locations experience
(most severe).
different levels of intensity.
• Here, the size of the bulb (Watt) is like
the magnitude of an earthquake, and
the illumination at a location like the
intensity of shaking at that location.

Reducing illumination with distance from electric bulb

 INTENSITY SCALE
Intensity Description
I…… Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions
II……Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings
III……Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper floors of
buildings.
Many people do not recognize it as an earthquake.
Standing motor cars may rock slightly.
Vibrations similar to the passing of a truck.
Duration estimated.
IV………Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day.
At night, some awakened. Dishes, windows, doors disturbed; walls
make cracking sound.
Sensation like heavy truck striking building.
Standing motor cars rock noticeably.
V……….Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some dishes, windows
broken.
Unstable objects overturned & Pendulum clocks may stop.
VI………Felt by all, many frightened.
Some heavy furniture moved; a few instances of fallen plaster.
Slight damage.
 INTENSITY SCALE
VII……. Damage negligible in buildings of good design & construction;
slight to moderate in well-built ordinary structures;
considerable damage in poorly built or badly designed
structures; some chimneys are broken.
VIII…… Damage slight in specially designed structures;
considerable damage in ordinary buildings with partial collapse.
Damage great in poorly built structures.
Fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments, walls.
Heavy furniture overturned.
IX…….. Damage considerable in specially designed structures;
well-designed frame structures thrown out of plumb.
Damage great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse.
Buildings shifted off foundations.
X……... Some well-built wooden structures destroyed;
most masonry and frame structures destroyed with foundations.
XI…….. Few, if any (masonry) structures remain standing.
Bridges destroyed.
Rails bent greatly.
XII……. Damage total.
Lines of sight and level are distorted. Objects thrown into the air.
 DESCRIPTION OF SHAKING INTENSITY VIII AS PER MSK SCALE
Fright and panic. Most buildings of Type C suffer
damage of Grade 2, and
few of Grade 3 Occasional breaking
of pipe seams occurs.
Persons driving Most buildings of Type B suffer
motorcars are disturbed. damage of Grade 3, most buildings
of Type A suffer damage of Grade 4.
Small landslips occur in
hollows and on banked roads
on steep slopes;
Cracks develop in ground up lo
widths of several centimeters.

Branches of trees break Memorials and monuments move Water in lakes becomes
off. and twist. turbid.

Heavy furniture moves & Tombstones overturn Stonewalls
partly overturns. collapse.
Hanging lamps are
damaged in part.
Grade 1 Damage - Slight damage;
Grade 2 – Moderate damage;
Grade 3 - Heavy damage;
Grade 4 - Destruction;
Grade 5 - Total damage
New reservoirs come into
existence.
Dry wells refill and existing
wills become drv. In many
cases, changes in (flow and
level of water are observed.
Type A structure - rural constructions;
Type B- ordinary masonry constructions;
Type C- Well-built structures
Few - 5%;Many- about 50%;Most – about75%
BASIC GEOGRAPHY AND
TECTONIC FEATURES
*India lies at the northwestern end of the Indo-
Australian Plate, which encompasses India,
Australia, a major portion of the Indian Ocean
and other smaller countries.
*This plate is colliding against the huge
Eurasian Piute and going under the
Eurasian Plate; this process of one tectonic
plate getting under another is called
subditction.
A sea, Tethys, separated these plates before
they collided.
3 chief tectonic sub-regions of India are
Geographical layout & Tectonic plate boundaries at India.
1.Himalayas along the north,
2.Plains of the Ganges and other rivers, The peninsular part of the country
3.The peninsula. consists of ancient rocks deformed in
The Himalayas consist primarily of sediments the past Himalayan-like collisions.
accumulated over long geological time in the Erosion has exposed the roots of the
Tethys. old mountains and removed most of
The Indo-Gangetic basin with deep alluvium is the topography.
a great depression caused by the load of the
Himalayas on the continent.
 PROMINENT PAST EARTHQUAKES IN INDIA

*A number of significant earthquakes occurred in and around India over the past century
*Some of these occurred in populated & urbanized areas and caused great damage.
*Many went unnoticed, as they occurred deep under the Earth's surface or in relatively
un-inhabited places.
Most earthquakes occur along the Himalayan plate boundary (these are inter-plate
earthquakes), but a number of earthquakes have also occurred in the peninsular region
(these are intra-plate earthquakes).
Date Place m Scale
Set.2 , 1993 Latur 6.3 Large areas of Maharashtra
(maharashtr rocked. 10,000 people lost lives
a)
May 22, 1997 Jabalpur 6.0 40 person killed and over 100
(Maharashtr injured
a)
March 29, Nandprayag 6.8 widespread destruction in
1999 chamoli , rudraprayag and other
areas. Massive loss of human
life
Jan. 26 2001 Bhuj 7.8 Tremors left by India and its
(gujrat) neighboring countries. Over 1
lakh people killed. Huge loss to
property and infrastructure
Oct. 8, 2005 Muzzaffarab 7.4 Heavy damage to life and
ad in property.
Pakistan Death toll about one lakh in
occupied Pakistan and nearly 2000 in
Kashmir India
 SEISMIC ZONES IN INDIA

Indian Seismic zone map of 1970N map as per IS:1983(part 1)2002

EARTHQUAKE ZONES OF INDIA
IMPORTANCE OF ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES
The behavior of a building during earthquakes depends
critically on its overall shape, size and geometry, in addition
to how the earthquake forces are carried to the ground.
Hence, at the planning stage itself, architects and structural
engineers must work together to ensure that the unfavorable
features are avoided and a good building configuration is
chosen.
The importance of the configuration of a building was aptly
summarized by Late Henry Degenkolb, a noted Earthquake
Engineer of USA, as:
"If-we have a poor configuration to start with, all the
engineer can do is to provide a band-aid - improve a
basically poor solution as best as he can. Conversely, if
we start-off with a good configuration and reasonable
framing system, even a poor engineer cannot harm its
ultimate performance too much."
SIZE OF BUILDINGS:
*In tall buildings’ height-to-base size ratio (Figure a), the horizontal
movement of the floors during ground shaking is large.
*In short but very long buildings (Figure b), the damaging effects
during earthquake shaking are many.
*In buildings with large plan areas like warehouses (Figure c), the
horizontal seismic forces can be excessive to be carried by
columns and walls.
HORIZONTAL LAYOUT OF BUILDINGS
*In general, buildings with simple
geometry in plan (Fig. 2a) have
performed well during strong
earthquakes.
*Buildings with re-entrant corners, like
those U, V, H and + shaped in plan
(Fig. 2b), have sustained significant
damage.
* Many times, the bad effects of these
interior corners in the plan of buildings
are avoided by making the buildings in
two parts.
( For ex)*An L-shaped plan can be
broken up into 2 rectangular plan
shapes using a separation joint at the
junction (Fig. 2c).
*Often, the plan is simple, but the
columns/walls are not equally
distributed in plan.
*Buildings with such features tend to
twist during earthquake shaking.
VERTICAL LAYOUT OF BUILDINGS
*The earthquake forces developed at
different floor levels in a building need
to be brought down along the height
to the ground by the shortest path.
*Any deviation or discontinuity in this
load transfer path results in poor
performance of the building.
* Buildings with vertical setbacks (like
the hotel buildings with a few storeys
wider than the rest) cause a sudden
jump in earthquake forces at the level
of discontinuity (Fig.3a).
*Buildings that have fewer columns
or walls in a particular storey or with
unusually tall storey (Fig. 3b), tend to
damage or collapse which is initiated
in that storey.
VERTICAL LAYOUT OF
BUILDINGS
* Many buildings with an open ground
store)- intended for parking collapsed or
were severely damaged in Gujarat during
the 2001 Bhuj earthquake.
*Buildings on the slopy ground have
unequal height columns along the slope,
which causes ill effects like twisting &
damage in shorter columns (Fig. 3c).
*Buildings with columns that hang or float
on beams at an intermediate floor and do
not go all the way to the foundation, have
discontinuities in the load transfer path (Fig.
3d).
* Some buildings have reinforced
concrete walls to carry the earthquake loads
to the foundation.
* Buildings, in which these walls do not go
all the way to the ground but stop at an
upper level, are liable to get severely
 ADJACENCY OF BUILDINGS
*When two buildings are too close to each other, they may
pound on each other during strong shaking. With an
increase in building height, this collision can be a greater
problem.
*When building heights do not match, the roof of the shorter
building may pound at the mid-height of the column of the
taller one; this can be very dangerous.
 BUILDING REACTION TO GROUND MOTION
• Inertial Forces
• Ductility
• Torsion (twist)
• Oscillations (Period and Resonance)
• Damping
• Strength and Stiffness
• Resistant Systems
• Diaphragms
• Shear Walls and Braced Frames
• Moment Resistant Frames
 SEISMIC EFFECTS ON STRUCTURES
Inertia Forces in Structures
Earthquake causes shaking of the ground. So
a building resting on it will experience motion
at its base.
From Newton's First Law of Motion, even though the
base of the building moves with the ground,
the roof has a tendency to stay in its original
position. But since the walls and columns are
connected to it, they drag the roof along with
them. This tendency to continue to remain in
the previous position is known as inertia.
In the building, since the walls or columns
are flexible, the motion of the roof is different
from that of the ground .
Consider a building whose roof is supported
on columns. When the ground moves, even
the building is thrown backwards, and the
Roof experiences a force, called inertia
force. resist deformations.
1.columns
2. In straight vertical position, columns carry no horizontal earthquake force
through them. 3. when forced to bend, they develop internal forces.
FLOW OF INERTIA FORCES TO
FOUNDATIONS
Under horizontal shaking of the ground,
horizontal inertia forces are generated at
level of the mass of the structure
(usually situated at the floor).
These lateral inertia forces are
transferred by the floor slab to the walls
or columns, to the foundations, and
finally to the soil system underneath.
So, each of these structural elements
(floor
slabs, walls, columns, and foundations)
and the connections between them must
be designed to safely transfer these
inertia forces through them.
It is vertical loads that almost always cause buildings to
collapse in earthquakes; however, in earthquakes buildings
generally fall down, not over. The lateral forces use up the
strength of the structure by bending and shearing columns,
beams, and walls, and then gravity pulls the weakened and
distorted structure down.
 DUCTILITY
• Different types of damage (mainly visualized though
cracks; especially so in concrete and masonry buildings)
occur in buildings during earthquakes.
• Some of these cracks are acceptable (in terms of both
their size and location), while others are not.
• Earthquake-resistant buildings, particularly their main
elements, need to be built with ductility in them.
• Such buildings have the ability to sway back-and-forth
during an earthquake, and to withstand earthquake
effects with some damage, but without collapse.
• Ductility is one of the most important factors affecting the
building performance.
 DUCTILITY
Earthquake-resistant design strives
to predetermine the locations where
damage takes place and then to
provide good detailing at these
locations to ensure ductile behavior
of the building.
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS ANALYSIS FOR DUCTILITY
In India, most non-urban buildings are made in masonry.
In the plains, masonry is generally made of clay bricks and
cement mortar.
In hilly areas, stone masonry with mud mortar is more
prevalent; in recent times, it is being replaced with cement
mortar. Masonry can carry loads that cause (i.e., pressing together),
but can hardly take load that causes tension.
Concrete is another material that has been
popularly used in building construction
particularly over the last four decades.
Concrete is much stronger than masonry
under compressive loads, but again its
behaviour in tension is poor.
In general, both masonry and concrete are
brittle, and fail suddenly.
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS ANALYSIS FOR DUCTILITY
*Amongst the materials used in building
construction, steel is ductile, while
masonry and concrete are brittle.
*The seismic inertia forces generated at
its floor levels are transferred through the
various beams and columns to the
ground.
*The correct building components need
to be made ductile.
* The act of deformation absorbs energy
and defers absolute failure of the
concrete.
*The failure of a column can affect the
stability of the whole building, but the
failure of a beam causes localized effect.
*It is better to make beams to be the
ductile weak links than columns.
*This method of designing RC
buildings is called the strong-column
weak-beam design method.
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS ANALYSIS FOR DUCTILITY
*The strength of brittle
construction materials,
like masonry and concrete,
is highly sensitive to the
quality of construction
materials, workmanship,
supervision, and
construction methods.
*Special care is needed in
construction to ensure that
the elements meant to be
ductile are indeed provided
with features that give
adequate ductility.
 TWISTS (Torsion)
Twist in buildings, called torsion by engineers,
makes different portions at the same floor level
to move horizontally by different amounts.
*This induces more damage in the frames and
walls on the side that moves more.
Rope swing - a wooden cradle tied with coir
ropes to the sturdy branch of an old tree.
Modern versions of these swings have a plastic
cradle tied with steel chains to a steel
framework.
Consider a rope swing that is tied identically
with two equal ropes. It swings equally, when
you sit in the middle of the cradle. Buildings too
are like these rope swings; just that they are
inverted swings.
The vertical walls and columns are like the
ropes, and the floor is like the cradle.
Buildings vibrate back and forth during
earthquakes. Buildings with more than one
storey are like rope swings with more than one
cradle.
 TWISTS (torsion)
A building with identical vertical
members and that are uniformly placed in 2
horizontal directions, when shaken at its
base in a certain direction, swings back and
forth such that all points on the floor move
horizontally by the same amount in the
direction in which it is shaken.
 TWISTS (torsion)
*A swing with unequal ropes also twists even if
you sit in the middle.(4a)
*In buildings with unequal structural members
(i.e., frames and/or walls) also the floors twist
about a vertical and displace horizontally.(4b)
*Buildings, which have walls only on two
sides (or one side) and flexible frames along
the other, twist when shaken at the ground
level(4c)
*Buildings that are irregular shapes in plan
tend to twist under earthquake shaking. (Fig 5),
The overhanging portion swings on the
relatively slender columns under it. The floors
twist and displace horizontally.
 EFFECTOF TWIST ON BUILDING MEMBERS
*Many buildings have been severely affected by this excessive
torsional behavior during past earthquakes.(Fig.6).

* It is best to minimize (if not completely avoid) this twist by

ensuring that buildings have symmetry in plan (i.e., uniformly
distributed mass and uniformly placed lateral load resisting
systems).
 OSCILLATIONS OF FLEXIBLE BUILDINGS
• If one shook a flag pole with a heavy
weight on top in the attempt to break it,
one would quickly learn to synchronize
one's pushes and pulls with the pole's
natural tendency to vibrate back and
forth at a certain rate - its fundamental
period(T)
• Ground motion will impart
vibrations to a building of a
similar nature to our shaking
of the flag pole. Fundamental
natural period T is an
inherent property of a
building. Any alterations
made to the building will
change its T.
 OSCILLATIONS OF FLEXIBLE
BUILDINGS
• The ground shaking during an earthquake
contains a mixture of many sinusoidal
waves of different frequencies, ranging
from short to long periods (Figure 3).
• The time taken by the wave to complete
one cycle of motion is called period of
the earthquake wave.
 OSCILLATIONS OF FLEXIBLE BUILDINGS
• In general, earthquake shaking of the
ground has waves whose periods
vary in the range 0.03-33sec. Even
within this range, some earthquake
waves are stronger than the others.
• The ground motion under these
buildings varies across the city (a).
• If the ground is shaken back-and-
forth by earthquake waves that have
short periods, then short period
buildings will have large response.
• Similarly, if the earthquake ground
motion has long period waves, then
long period buildings will have larger
response.
The response of building
depend on the thickness of soil
under the buildings.
The soil layer under the building
plays the role of a filter, allowing
some ground waves to pass
through and filtering the rest.
Among 3-5 storeys tall buildings,
the damage intensity was higher
in areas with underlying soil
cover of around 40-60m thick,
but was minimal in areas with
larger thickness of soil cover.
 OSCILLATIONS OF FLEXIBLE BUILDINGS
• Flexible buildings undergo larger
relative horizontal displacements,
which may result in damage to
various nonstructural building
components and the contents.
• Some items in buildings, like glass
windows, cannot take large lateral
movements, and are therefore
damaged severely or crushed.
• Unsecured shelves might topple,
especially at upper stories of multi-
storey buildings.
• These damages may not affect
safety of buildings, but may cause
economic losses, injuries and panic
among its residents.
 BEHAVIOUR OF BRICK MASONRY WALLS
• Ground vibrations during earthquakes cause inertia forces
at locations of mass in the building.
• These forces travel through the roof & walls to foundation.
• The main emphasis is on ensuring that these forces reach
the ground without causing major damage or collapse.
• Of the three components of a masonry building (roof, wall
and foundation), the walls are most vulnerable to damage
caused by horizontal forces due to earthquake. A wall
topples down easily if pushed horizontally at the top in a
direction perpendicular to its plane (termed weak
direction), but offers much greater resistance if pushed
along its length (termed strong direction) (Figure lb).
BEHAVIOUR OF BRICK MASONRY WALLS

(a) Basic components of building

*Horizontal vibrations are the

most damaging to normal
masonry buildings compared to
vertical vibrations.
* Horizontal inertia force
developed at the roof transfers
to the walls acting either in the
weak or in the strong direction.

Fig. 1: Basic components of masonry building

-walls are sensitive to direction of
- earthquake forces.
 BEHAVIOUR OF BRICK MASONRY WALLS
*If all the walls are not tied
together like a box, the
walls loaded in their weak
direction tend to topple.
 BEHAVIOUR OF MASONRY WALLS
• Masonry walls are slender because of their small thickness compared
to their height and length.
• A simple way of making these walls behave well during earthquake
shaking is by making them act together as a box along with the roof at
the top and with the foundation at the bottom.
• Construction aspects are required to ensure this box action are….
1. Connections between the walls should be good. This can be
achieved by (a) Ensuring good interlocking of the masonry courses at
the junctions,
(b) Employing horizontal bands at various levels, particularly at the
lintel level.
2. The sizes of door and window openings need to be kept small.
Smaller the openings, the larger is the resistance offered by the wall.
3. The tendency of a wall to topple when pushed in the weak direction
can be reduced by limiting its length-to-thickness and height-to-
thickness ratios.
BEHAVIOUR OF MASONRY WALLS
 CHOICE AND QUALITY OF BUILDING MATERIALS
• Earthquake performance of a masonry is very sensitive to the
properties of its constituents, namely wall masonry units & mortar.
• The properties of these materials vary across India due to variation
in raw materials & construction methods.
• A variety of masonry units are used in the country, e.g., clay bricks
(burnt & unburnt), concrete blocks (solid & hollow), stone blocks. Burnt clay
bricks are most commonly used.
• These bricks are inherently porous, and so they absorb water.
• Bricks with low porosity are to be used, and they must be soaked in
water before use to minimise the amount of water drawn away from
the mortar.
• The earthquake response of masonry walls depends on the relative
strengths of brick and mortar. Bricks must be stronger than mortar.
 BOX ACTION IN MASONRY BUILDINGS
• The structural configuration of masonry buildings includes aspects like
(a) overall shape and size of the building, & (b) distribution of mass and
(horizontal) lateral load resisting elements across the building.
• Large, tall, long and unsymmetrical buildings perform poorly during
earthquakes
BOX ACTION IN MASONRY BUILDINGS
*Walls transfer loads to each other at their
junctions & through lintel bands & roof.
*Masonry courses from the walls
meeting at corners must have good
interlocking.
*Openings near the wall corners are
detrimental to good seismic
performance.
*Openings too close to wall corners
hamper the flow of forces from one
wall to another.
*Large openings weaken walls from
carrying the inertia forces in their own
plane.
*Best to keep all openings as small as
possible and as far away from the
corners as possible
 ROLE OF HORIZONTAL BANDS
• There are 4 types of bands in a typical
masonry building, namely gable
band, roof band, lintel band and
plinth band (Fig. 1), named after their
location in the building.
• * The lintel band is the most
important of all, and needs to be
provided in almost all buildings.
• *The gable band is employed only in
buildings with pitched or sloped
roofs. In buildings with flat reinforced
concrete or reinforced brick roofs,
the roof band is not required,
because the roof slab also plays the
role of a band.
ROLE OF HORIZONTAL BANDS
*Lintel band tie walls together & creates a support for walls loaded
along weak direction from walls loaded in strong direction.
*This band also reduces the unsupported height of the walls and
thereby improves their stability in the weak direction.
During the 1993 Latur earthquake (Central India), the intensity of
shaking in Killari village was IX on MSK scale.
Most masonry houses sustained partial or complete collapse
(Fig.2a). One masonry building in the village, which had a
lintel band and it sustained the shaking very well with hardly any
damage (Fig. 2b).
 DESIGN OF LINTEL BANDS
• During earthquake shaking,
the lintel band undergoes
bending and pulling actions.
• To resist these actions, the
construction of lintel band
requires special attention.
• Bands can be made of wood
(including bamboo splits) or
of reinforced concrete (RC)
RC bands are the best.
• The straight lengths of the
band must be properly
connected at the wall
corners.
 DESIGN OF LINTEL BANDS
• Lintel band allow the band to
support walls loaded in their weak
direction by walls loaded in their
strong direction.
• Steel links (in RC bands) are used to
make the straight lengths of wood
runners or steel bars act together.
• In RC bands, adequate anchoring of
steel links with steel bars is
necessary. RC bands should be min.
of 75mm. thk, and at least 2 bars of
8mm.dia. are required, tied across
with steel links of at least 6mm
diameter at a spacing of 150mm
centers.
• In wooden bands, proper nailing of straight
lengths with spacers is important.
 REINFORCEMENT & SEISMIC DAMAGE
• In RC buildings, the vertical and horizontal members (i.e., the beams and columns) are built integrally with each other.
• Under the action of loads,
they act together as a
frame transferring forces
from one to another.
 BASIC TYPES OF FAILURES
Flexural (or Bending) Failure Shear Failure
If relatively more steel is present on the Shear damage occurs
tension face, concrete crushes in compression; when the area of these stirrups is insufficient.
this is a brittle Failure….. Undesirable
If less steel is present on the tension face, the A beam may also fail due to shearing
steel yields first (it keeps elongating but does action. A shear crack is inclined at 45° to the
not snap. as steel has ability to stretch large horizontal; it develops at mid-depth near the
amounts before it support and grows towards the top and
snaps; & redistribution occurs in the beam bottom faces.
until eventually the concrete crushes in
compression; this is a ductile failure ….
Desirable.
More steel on Closed loop stirrups are provided
tension face is not necessarily desirable! to avoid such shearing action.
The ductile failure is characterized with many Shear failure is brittle, and therefore, shear
vertical cracks starting from the stretched failure
beam face, and going must be avoided in the design of RC beams.
towards its mid-depth.
BASIC TYPES OF FAILURES

The Indian Ductile

Detailing Code
IS13920-1993
prescribes that:
(a) At least two bars
go through the full
length of the
beam at the top as
well as the bottom of
the beam.
(b) At the ends of
beams, the amount
of steel provided
at the bottom is at
least half that at top.
BASIC TYPES OF FAILURES
Longitudinal bars are provided to resist flexural
cracking on the side of the beam that stretches.
Since both top and bottom faces stretch during strong
earthquake shaking, longitudinal steel bars are required on
both faces, at the ends and on the bottom face at mid-length.
 REINFORCEMENT & SEISMIC
DAMAGE
• Stirrups in RC beams help in 3 ways…
(i) they carry the vertical shear force and thereby resist diagonal
shear cracks.
(ii) they protect the concrete from bulging outwards due to flexure,
(iii) they prevent the buckling of the compressed longitudinal bars
due to flexure.
IS13920-1993 prescribes the following
requirements related to stirrups.
(a) The dia. of stirrup must be at least
6mm. In beams more than 5m long, it
must be at least be 8mm.
(b) Both ends of the vertical stirrups
should be bent into a 135° hook
(Fig. 4) and extended sufficiently
beyond this hook to ensure that the
stirrup does not open out in an
earthquake.
 REINFORCEMENT & SEISMIC DAMAGE
(c) The spacing of vertical stirrups in any portion of the beam should
be determined from calculations.
(d) The maximum spacing of stirrups is less than half the depth of the
beam (Fig. 5).
(e) For a length of twice
the depth of the beam
from the face of the
column, an even more
stringent spacing of
stirrups is specified,
namely half the spacing
mentioned in (c) above
(Fig. 5).
 REINFORCEMENT & SEISMIC DAMAGE
IS:13 20-1993 prescribes that such laps of longitudinal bars are ..
(a) made away from the face the column, and
(b) not made at locations where they are likely to stretch by large
amounts and yield (e.g., bottom bars at mid-length of the beam).
Moreover, at the locations of laps,
vertical stirrups should be provided
at a closer spacing (Fig. 6).
REINFORCEMENT & SEISMIC DAMAGE…COLUMN
The Indian Standard IS13920-1993 prescribes
following details for earthquake-resistant columns:
(a)Closely spaced ties must be provided at 2 ends of the column
over a length not less than larger dimension of the column,1/6
of the column height or 450mm.

(b)Over the distance specified in (a), above and below a beam-

column junction, the vertical spacing of ties in columns should
not exceed D/4 for where D is the smallest dimension of the
column.
(e.g., in a rectangular column, D is the length of the small side). This spacing need
not be less than 75mm nor more than 100mm. At other locations, ties are
spaced as per calculations but not more than D/2.
REINFORCEMENT & SEISMIC DAMAGE…COLUMN
(c) The length of tie beyond the
135° bends must be at
least 10 times dia. of steel bar
used to make
the closed tie; this extension
beyond the bend
should not be less than 75mm.
LAPPING VERTICAL BARS
In the construction of RC buildings,
due to the limitations in available
length of bars and due to
constraints in construction, there
are numerous occasions when
column bars have to be joined.
A simple way of achieving this is
by overlapping the 2 bars over at
least a minimum specified
length, called lap length.
The lap length depends on types
of reinforcement and concrete.
For ordinary situations, it is about
50 times bar dia.
Behavior of RC frame structures in resisting earthquake forces

*The RC frame participates in resisting the earthquake forces.

*Earthquake shaking generates inertia forces in the building,
which are proportional to the building mass.
*Since most of the building mass is present at floor levels,
earthquake-induced inertia forces primarily develop at the floor
levels.
*The forces travel downwards - through slab and beams to
columns and walls, & then to foundations from where they are
dispersed to ground.
*As inertia forces accumulate
downwards from the top of the
building, the columns and walls at
lower storeys experience higher
earthquake-induced forces (Fig.1)
They are designed to be stronger
than those in storeys above.
Behavior of RC frame structures in resisting earthquake forces
Roles of Floor Slabs and Masonry Walls
*Floor slabs are horizontal plate-like
elements, which facilitate functional use of
buildings.

*Beams & slabs at one storey level are cast

together.
*In residential multi-storey buildings,
thickness of slabs is only about 110-150mm.
*When beams bend in the vertical In plane horizontal
direction during earthquakes, these
thin slabs bend along with them (Fig.2a)
*When beams move with columns in the horizontal direction, slab
usually forces the beams to move together with it.
The geometric distortion of the slab is negligible in the horizontal
plane…A behaviour known as the rigid diaphragm action (Fig.2B)
 BEHAVIOR OF STAIRCASE
• Inclined staircase slabs in masonry buildings
offer another concern.
• An integrally connected staircase slab acts
like a cross-brace between floors and
transfers large horizontal forces at the roof
and lower levels (Fig. 4a).
• These are areas of potential damage in
masonry buildings, if not accounted for in
staircase design and construction.
• To overcome this, sometimes, staircases are
completely separated (Fig. 4b) and built on
a separate reinforced concrete structure.
• Adequate gap is provided between the
staircase tower and the masonry building to
ensure that they do not pound each other
during strong earthquake shaking.
 BUILDING DESIGN AND CODES
*Designers will continue to make buildings interesting rather
than monotonous.
*However, this need not be done at the cost of poor
behavior and earthquake safety of buildings.
*Architectural features that are detrimental to earthquake
response of buildings should be avoided, if not, they must be
minimized.
* When irregular features are included in buildings, a
considerably higher level of engineering effort is required in
the structural design and yet the building may not be as good
as one with simple architectural features.
*Decisions made at the planning stage on building
configuration are more important, or are known to have made
greater difference, than accurate determination of code
specified design forces.
 Other Design Concepts
• An earthquake-resistant building
has a number of special structural
features. Interior support walls
called shear walls, made of
reinforced concrete, strengthen the
structure and help resist rocking
forces. Shear walls in the center of
a building form a shear core.
• Cross-bracing reinforces walls with
diagonal steel beams.
• Base isolators act as shock
absorbers.
 Shear wall and
shear core
• Shear wall and shear core are
walls those made of
reinforcement concrete which
are more stiffer and stronger
that gives the structure more
strength against the lateral
load.
 Advantages of Shear Walls
• Properly designed and detailed buildings with shear walls
have shown very good performance in past Earthquakes
• Shear walls are easy to construct, because reinforcement
detailing of walls is relatively straight-forward and therefore
easily implemented at site.
• Shear walls are efficient,
both in terms of construction
cost and effectiveness in
minimizing earthquake
damage in structural and non
structural elements
 Architectural Aspects of Shear Walls
• Shear walls provide large strength and stiffness to buildings
in the direction of their orientation, which significantly
reduces lateral sway of the building and thereby reduces
damage to structure and its contents.
• Since shear walls carry large horizontal earthquake forces,
the overturning effects on them are large.
• Thus , design of their foundations requires special attention.
• Shear walls should be provided along preferably both length
and width.
• Door or window openings can be provided in shear walls,
but their size must be small.
• Moreover, openings should be symmetrically located.
• Shear walls in buildings must be symmetrically located in
plan to reduce ill-effects of twist in buildings.
• Shear walls are more effective when located along exterior
perimeter of the building - such a layout increases
resistance of the building to twisting.
 Shear wall
Many materials are used as shear wall-Woods,
steel, concrete and masonry Commonly used
in home
Advantages
•Provides great stiffness
•Easy to install to existing structures
•Many constructors are familiar with it
•Cheap
Disadvantages
•Less energy dissipation
•Cause higher loses to non-structural
components
 Base Isolation
• A base isolated structure is
supported by a series of
bearing pads which are
placed between the building
and the building's foundation.
• A variety of different types of
base isolation bearing pads
have now been developed.
Example: Lead–rubber
bearings, Spherical Sliding
Isolation Systems
 Lead–Rubber Bearings
• These are among the frequently–used
types of base isolation bearings.
• A lead–rubber bearing is made from
layers of rubber sandwiched together
with layers of steel.
• In the middle of the bearing is a solid
lead "plug.“
• On top and bottom, the bearing is fitted
with steel plates which are used to
attach the bearing to the building and
foundation.
• The bearing is very stiff and strong in
the vertical direction, but flexible in the
horizontal direction.
 Earthquake Generated
Forces
• To get a basic idea of
how base isolation works,
first examine Figure.
• This shows an
earthquake acting on both
a base isolated building
and a conventional, fixed–
base, building.
• As a result of an
earthquake, the ground
beneath each building
begins to move.
 Spherical Sliding Isolation Systems

•Spherical Sliding Isolation Systems

are another type of base isolation.
•The building is supported by
bearing pads that have a curved
surface and low friction.
•During an earthquake, the building
is free to slide on the bearings.
•Since the bearings have a curved
surface, the building slides both
horizontally and vertically
Base isolator
 Advantages
- High energy dissipation
- Not required electric
- Good for using in large
structures
- Compact
- Have both lateral
stiffness and Vertical
support
 Disadvantages
- Difficult to install to
existing structures
- Provides lower stiffness
- Sensitive to near fault
ground Acc.
 Seismic Dampers
• Another approach for controlling seismic damage in
buildings and improving their seismic performance is by
installing seismic dampers in place of structural elements,
such as diagonal braces.
• Commonly used types of seismic dampers include viscous
dampers - energy is absorbed by silicone-based fluid
passing between piston-cylinder arrangement,
• friction dampers - energy is absorbed by surfaces with
friction between them rubbing against each other.
• yielding dampers - energy is absorbed by metallic
components that yield.
Indian Seismic Codes
Importance of Seismic Design Codes
• Ground vibrations during earthquakes cause forces and
deformations in structures.
• Structures need to be designed to withstand such forces
and deformations.
• Seismic codes help to improve the behaviour of
structures so that they may withstand the earthquake
effects without significant loss of life and property.
• Countries around the world have procedures outlined in
seismic codes to help design engineers in the planning,
designing, detailing and constructing of structures.
An earthquake-resistant building has four virtues in it, namely:
(a) Good Structural Configuration: Its size, shape and structural
system carrying loads are such that they ensure a direct and
smooth flow of inertia forces to the ground.
(b) Lateral Strength: The maximum lateral (horizontal) force
that it can resist is such that the damage induced in it does
not result in collapse.
(c) Adequate Stiffness: Its lateral load resisting system is such
that the earthquake-induced deformations in it do not
damage its contents under low-tomoderate shaking.
(d) Good Ductility: Its capacity to undergo large deformations
under severe earthquake shaking even after yielding, is
improved by favourable design and detailing strategies.
Seismic codes cover all these aspects.
Indian Seismic Codes
• Seismic codes are unique to a particular region or country.
• They take into account the local seismology, accepted level of
seismic risk, building typologies, and materials and methods
used in construction.
• Further , they are indicative of the level of progress a country
has made in the field of earthquake engineering.
• The first formal seismic code in India, namely IS 1893, was
published in 1962. Today, the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
has the following seismic codes:
• IS 1893 (Part I), 2002, Indian Standard Criteria for Earthquake
Resistant Design of Structures (5ln Revision)
• IS 4326, 1993, Indian Standard Code of Practice for Earthquake
Resistant Design and Construction of Buildings (2nd Revision)
• IS 13827, 1993, Indian Standard Guidelines for Improving
Earthquake Resistance of Earthen Buildings
• IS 13828, 1993, Indian Standard Guidelines for Improving
Earthquake Resistance of Low Strength Masonry Buildings
• IS 13920, 1993, Indian Standard Code of Practice for Ductile
Detailing of Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Seismic
Forces
• IS 13935, 1993, Indian Standard Guidelines for Repair and Seismic
Strengthening of Buildings
• The regulations in these standards do not ensure that structures
suffer no damage during earthquake of all magnitudes.
• But, to the extent possible, they ensure that structures are able to
respond to earthquake shakings of moderate intensities without
structural damage and of heavy intensities without total collapse.
• IS 1893 is the main code that provides the seismic map and
specifies seismic design force.
•This force depends on the mass and seismic coefficient
of the structure; the latter in turn depends on properties like
seismic zone in which structure lies, importance of the structure,
its stiffness, the soil on which it rests, and its ductility. For example,
a building in Bhuj will have 2.25 times the seismic design force of
an identical building in Bombay.
• Similarly, the seismic coefficient for a single-storey building may
have 2.5 times that of a 15-storey building.
• The revised 2002 edition, Part 1 of IS1893, contains provisions
that are general in nature and those applicable for buildings.
•The other four parts of IS 1893 will cover: Liquid-Retaining Tanks,
both elevated and ground supported (Part 2); Bridges and
Retaining Walls (Part 3).
•Industrial Structures including Stack- Like Structures (Part 4);
and Dams and Embankments (Part 5) These four documents
are under preparation.
•In contrast, the 1984 edition of IS1893 had provisions for all
the above structures in a single document.
Provisions for Bridges
•Seismic design of bridges in India is covered in three codes,
namely IS 1893 (1984) from the BIS, 7RC 6 (2000) from the
Indian Roads Congress, and Bridge Rules i!964) from the
Ministry of Railways.
•All highway bridges are required to comply with IRC 6, and
all railway bridges with Bridge Rules.
•These three codes are conceptually the same, even though
there are some differences in their implementation.
•After the 2001 Bhuj earthquake, in 2002, the IRC released
interim provisions that make significant improvements to the
IRC6 (2000) seismic provisions.
IS 4326, 1993
This code covers general principles for earthquake resistant
buildings. Selection of materials and special features of design and
construction are dealt with for the following types of buildings:
timber constructions, masonry constructions using rectangular
masonry units, and buildings with prefabricated reinforced
concrete roofing/flooring elements.
IS 13827, 1993 and IS 13828, 1993
Guidelines in IS 13827deal with empirical design and construction
aspects for improving earthquake resistance of earthen houses, and
those in IS 13828 with general principles of design and special
construction features for improving earthquake resistance of
buildings of low-strength masonry. This masonry includes burnt clay
brick or stone masonry in weak mortars, like clay-mud. These
standards are applicable in seismic zones III, IV and V.
Constructions based on them are termed non-engineered, and
are not totally free from collapse under seismic shaking
intensities VIII (MMI) and higher. Inclusion of features
mentioned in these guidelines may only enhance the seismic
resistance and reduce chances of collapse.
IS 13920, 1993
In India, reinforced concrete structures are designed and
detailed as per the Indian Code IS 456 (2002) However,
structures located in high seismic regions require ductile design
and detailing. Provisions for the ductile detailing of monolithic
reinforced concrete frame and shear wall structures are
specified in IS 13920 (1993). After the 2001 Bhuj earthquake,
this code has been made mandatory for all structures in zones
III, IV and V. Similar provisions for seismic
design and ductile detailing of steel structures are not yet
available in the Indian codes.
IS 13935, 1993
These guidelines cover general principles of seismic strengthening,
selection of materials, and techniques for repair/seismic
strengthening of masonry and wooden buildings. The code provides
a brief coverage for individual reinforced concrete members in such
buildings, but does not cover reinforced concrete frame or shear
wall buildings as a whole. Some guidelines are also laid down for
non-structural and architectural components of buildings.
In Closure...
Countries with a history of earthquakes have well developed
earthquake codes. Thus, countries like Japan, New Zealand and the
United States of America, have detailed seismic code provisions.
Development of building codes in India started rather early. Today,
India has a fairly good range of seismic codes covering a variety of
structures, ranging from mud or lowstrength masonry houses to
modern buildings. However, the key to ensuring earthquake safety
lies in having a robust mechanism that enforces and implements
these design code provisions in actual constructions.
 Seismic Retrofitting Techniques
*Earthquake creates great devastation in terms of life, money
and failures of structures.

*Earthquake Mitigation is an important field of study from a

long time now.

*Seismic Retrofitting is a collection mitigation techniques for

Earthquake Engineering.

*It is of utmost importance for historic monuments, areas

prone
to severe earthquakes and tall or expensive structures.
 SEISMIC RETROFITTING
Definition
*It is the modification of existing structures to make them
more resistant to seismic activity, ground motion, or soil
failure due to earthquakes.
*The retrofit techniques are also applicable for other
natural hazards such as tropical cyclones, tornadoes, and
severe winds from thunderstorms.

When is Seismic Retrofitting Needed ?

The two circumstances are:-
Earthquake damaged buildings, and
Earthquake-vulnerable buildings(with no exposure to
severe earthquakes)
Retrofit Performance Objectives
Public safety only: Goal is to protect human life, ensuring that…
*The structure will not collapse upon its occupants or passersby,
*That the structure can be safely exited.
Under severe seismic conditions the structure may be a total
economic write-off, requiring tear-down and replacement.

Structure survivability: The goal is that the structure, while

remaining safe for exit, may require extensive repair (but not
replacement) before it is generally useful or considered safe for
occupation. This is typically the lowest level of retrofit applied to
bridges.
Structure functionality: Primary structure undamaged and the
structure is undiminished in utility for its primary application.

Structure unaffected: This level of retrofit is preferred for

historic structures of high cultural significance.
 Need of Retrofitting in Existing Earthquake
Vulnerable Buildings
•Buildings have been designed according to a seismic code, but
the code has been upgraded in later years;
•Buildings designed to meet the modern seismic codes, but
deficiencies exist in the design and/or construction;
•Essential buildings must be strengthened like hospitals, historical
monuments and architectural buildings;
•Important buildings whose services are assumed to be essential
just after an earthquake like hospitals;
•Buildings, the use of which has changed through the years;
•Buildings that are expanded, renovated or rebuilt.

Problems faced by Structural Engineers are :-

*Lack of standards for retrofitting methods
*Effectiveness of each methods varies a lot depending upon
parameters like type of structures, material condition, amount of
damage , etc.
 BASIC CONCEPT OF RETROFITTING
The aim is at (CEB1997):-
Upgradation of lateral strength of the structure;
Increase in the ductility of the structure
Increase in strength and ductility
EARTHQUAKE DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
Under minor but frequent shaking, the main members of the
building that carry vertical and horizontal forces should not be
damaged; however building parts that do not carry load may
sustain repairable damage;
Under moderate but occasional shaking, the main members may
sustain repairable damage, while the other parts of the building
may be damaged such that they may even have to be replaced
afterthe earthquake; and
Under strong but rare shaking, the main members may sustain
severe (even irreparable) damage, but the building should not
collapse.
CLASSIFICATION OF RETROFITTING TECHNIQUES
Some Conventional Approaches
Adding New Shear Walls
• Frequently used for retrofitting of non
ductile reinforced concrete frame buildings.
•The added elements can be either cast‐in‐
place or precast concrete elements.
•New elements preferably be placed at the
exterior of the building.
•Not preferred in the interior of the structure
to avoid interior mouldings. Fig: Additional Shear Wall
Adding Shear Walls and Bracings

Effect of Adding Shear Walls and Bracings

 ADDING STEEL BRACINGS

RC Building retrofitted by steel bracing

Some Conventional Approaches
Jacketing (Local Retrofitting Technique)
*Most popular method for strengthening of building columns
*Types-1. Steel jacket, 2. Reinforced Concrete jacket, 3.
Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composite(FRPC) jacket
Purpose for jacketing:
*To increase concrete confinement
*To increase shear strength
*To increase flexural strength
 JACKETING

beam Jacketing
Retrofit of Structures
using Innovative
Materials
Current research on
advanced materials has
mainly concentrated
on FRP composites
Column Jacketing
.
Studies have shown that externally bonded FRP composites can be applied
to various structural members including columns, beams, slabs, and walls to
improve their structural performance such as stiffness, load carrying
capacity, and ductility.