EARTHQUAKES

How many earthquakes do

you think have occurred in
the past 24 hours?
https://earthquaketrack.com/recent

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What we will cover today:
1. What are transform plate boundaries?

2. What are earthquakes?

3. Where can earthquakes be found?

4. Impacts of earthquakes

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 01 02 03
Divergent Convergent Transform
Plates move away Plates move toward Plates slide past one another.
from one another each othe
Conservative plate margin =
No creation of new crust and
no destruction of old crust.
Fractures are formed due to the
tearing forces (Shearing forces)

And faultlines are formed

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Earthquakes occur along faultlines

Transform

Example: San Andreas Fault between Pacific plate and North

American Plate

Caused several hundred km of North American Plate to move an

average ofPhenomena
2.5m -7m in lessassociated
than 1 minutewith plate
boundaries: Earthquakes, tsunamis,
volcanic
Example: North eruptions
Anatolian Fault
Location: Between southern section
of Eurasian plate and Anatolian plate

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 What is an earthquake?
Vibration in the earth’s crust caused by sudden release of stored energy
in the rocks found along fault lines.

Earthquake releases energy in the form of seismic waves. These waves radiate
out from a point of sudden energy release, called the focus. The point on the
earth’s surface directly above the focus is the epicenter.

Most of the released energy of an earthquake travels along the surface of the earth,
causing the ground to vibrate violently. After an earthquake, stress from the
ground within earth’s crust may cause many smaller earthquakes called
aftershocks (may occur for several months.). 9
 WHERE CAN
EARTHQUAKES BE
FOUND

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 Where can earthquakes be found?
Occurs when there is plate movement
DIVERGE along boundaries. The movement causes
NT slow build up of stress on rocks on either
PLATE side of faults. When rocks cannot
BOUNDA withstand increasing stress, they can slip
RIES
CONVER many metres, causing earthquakes.
GENT
PLATE Plate boundaries are made up of many
BOUNDA faults, and most of the earthquakes around
RIES the world occur on these faults.
TRANSFORM PLATE FRICTION!
BOUNDARIES Since the edges of the plates are rough,
they get stuck while the rest of the plate 11
keeps moving.
MAP DISTRIBUTION: LOCATION OF
What are 3 key observations we have
EARTHQUAKES. about the distribution of earthquakes in
the world?

Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun and

the smallest one in the Solar System—it’s
only a bit larger than our Moon. The planet’s
name has nothing to do with the liquid metal
since it was named after the Roman
messenger god, Mercury

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Location of Earthquakes

1st Statement: What types of plate boundaries can earthquakes be found at?
Location of Earthquakes

2nd Statement: Where are the highest concentration of earthquakes?

Location of Earthquakes

3rd Statement: What are some anomalies (exceptions) to our general observations?
 Epicentre Seismic waves

Fault line

Seismic waves

Focus
Epicentre
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Fault line Focus Fault line
 Epicentre Seismic waves

The
Fault linepoint on the Energy released by
earth’s surface directly earthquakes
above the focus

Origin of the
earthquake/point of
sudden energy release Crack in the rock as a
where seismic waves result of tectonic
radiate out movement
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Focus Fault line

● Depth of earthquake’s focus determines how strong the earthquake is.
● Affects impact of shaking felt on land.
Type of eartquake Deep focus earthquake
Location of focus 70-700km below earth’s
surface
Impact on land Smaller impact on land as
vibrations/seismic waves take
longer to reach surface and
have lost most of their energy
by then
Shallow focus
earthquake
Upper 70km of earth’s
surface
Greater impact on land
as vibrations or seismic
waves reach the land
surface more quickly
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Extent of earthquakes
A seismograph records and measures the
seismic waves released by an
earthquake.

•A spring-mounted weight in the

seismograph moves up and down when
tremors are detected

•A marker records the motions of the

ground by making markings on a piece
of graph paper which is attached to a
rotating drum.
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Extent of earthquakes

• Richter scale is used to measure

magnitude of an earthquake.

For every numeric increase on the

Richter Scale, the strength of an
earthquake increases by 10
times

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 Tohoku earthquake, Japan (2011) with a magnitude of 9.0 had 28,000 deaths. However,
Haiti earthquake (2010) with magnitude of 7.0 had 300,000 deaths.

Why do you think Japan had fewer deaths although the earthquake magnitude was higher?
WHAT AFFECTS THE EXTENT OF
DAMAGE CAUSED BY
EARTHQUAKES?

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Earthquakes can be of similar magnitude/intensity but still suffer
different extent of damage because of:
Extent of earthquake damage

1. Population Density
2. Level of Preparedness
3. Distance from epicentre
4. Time of Occurrence
5. Type of Soil
6. Magnitude of Earthquake
 Population Density
Point: Refers to number of people living in the affected area

HOW: The higher the population density, the greater the damage caused

WHY:
• As cities grow, number of buildings in a small area increase to accommodate increasing
number of residents.
• Results in high population and building density
• Hence, increased possibility of buildings collapsing and causing more injury/deaths during
earthquakes

Example:
Christchurch earthquake (2011) with a magnitude of 7.1 had 185 deaths because
Christchurch has a low population density. However, Haiti earthquake (2010) with
magnitude of 7.0 had 300,000 deaths because it has a high population density.
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 Level of Preparedness
Definition: Refers to amount of preparation and measures taken by the authorities
and citizens

HOW: The higher the level of preparedness, the more manageable the damage
caused.

WHY:
• Emergency plans, evacuation plans, trained rescue workers in place 
people are more prepared and know how to respond correctly during
an earthquake  fewer casualties and injuries
Example:
In Japan, school students and office workers are taught the steps of
earthquake drills and they practice these steps regularly. The people are
well prepared to ensure greater chance of survival when an earthquake
hits.
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 Level of Preparedness
High Low

Country Japan Haiti

Year March 2011 Jan 2010

Magnitude of
9.1 7.0
Earthquake
Preparedness Yearly Disaster
nil
Programmes Prevention Day
28,000 – mainly
Death (Cost of
from tsunami 300,000 (nil)
Damage)
(US$300 billion)
 Distance from epicentre
Point: How close an area is to the epicentre of an earthquake

HOW: The closer the area is to the epicentre, the more severe the
damage and injury sustained from the earthquake

WHY:
Area further from epicentre  more energy used up to travel
to the area  less energy left, less shaking felt  less
damage suffered

Example:
Christchurch suffered more damage during the Feb 2011
earthquake than other towns further away because it was near
the epicentre of the earthquake
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 Time of the day
Point: Refers to time of day when an earthquake hits

HOW: Determines where people are and what they are

doing  affects people’s chances of survival

WHY:
This will affect people’s chances of survival in an
earthquake.
If an earthquake happens when most people are sleeping,
they are more likely to be unprepared to escape and more
deaths may occur
Example:
Taiwan, Sun Moon Lake region,
Occurred after midnight. Many people were sleeping and
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were unable to escape, 2400 deaths
 Type of soil

Point: Unconsolidated soil is loose and sometimes wet (saturated with water) while
consolidated soil is solid and usually dry.

The more unconsolidated the soil, the longer the shaking and the more damage and
injury sustained. Structures built on saturated and unconsolidated sediments can be
affected by liquefaction.

Liquefaction is when ground becomes unstable and saturated soil flows like a liquid.
This causes shaking to be amplified

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 Unconsolidated soil amplifies the shaking.

Buildings are affected by liquefaction (ground becomes unstable and soil starts to flow like liquid)

Example:
Christchurch 2011, many buildings were destroyed not by the shaking of the ground but by
liquefaction.

If ground is consolidated, Shaking can be reflected away (ground acts like a mirror)

Wavelength, amplitude,
duration and damage
increases in
unconsolidated rocks.
 Type of Soil

Liquefaction in Christchurch 2011

 Magnitude of earthquake

Point: Higher the magnitude, larger amount of energy released,

affecting damage caused

HOW & WHY: Richter scale used to measure magnitude of an

earthquake. When an earthquake has a magnitude of 1.0-2.0, it is
usually not felt by people. When an earthquake has a magnitude of
more than 9.0, it results in destruction which can impact thousands of
kilometres of land.

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WHAT ARE THE HAZARDS CAUSED
BY EARTHQUAKES

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1. TSUNAMIS

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 What is a Tsunami?
The word ‘Tsunami’ is Japanese and means ‘harbour wave’ due to the devastating effects on
low-lying Japanese coastal communities.

Series of enormous waves travelling at speeds averaging 450 (and up to 600) miles per hour in
the open ocean, reaching as high as 100 feet.

Point: Refers to large, powerful sea waves created during an earthquake

Explanation:
How: Formed by movement of sea floor during a large earthquake / explosive underwater
volcanic eruption / landslide above sea level

Why: Can travel long distances and cause widespread destruction at coastal areas as it sweeps
inland 38
Tsunamis
 Example:
Indian Ocean earthquake in 2004,
9.2 magnitude, triggered tsunami with waves that spread throughout the
Indian Ocean -> caused damage to coastal communities in 12 countries
including low-lying coastal areas of western Sumatra (including Bandar
Aceh), Indonesia.
Total dead and missing: 230,000

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 2. Disruption of services
Point: Refers to lack of access to services such as water, gas, electricity and
communication services (telephone, TV broadcast)
Explanation:
How is hazard created: Vibrations on ground can snap pipes, break cables. May also
cause lack of television broadcasts and telephone connections

Why does it pose danger: Increase chances of death as evacuation of injured can be
slowed + poor hygiene and sanitation result in infections. Broken cables may cause
outbreak of fires.

Example:
Kobe earthquake (2004) disrupted
electricity, gas and water supplies to
the city’s 1.4 million residents
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3. Landslides
Point: Refers to rapid downslope movements of solid, rock and vegetation
debris from a slope
Explanation:
How is hazard created: Shaking of ground weakens slopes of hills and
mountains  unstable slopes  landslides; heavy rains can also saturate
soil and cause mudflows (soil flowing down the slope)
Why does it pose danger: Can bury towns and cause deaths

Example: Earthquake in Peru in 1970 triggered landslide on slopes of Mount

Huascaran. Landslide travelled at 160km/h, flattened town of Ranrahirca,
killing 18,000 people

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 4. Destruction of property

Point: Refers to damage sustained to homes and vehicles

Explanation:
How is hazard created: Strong shaking from sudden release of energy in
earthquake + poor maintenance of old buildings  collapsed buildings.
Why does it pose danger: Falling debris can cause injury and death + people
may be without homes and have to reside at temporary shelters while
homes are rebuilt
Example: Earthquake in Tohoku, Japan, 2011, caused tsunami which
travelled up to 10km inland  extensive structural damage  hundreds of
thousands of people left homeless

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 5. Destruction of infrastructure
Point: Damage sustained to roads, bridges, railway, electrical lines, water and
gas pipes
Explanation:
How is hazard created: Strong shaking from earthquake + poor maintenance
 collapse of infrastructure

Why does it pose danger: Falling debris cause injury and death + disrupt
transportation which hinders rescue efforts/movement of food and medical
supplies which causes more deaths

Example: Earthquake in Kobe, Japan, 1995 destroyed roads and railways,

making city inaccessible; Tohoku, 2011  repair cost of US$300 billion
after earthquake
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Example:

1995 Kobe earthquake, Hanshin

expressway collapsed many places in
the city became inaccessible
.

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6. Loss of lives
Point: Lives are lost due to collapsing of buildings, fires and
landslides.
Explanation:
Loss of lives is likely to be high if the earthquake is of high
magnitude, shallow focus and at high population density area.

Example:
Haiti earthquake (2010) of
7.0 magnitude, 300,000
lives were lost.

Aceh-Andaman, Indonesia (Dec,2004)

9.2 magnitude, 228,000 deaths. 49